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JCBM 14499 No. of Pages 16, Model 5G
24 November 2018
Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx

1
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
6
7
3 The mechanical strength and durability properties of ternary blended

4 cementitious composites containing granite quarry dust (GQD) as
5 natural sand replacement
8 Cheah Chee Ban, Lim Jay Sern ⇑, Mahyuddin B. Ramli
9 School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Malaysia
11
10
12
1 4
h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t
215
9
16 The workability of the mortar
17 increases as the GQD replacement
18 level increases.
19 Large volume GQD used as NRS show
20 similar mechanical performance.
21 Large volume GQD used as NRS didn’t
22 show significant variance in
23 durability properties.
24 Incorporation of GQD helps to
25 improve shrinkage performance.
26 GQD can be partial or fully utilize in
27 the production of cementitious
28 composites.
31
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
3
4 3
5
34 Article history: Cementitious composites are the most used man-made materials in the world with a global annual pro- 46
35 Received 9 July 2018 duction quantum of 25 billion tonnes worldwide, contributing approximately 5% to the global green- 47
36 Received in revised form 1 November 2018 house gas emissions. In the initiative to reduce the carbon footprint of cementitious composite 48
37 Accepted 23 November 2018
production, are growing interests in the large volume reuse of industrial by products such as ground 49
38 Available online xxxx
granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), pulverized fuel ash (PFA) and granite quarry dust (GQD) in cemen- 50
titious composites production. Such an approach offers a two-fold solution towards addressing the waste 51
39 Keywords:
management problem related to those industry by-products. At the same time however; reduction of car- 52
40 Large volume recycling
41 Mechanical properties
bon footprints of cementitious composite materials exists. However, in order to enable scalable applica- 53
42 Durability performance tions of such a recycling approach, a comprehensive body of knowledge on the mechanical strength and 54
43 High strength cementitious composites durability performance of the cementitious composite products containing a large volume of the mate- 55
44 rials needs to be established. Hence, it is the primary aim of the study to report a comprehensive assess- 56
ment on the mechanical strength and durability properties of high strength cementitious composites. 57
These materials are produced with a large volume of the aforementioned materials as the primary binder 58
and aggregate phase. Throughout the investigation, high strength cementitious composites mixes were 59
produced with a large volume of PFA and GGBS binder. Then phase coupled with ordinary Portland 60
cement (OPC). GQD was used as the fine aggregate phase in substitution of natural river sand at various 61
level of substitution ranging between 0 and 100% by volume. The cementitious composites were charac- 62
terized in terms of its fresh cementitious composites. Its flowability and hardened cementitious compos- 63
ites properties mainly bulk density, compressive strength, flexural strength, and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 64
were also assessed. In addition, the durability properties such as water absorptivity and porosity were 65
also covered in this experimental program. Pore continuity was assessed in terms of air permeability 66
and capillary absorption of the hardened specimens according to the testing age. This paper has also 67
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: cheacheeban@usm.my (C.C. Ban), jaysern07@student.usm.my
(L.J. Sern), mahyudin@usm.my (M.B. Ramli).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.194
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Please cite this article as: C. C. Ban, L. J. Sern and M. B. Ramli, The mechanical strength and durability properties of ternary blended cementitious com-
posites containing granite quarry dust (GQD) as natural sand replacement, Construction and Building Materials, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2018.11.194
24 November 2018
2 C.C. Ban et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx
covered the dimensional stability assessment in terms of drying shrinkage. Besides, a comprehensive
68 microstructural assessment was also performed to examine the microstructure morphology. From the
69 results, we found full incorporation of GQD as NRS without significant impairment to the mechanical,
70 durability and length change performance. Thus, the production of sustainable high strength cementi-
71 tious composites with large volume recycling of GQD is feasible which in turn reduces the depletion
72 on the natural river sand resources.
