Optics and Laser Technology 93 (2017) 180–186

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Optics and Laser Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jolt

Full length article

Investigation on edge joints of Inconel 625 sheets processed with laser

welding
F. Caiazzo ⇑, V. Alfieri, F. Cardaropoli, V. Sergi
University of Salerno, Dept. of Industrial Engineering, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Laser welding of Inconel 625 edge joint beads in square groove configuration was investigated. The use of
Received 22 September 2016 different weld geometries in new aerospace solutions explains research on edge joints. A structured plan
Received in revised form 9 February 2017 was carried out in order to characterize the process defining the influence of laser power and welding
Accepted 6 March 2017
speed and to study possible interactions among the governing factors.
As weld pool protection is crucial in order to obtain sound joints when processing superalloys, a special
glove box for gas supply was designed to upgrade the welding head. Welded joints were characterized
Keywords:
referring to bead profile, microstructure and X-rays. It was found that heat input plays an important role
Superalloys
Disk-laser
as it affects welding stability, porosity content and bead shape. Results suggest operating with low values
Laser welding of heat input to reduce porosity and guarantee stable bead conformation. Furthermore, a decrease in the
Edge joint grain size has been observed as a consequence of decreasing heat input.
Ó 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Resistance to demanding stress and high temperature is a
requirement for critical propulsion system components in aero
gas turbine applications that has led to superalloys development
[1].
Thanks to solid solution and precipitation hardening thermal
treatments, superalloys normally exhibit a combination of
increased mechanical strength and creep rupture properties at
operating temperatures which are close to their melting point as
well as resistance to environmental attack including oxidation
[2]. Inconel 625 is among the most common and representative
aerospace superalloys, could be employed for nozzle guide vanes
(NGV) and is the subject of this research paper, since an alternative
to traditional welding technologies is discussed aiming to give
grounds to industrial improvements.
Welding is indeed generally addressed special consideration
being it often a necessary process during fabrication and assembly
of simple to complex shaped turbine parts. Relating to this area,
aerospace industry has been constantly and progressively working
in developing and validating any new technology in a bid to reduce
operating and designing costs, which are normally accounted to
engines in measure of 40% [3]. TIG welding is currently considered
to be the conventional joining method for superalloys. It results in
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: f.caiazzo@unisa.it (F. Caiazzo).
high stress levels in the bead, thus limiting certain practical appli-
cations [4]. Electron beam welding has been proposed [5,6]: this
allows to prevent possible contamination from electrode material;
on the other hand, the process has to be performed in vacuum and
the need for two beam passes has been pointed out when consid-
ering Inconel welding, the first one being fully penetrative and the
second one to be carried out for cosmetic reasons [7]. Friction stir
welding has also been studied to produce Inconel joints [8,9], but
this technique is not feasible for edge joint configuration.
Laser beam welding is considered to be a valid and promising
alternative to previous technologies, since no vacuum is needed
and a significant reduction in the processing time is achieved given
the fact that a single welding pass is needed. Relative additional
advantages would arise from using lower heat inputs (i.e., the
power to speed ratio), since micro fissuring in the heat affected
zone, which is well recognized to be detrimental to mechanical
properties, has been noticed both in TIG and electron beam weld-
ing of Inconel.
In literature few studies were focused on Inconel 625 laser
welding [3,10–12]. Janicki employed a high power fibre laser to
produce butt joints on 0.8 mm thick sheets. He pointed out that
laser power and welding speed did not only affect weld aspect
ratio but also the grain size and dendrite arm spacing in the
microstructure of the fused zone [10]. On the contrary, various
papers were related to Inconel 718 welding with different laser
sources and emission modes [13–15]. These references are inter-
esting as Inconel 718 has similar chemical composition, behaviour

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2017.03.011
0030-3992/Ó 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 F. Caiazzo et al. / Optics and Laser Technology 93 (2017) 180–186 181

Table 1 Table 3
Welding conditions of the experimental plan. Welding system technical data.

Condition Power [W] Welding speed [mm/s] Heat input [J/mm] Maximum output power [kW] 4.0
Laser light wavelength [nm] 1030
1 800 20 40.0
Beam Parameter Product [mm  mrad] 8.0
2 800 35 22.9
Focal beam spot [mm] 0.3
3 800 50 16.0
Rayleigh range [mm] 2.81
4 800 65 12.3
Focal length [mm] 200
5 1000 20 50.0
Maximum power density [kW/mm2] 56.6
6 1000 35 28.6
7 1000 50 20.0
8 1000 65 15.4
9 1200 20 60.0
10 1200 35 34.3
11 1200 50 24.0
12 1200 65 18.5

WELDING HEAD

WELDING DIRECTION

Fig. 2. Glove box for proper shielding.