73 Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
74
76
77 1. Introduction rials with cement to form ternary blended cementitious compos- 131
ites. GGBS is a by-product from the iron manufacturing industry. 132
78 Global warming has become a seriously increasing issue. It was Its chemical composition is approximately 30% to 40% of silicon 133
79 believed carbon dioxide (CO2) gas was the main culprit that should dioxide (SiO2) and 40% of calcium oxide (CaO). Incorporation of 134
80 respond to the global warming phenomenon. Global warming was GGBS was reported improved over the long-term durability perfor- 135
81 believed by authorities to be the cause of problems; such as rising mance of the cementitious composite. In turn; this enhanced the 136
82 of sea levels, crop failures, desertification and pest proliferation cementitious composite’s service life while reducing the mainte- 137
83 which have threatened human existence and its environment [1]. nance cost. Due to its availability in large quantities and as a waste 138
84 Malaysia has rapidly transformed from an agricultural based to product from iron industry, it is economically used as a cement 139
85 an industrialized country in the past four decades. This phe- replacement material. There is little concern on the availability 140
86 nomenon has led to the demand for a marked increase of automo- while generating a higher profit margin to the manufacturer 141
87 biles, factories and power plants [2]. At the same time, the [16,17]. The PFA is a by-product from the combustion of pulverized 142
88 population in Malaysia has risen from 13.83 million in 1980 to coal in the coal-fired furnaces of thermal power plants [18]. Dis- 143
89 32.01 million in 2018 according to World Population Prospect posal as in a landfill of PFA has become an issue towards environ- 144
90 [3]. Thus, the demand on the building areas and infrastructures mental concern [19]. However, the researchers have claimed that 145
91 has seemed to increase significantly. As a result, construction has due to its pozzolanic properties, it has been used as a supplemen- 146
92 become one of the issues contributed to the CO2 emissions in the tary cementitious material (SCM) in the cementitious composites 147
93 world [4] as well as in Malaysia. In the construction industry, those which have improved the PFA value into other valuable applica- 148
94 construction materials used in structural performance such as con- tions in order to reduce the environmental issue [19–21]. 149
95 crete and reinforcement steel were reported as the highest contri- Furthermore, production and mining of natural aggregate have 150
96 bution of the carbon emissions [5]. also become a factor which cannot be ignored in the contribution 151
97 Concrete is a compound basically made with the combination of of CO2 emissions in cementitious composite production. CO2 emis- 152
98 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), with natural aggregate with sions from the production and mining of natural aggregate are 153
99 numerous nominal particle size of natural aggregate and water mostly from onsite vehicles which function to blast the aggregate 154
100 [6]. It is widely used on Earth with the consumption of 1 m3 per to smaller sizes. Loading and hauling including the electricity has 155
101 person annually [7], with almost 5% of the total anthropogenic also contributed to the indirect emissions. Indirect emissions refer 156
102 CO2 emissions in the world [8]. Along with population growth, to the electricity used in crushing operations which account for up 157
103 the demand for concrete has seemed to increase and is forecasted to 70% of emissions from aggregate production [22]. Production 158
104 to reach approximately 18 billion tons by the year 2050 [9]. Gener- and mining of natural aggregate have produced an amount of 159
105 ally, the carbon footprint in the concrete production is mainly con- waste volume which is unwanted and rejected by the industry 160
106 tributed by the usage of the binder and natural aggregates. OPC is [23] namely granite quarry dust (GQD). GQD, so-called granite 161
107 the main material used in concrete production. Production of OPC dust, also called manufactured sand is a waste from granite pro- 162
108 involves a high amount of embodied energy which has, in turn, duction [24] in a form of fine particles which possess a size less 163
109 contributes 5% to 7% of CO2 emissions [10]. Calcination of lime- than 4.75 mm [25]. Disposal of the waste has become an environ- 164
110 stone in the cement production was believed to be the main culprit mental issue. Land degradation, visual effect, flooding of water and 165
111 in the CO2 emission [11]. A temperature up to 1500 °C through air pollution was believed to have a main negative impact caused 166
112 combustion of fossil fuels in the production of clinker have con- by the disposal of the waste. Meanwhile, a particle size less than 167
113 tributed most of the CO2 emissions [12]. In order to reduce the 75 µm randomly disposed was known to lead to respiratory and 168
114 cement usage, researchers are currently working hard on finding allergy problems [24]. In addition, uncontrolled and abusive 169
115 the disposal and less valuable wastes from the industry which behavior on mining the natural river sand (NRS) and aggregate 170
116 potentially can be used as supplementary cementitious material have become a serious. This issue has also contributed to agricul- 171
117 (SCM). SCM is defined as a substantial quantity of waste materials tural loss and rainforest destruction [15]. According to the authors 172
118 which is produced globally from industrial, agricultural and wastes [26], there were shortages of NRS for construction due to over- 173
119 from rural and urban society according to the authors. [13]. Over- exploitation. In a nutshell, incorporation of GQD as fine aggregates 174
120 all, materials such as metakaolin, silica fume, Pulverized Fly Ash either fully or partially replace the NRS seems to be an alternative 175
121 (PFA), Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS), Rice Husk for the resolution of issues raised by both the GQD and NRS. 176
122 Ash (RHA) and high calcium wood ash which conforms with BS According to the researchers, they have claimed that GQD is the 177
123 EN 197-1 [14]. This is popularly used to reduce the carbon foot- most suitable material to be used to replace the natural river sand 178
124 print of the concrete as the SCMs partially replace the cement con- in cementitious composites production as compared to fly ash, slag 179
125 tent [15]. limestone, silica stone, furnace bottom ash and recycled fine aggre- 180
126 Today, GGBS and PFA are commonly used in the concrete indus- gate [27–29]. As GQD is a by-product from crushing process during 181
127 try in Malaysia due to their availability and benefits. Both materials quarrying activities, it was believed to enhance the concrete prop- 182
128 are commonly used to partially replace the cement in the concrete erties than the regular concrete materials [30]. Jannah et al. [31] 183
129 mixture. Either with one of the materials with cement is used to also reported that utilization of GQD as NRS replacement material 184
130 form binary blended cementitious composites or both of the mate-
24 November 2018
C.C. Ban et al. / Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx 3
185 would be beneficial in terms of the availability, cost, and environ- ventional concrete. Replacement levels up to 60% did not signifi- 251
186 mental impact. cantly show a reduction in mechanical strength performance. A 252
187 In addition, there are some researchers interested in conducting similar finding reported by Kou and Poon [28] also found that 253
188 research on the usage of GQD in various applications. Kang et al. GQD replacement levels up to 50% exhibited improvement in terms 254
189 [32] have studied the feasibility of high volumes GQD in the pro- of mechanical strength performance. Researchers also reported 255
190 duction of lightweight foamed concrete. The authors reported that that the replacement levels more than 75% shows a reduction in 256
191 incorporation of GQD in the production of lightweight foamed con- mechanical strength performance. This is largely due to the 257
192 crete showed positive results in terms of mechanical strength per- increase in water demands which in turn reduce mechanical 258
193 formance. Besides, incorporation of GQD has also reduced the strength performance. Superior performance on the usage of GQD 259
194 environmental impact in terms of lower energy consumption and as a NRS replacement material was believed to be due to its angu- 260
195 a lesser amount of greenhouse gases emissions. Thomas and Hari- lar shape and rough texture. Such physical natures have improved 261
196 lal [33] have used the GQD in the production of artificial coarse the compactness and resistivity towards the crack propagation in 262
197 aggregates by using cold bonding techniques. GQD has been cold cementitious composite matrices [38,43,45]. Presence of fines from 263
198 bonded with different ratios of OPC and PFA to form an artificial GQD have improved the cementitious composite matrix filling up 264
199 coarse aggregate with a specific gravity range within 1.9 to 2.5. the voids in the cementitious mixture [39,41]. However, beyond 265
200 The result shows that the mechanical performance of the artificial the optimal replacement levels, the mechanical performance of 266