Fig. 1. Laser welding in edge joint configuration.

and issues compared to Inconel 625. Hong et al. studied butt welds
on 5 mm thick sheets with a CO2 laser and observed that the opti-
mum focus position was on the surface to obtain full penetration
and defect-free welds [13]. Pulsed Nd:YAG laser butt welding on
2 mm thick sheets was analysed by Janaki et al. [14]. Whereas,
Oshobe performed bead-on-plate tests on 7 mm thick sheets with
a fibre laser and checked the effect of heat input on heat affected
zone cracking [15]. All these works also focused attention on the
influence of pre/post heat treatments on mechanical performances
to reduce micro fissures.
A further issue in the aerospace sector is the weight reduction
in order to minimize consumption and air pollution. As a conse-
quence, designers and manufacturers have been employing light
metal alloys or redesigning components with innovative solutions.
An industrial example is the replacement of parts, generally man-
ufactured via metal injection moulding, with welded elements.
This application suggests that laser welding, which is more
automatable than TIG welding, less polluting than electron beam
welding and characterized by higher productivity, would be
employed. New solutions could present different weld geometries,
similar to butt or edge joint welds. Since in literature the latter
configuration has not already been examined, the main purposes
of this paper are the feasibility study, the analysis of welding key
parameters, power and welding speed, and their influence on
geometry, metallurgical characteristics and, above all, quality of
edge joint beads.
Therefore, the work is aimed to study laser welding of Inconel
625 edge joint beads in square groove configuration, without filler
metal, neither pre heating and post welding machining operations
Fig. 3. Side view of specimen as processed in condition 1 (heat input 40 J/mm).
as an alternative to TIG welding and electron beam welding. A
structured plan has been carried out in order to characterize the
process thus discussing the response variables and to provide use-
ful and effective data for actual industrial applications. Further-
more, the issue of proper shielding has been considered
developing a special glove box [16].
2. Design of experiments
A design of experiment approach was taken in this work. Power
and welding speed are considered as crucial input variables since
they determine the heat input to the work-piece; any stand-off
of the focal position is discarded instead as reasons to avoid defo-
cusing are pointed out in literature with respect to experimental
welding of Inconel 718 with CO2 lasers: focus positions above or
below the upper surface resulted in porosity, spatters or concave
welds [13].
Sensible outer limits of the range to be explored for each factor
were found via ad hoc bead-on-plate extensive trials and butt
welds on base metal, as well as referring to previous studies on

Table 2
Inconel 625 nominal chemical composition (wt.%).

Cr Mo Fe Nb (+Ta) Co Mn Si Al Ti C P S Ni
20–23 8–10 5 3.15–4.15 1 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.015 0.015 Balanced
182 F. Caiazzo et al. / Optics and Laser Technology 93 (2017) 180–186

FZ

H
W

Fig. 4. Side view of specimen as processed in condition 10 (heat input 34.3 J/mm).

Fig. 7. Main geometric features of the bead.

50 mm. In the field of laser welding and considering aerospace

Fig. 5. Side view of specimen as processed in condition 11 (heat input 24 J/mm).
Fig. 6. Side view of specimen as processed in condition 4 (heat input 12.3 J/mm).
similar superalloys in terms of metallurgical behaviour [17–19]. In
particular, the window for the welding parameters was chosen
aiming to melt the total thickness of the sheets in edge joint. A
2-factor study with power and welding speed as leading governing
parameters was arranged. At a first stage analysis, 3 levels were
chosen for laser power and 4 levels for welding rate. The resulting
welding conditions of the plan are listed in Table 1. As two replica-
tions of each test were planned, a total of 24 welding specimens
was produced.
3. Experimental procedure
Inconel 625 in 0.7 mm thick sheets was considered to produce
welding beads in edge joint configuration (Fig. 1). Samples had a
length of 100 mm (along welding direction) and a width of
applications, the preparation of the joints to ensure proper match-
ing of the surfaces and remove foreign particles which could con-
taminate the melt pool is relevant. Therefore, top surfaces were
milled and any burrs were removed with abrasive paper. Sheets
were tightened up together on workbench using clamping jaws
to insure that there was no gap.
The corresponding nominal chemical composition of Inconel
alloy is listed in Table 2 [20].
A diode-pumped disk-laser source characterized by a focal
beam diameter of 0.3 mm was used to produce the welding sam-
ples in continuous wave emission. Advantages arise as only weak
thermal lensing effects are in place when using a thin disk source;
better beam quality is benefited because the divergence and the
diameter variation along the propagation axis is restrained
[21,22]. In particular, a beam parameter product of 8 mm  mrad
is achieved for the welding system in use, with a resulting Rayleigh
range of 2.81 mm. The technical data of the welding system are
listed in Table 3.
The need for proper shielding when welding superalloys was
pointed out in literature [10]. Oxidation or nitriding have to be
avoided as produce an embrittlement of the welds, which compro-
mises welded structure performance. Nevertheless, due to the
specific edge joint configuration of the seam, the bead protection
is affected; hence, shielding would not be effective via a plane dif-
fuser. Therefore, a special device has been designed and produced,
as shown in Fig. 2.
The tunnel-shaped glove box allows to provide argon shielding
over the surface of the joint adopting a gas flow rate of 15 l/min.

Table 4
X-ray results.

Condition Heat input [J/mm] Average porosity content [%]

3 16.0 4.81

12 18.5 5.15

7 20.0 10.39

2 22.9 11.05

6 28.6 15.48
 F. Caiazzo et al. / Optics and Laser Technology 93 (2017) 180–186 183

Preliminary trials with this configuration for bead protection higher than the threshold value have the same unstable conforma-
resulted in improper shielding of the bead, with oxidation of the tion. Whereas, adopting lower heat inputs the beads were uniform
bead crown. Hence, two sliding plates were added on the back- and smooth, irrespective of the welding processing parameters
side of the diffuser in order to prevent the gas from leaving the (Figs. 5 and 6).
welding area, thus improving the effectiveness of inert atmo-
sphere. As a consequence, no side nozzle for metal plume removal
4.2. X-ray tests
is needed in the interaction zone between the beam and the
material to be welded. No filler metal was used. The above-
In order to verify the presence of cracks or other defects, the
mentioned system for bead protection has been patented [16].
edge joint beads, except those produced with 20 mm/s welding
In order to verify the presence of defects, X-rays and FPI of edge
joint welds were performed. For metallographic analyses, the
beads were cross-cut perpendicularly to the welding direction, 10
then grinded with SiC papers, polished with abrasive diamond
paste and eventually chemical etched with a solution consisting
of hydrochloric (15 ml), nitric (10 ml) and acetic (5 ml) acids [6]. 8

Fused zone [mm ]

2
4. Results and discussion 6

4.1. Visual inspections

4

Since shiny beads were produced, shielding was assumed to be

appropriate and effective. A dependence on the heat input was 2
observed. In particular, an uneven bead was obtained in welding
conditions with a heat input of 28.6 J/mm at least. Side views of
the specimens are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The texture in dark grey 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
is an artificial background to point out welding beads in bright sil- Heat input [J/mm]
ver and sheets in silver. These figures proved that welds produced
with different welding parameters but characterized by heat input Fig. 9. Fused zone as a function of heat input.

800 W 1000 W 1200 W

20 mm/s
35 mm/s
50 mm/s
65 mm/s

Fig. 8. Macrographs for the 12 welding conditions.

184 F. Caiazzo et al. / Optics and Laser Technology 93 (2017) 180–186

2800 2800
35 mm/s 800 W
50 mm/s 1000 W
65 mm/s 1200 W
2400 2400

Height [mm]
Height [µm]

2000 2000

1600 1600
a b
800 1000 1200 35 50 65
Power [W] Speed [mm/s]

Fig. 10. Bead height as function of power (a) and welding speed (b).

800 800
35 mm/s 800 W
50 mm/s 1000 W
65 mm/s 1200 W
700 700
Width [µm]

Width [µm]

600 600

500 500

400
a 400
b
800 1000 1200 35 50 65
Power [W] Speed [mm/s]

Fig. 11. Bead width as function of power (a) and welding speed (b).

Fig. 12. Micrographs of the specimens in condition 4 (a) and 9 (b).