201 coarse aggregate is highly dependent on the cement content. Sha- the cementitious composite is reduced [45–48]. 267
202 kir et al. [34] have investigated the use of GQD in brick production. Singh et al. [39] have reported the permeability and water 268
203 Incorporation of GQD has found an increase with the Ultrasonic absorption performance of cementitious composites with GQD 269
204 Pulse Velocity (UPV) results. The authors also concluded that incor- replacement levels up to 50% with 10% incremental. The results 270
205 poration of GQD in brick production is feasible and fit to the have shown that 30% of GQD replacement levels have exhibited 271
206 requirement of the relevant thresholds. Thus, it can be used as an the lowest permeability and water absorption. However, 50% of 272
207 alternative to conventional bricks in the building sector. Appukutty GQD replacement levels have shown increments in both perme- 273
208 [26] has used GQD to replace sand in cement mortar for brick ability and water absorption. Another study reported the incorpo- 274
209 masonry with different ratios of 1:8, 1:6, 1:5 and 1:4 to compare ration of GQD up to 55% which exhibited improvement in 275
210 with bricks with basic compressive strengths above 3.5 MPa and impermeability performance. The mix with 70% of GQD replace- 276
211 7.5 MPa. The researcher found that GQD can be used to replace ment levels exhibited poorer impermeability performance [41]. 277
212 sand completely in masonry construction with higher strength Allam et al. [49] found that partial incorporation of 10% and 278
213 and cheaper cost. 17.5% GQD replacement levels helps to improve the water absorp- 279
214 Bishnoi and Bala [35] have studied the workability property of tion resistivity. The researchers claimed that the presence of GQD 280
215 GQD as NRS replacement material up to 35% at the same w/b ratio. tends to improve the grading of the fine aggregate phase while 281
216 The authors reported that incorporation of GQD tends to improve reducing the volume and numbers of capillary pores in the con- 282
217 the workability property of the concrete. Improvement of worka- crete matrix. Besides, improvement of durability properties of 283
218 bility property is related to the coarse grading of the GQD as GQD cementitious composite by improvement of the pore struc- 284
219 reported by Safiuddin and Raman [36]. However, Vijayalakshimi ture in the paste-aggregate interfacial zone (ITZ) has been reported 285
220 et al. [37] reported that incorporation of GQD tends to reduce the by Menadi et al. [50]. Kou and Poon [28] have investigated the dry- 286
221 workability performance. Some researchers have claimed that the ing shrinkage performance of concrete made with GQD as a NRS 287
222 presence of GQD tends to reduce the workability properties of replacement material from 0 to 100% with 25% increments. The 288
223 the fresh cementitious composites due to its excessive fines con- results have shown that the presence of GQD tends to reduce the 289
224 tent and high water absorption properties as compared to NRS drying shrinkage of the concrete. This is largely because GQD is rel- 290
225 [37–40]. Besides, the physical nature of the GQD (angular and atively coarser than NRS. Aggregates which are coarse in nature 291
226 rough in texture) has increases the internal friction between the tend to reduce the total specific surface areas, consequently, 292
227 particles, in turn, reduces the workability performance of the reduce water demand on that particular mix. Imamoto and Arai 293
228 cementitious composites [41]. [51] found that lower free water in the pore space helps to reduce 294
229 Raman et al. [42] have studied the mechanical strength perfor- the degree of drying shrinkage of the cementitious composites. 295
230 mance of cementitious composites with 20% and 40% GQD as NRS With the presence of lower free water in the cementitious matrix, 296
231 replacement material. The result shows that the incorporation of a lesser loss of free water to the surrounding exists resulting in bet- 297
232 GQD exhibited relative reduction in strength. Reduction of ter dimensional stability. However, Bonavetti and Iraser [52] 298
233 mechanical strength performance was believed to be due to the reported that presence of GQD tends to increase the length change 299
234 poor compaction due to reduction in workability. Improper com- of the cementitious composites. They have investigated the drying 300
235 paction increases the porosity in the microstructure of the cemen- shrinkage properties of the concrete with 0 to 25% of GQD replace- 301
236 titious composites [37]. Bishnoi and Bala [35] have investigated the ment levels. As the GQD replacement level increases, the length 302