speed, were examined via X-rays. In order to evaluate the average
content of porosity, as measured from the X-rays transmitted
images, a welded length of 50 mm was referred to. An increasing
content of porosity was noticed as a function of growing heat input
(Table 4).
No micro fissures or cracks resulted. Each bead presents a cer-
tain content of non-connected porosity, concentrated in the lower
zone of the keyhole, as also shown by macrographs in Fig. 8.
On a qualitative base pore number and size seem to be con-
nected with heat input and increasing with this factor. The porosity
in the root of the weld is thought to be air, entrapped between the
sheets because of their defective flatness, which during the weld-
ing process cannot leak out. The presence of pores is more marked
in the case of irregular beads due to instability [23].
Nevertheless, the presence of porosity will not affect the actual
industrial process as the sheets are matched but with a certain
angle to be defined on fluid dynamics basis, which allows the ejec-
tion of gas and air also with the use of back-side shielding flow.
Whereas, the absence of cracks was really important because the
choice of an adequate parameter window was assessed.
4.3. Macrographic examinations
For each of the 24 welded beads, 3 cross-cuts were performed
along the welding direction in order to evaluate the bead features.
Referring to Fig. 7, the following items were measured: extent of
the fused zone (FZ), bead width (W) and bead height (H). In partic-
ular, the bead height has been measured between crown and tip,
 F. Caiazzo et al. / Optics and Laser Technology 93 (2017) 180–186
Fig. 13. Comparison of structure of the specimens in condition 4 (a) and 9 (b).
since any reference with respect to the original edge is lost in
welding.
The macrographs for each one of the welding conditions are
listed in Fig. 8. It is clear that when considering a welding speed
of 20 mm/s, hence with a resulting heat input of 40 J/mm or higher,
the development of the typical key-hole shape, which is the evi-
dence of actual metallurgical joining, is prevented. In certain con-
ditions gas flow rate combined with high heat input implicates
key-hole instability, which causes unstable bead conformation
and the presence of pores [23]. Nevertheless, an increase of the
extent of the fused zone was noticed with increasing heat input,
as shown in Fig. 9.
Moreover, when providing a heat input below 30 J/mm, the
effect on the extent of the fused zone is restrained, although a sig-
nificant change is noticed for both the bead width and height,
whose ratio can be considered to be a shape-factor of the welded
bead. A specific dependence on power and welding rate is in place
for both the bead width and height, with low or no interactions at
all between process parameters. The absence of interactions justi-
fies the use of heat input as a synthesis parameter in the discussion
of results. Referring to following figures, the bead height is strongly
dependent on the power for each level of the welding rate (Fig. 10
(a)), whereas the dependence on the welding rate is significant
only when the highest power is considered (Fig. 10(b)).
A different behaviour is noticed for the bead width which has
low dependence on the power, whilst being strongly dependent
on the welding rate, as shown in Fig. 11. A drop in average values
of bead width is observed with 1200 W power; this effect is prob-
ably due to key-hole instability with high heat inputs which causes
an oscillation of width.
4.4. Micrographic examinations
Stiffness in Inconel 625 is a result of molybdenum and niobium
addition in a nickel-chromium face-centred-cubic base matrix.
Carbides are rich in nickel, niobium and molybdenum in the base
metal [24]. As a consequence of welding thermal cycles, the
microstructure of the fused zone consists of dendritic grains with
columnar shape in the direction of the thermal gradient. As an
example, micrographs of the weld beads produced under welding
conditions 4 and 9 are shown in Fig. 12.
With respect to the bead root, heat exchange is only due to con-
duction toward the base metal and, indeed, cooling rates are lower
compared to the bead crown, where convection connected with
gas flow favours heat transfer; nevertheless, brittle intermetallics
which would affect the mechanical features of the joint might
are not expected to be produced as the precipitation kinetics of
these intermetallic phase formations is very slow [25]. As concern-
185
ing the grain size, a dependence was observed as a function of the
heat input: in particular, a decrease in the grain size resulted as a
consequence of decreasing heat input. Similar findings are pro-
vided in literature when considering the same alloy in square butt
configuration to be welded via fibre laser [10]. The microstructure
of the above-mentioned specimens is compared in Fig. 13. No heat
affected zones were noticed based on metallographic analyses. The
particular welding configuration and the gas flow through glove
box might favour a rapid cooling which provokes a narrow heat
affected zone.
5. Conclusions
This paper studied laser welding of Inconel 625 edge joint beads
in square groove configuration, without filler metal, neither pre
heating and post welding machining operations as an alternative
to TIG welding and electron beam welding. Since the alloy in exam
was susceptible of oxidation, the issue of proper shielding was con-
sidered developing a special glove box, which allowed to obtain
shiny beads.
A dependence on heat input was observed for bead features.
Based on the visual aspects of the seams with a resulting heat input
of 40 J/mm at least, it has been found that the development of the
typical key-hole shape is prevented, therefore in certain conditions
gas flow rate combined with high heat input is deemed to induce
key-hole instability. Besides that, an increase in porosity was
observed considering growing heat input. In the actual industrial
process, edge joining is performed with a certain angle between
the metal sheets. This is thought to prevent porosity, as the ejec-
tion of gas is eased. No micro fissures or cracks have been detected
via X-rays and FPI.
From microstructural analysis, it was noticed that adopting low
heat inputs causes a decrease in the grain size which would result
in better mechanical properties, as reported in the literature. More-
over, the heat affected zone is assumed to be narrow as a probable
consequence of rapid cooling rates.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Eng. Otello Natale and Dr. Michele Di
Foggia of Europea Microfusioni Aerospaziali S.p.A., Morra de Sanc-
tis (AV), Italy, for X-ray inspections.
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