237 mechanical performance of the GQD as NRS replacement material change also increases. 303
238 from 20% to 35% with an increment of 5%. The results have shown In the initiative to reduce the carbon footprint of cementitious 304
239 that partial incorporation of the GQD tends to improve the composites production, there is a growing interest in the large vol- 305
240 mechanical properties of the cementitious composites. Singh ume reuse of industrial by products such as ground granulated 306
241 et al. [39] have conducted a series of result with GQD replacement blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and pulverized fuel ash (PFA). These have 307
242 level up to 50% with 10% increments. 30% of GQD replacement been produced locally to partially replace the cement content up to 308
243 levels exhibited the optimum mechanical performance while a 50% with the ratio 4 to 1. In order to produce a more sustainable 309
244 reduction in strength was observed at a 50% of GQD replacement high strength cementitious composite, there is also growing atten- 310
245 level. Few researchers have conducted a series of results with 0– tion to finding alternative materials to be used as NRS in structural 311
246 100% GQD as a NRS replacement level. Joel [43] reported that a par- mortar. Gibson [30] claimed that GQD is the waste produced from 312
247 tial GQD replacement level up to 20% shows positive results in natural granite. It is suitable to be used in substitution to sand in 313
248 terms of mechanical strength performance. Suman and Srivastava the production of structural mortar. It was also believed that incor- 314
249 [44] reported that incorporation of GQD up to 50% exhibited a poration of the GQD in the production of cementitious composites 315
250 superior mechanical strength performance compared to the con- was theoretically stronger and more durable than the NRS. The pri- 316
24 November 2018
317 mary aim of the study is to report a comprehensive assessment on dry conditions before used. The particle size distribution analysis was conducted 362
accordance to the standard prescribed in BS 812-103.1 [57]. From the particle size 363
318 the mechanical strength, durability properties, dimensional stabil-
distribution graph shown in Fig. 5, the GQD exhibited a similar particle size distri- 364
319 ity and the microstructure morphology of high strength cementi- bution grading as natural river sand. However, from the particle size distribution 365
320 tious composites. The material is produced with a large volume graph, it is noticeable that GQD has a relatively higher fraction of coarse and higher 366
321 of the aforementioned materials as the primary binder and aggre- fraction of fines content as compared to the natural river sand. The fineness modu- 367
lus of the GQD was determined as 2.76 while the specific gravity of the material is 368
322 gate phase. At the same time, the physical properties and mineral-
2.75 (see Fig. 3). 369
323 ogy of both GQD and NRS will be also reported. Throughout the
324 investigation, high strength cementitious composites mixes were
2.1.5. Natural river sand (NRS) 370
325 produced with a large volume of PFA and GGBS binder phase cou- Quartzitic natural river sand in an uncrushed form with a specific gravity of 2.63 371
326 pled with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with the fix ratio as and 2.57 fineness modulus was used in this experimental program. From Fig. 2, the 372
327 aforementioned. GQD was used as the fine aggregate phase in sub- physical appearance of the natural river sand was relatively less angular and 373
328 stitution of NRS at various levels of the substitution ranging rounded in shape as compared to the GQD. NRS used in the study to washed and 374
remove any organic impurities. The samples were then sieved through 5 mm sieve 375
329 between 0 and 100% with the increment of 20% by volume.
while retaining on the 75 µm test sieve and dried to the saturated surface dry con- 376
ditions. The XRD result obtained is showed in Fig. 4. The physical properties of the 377
330 2. Materials and methods GQD and NRS have been presented in detail as shown in Table 1. 378
331 2.1. Materials

2.1.6. Superplasticizer and mixing water 379
Two types of Polycarboxylate Ether (PCE) superplasticizers were used in this 380
332 2.1.1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
experimental programme in order to maintain the mortar mix with low water/bin- 381
333 BS EN 197-1 type I Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) with specific gravity 3.15
der content while fulfilling the targeted level of workability. Both superplasticizers 382
334 was used in this experimental programme. Both the physical and chemical proper-
were in the aqueous form with the commercial code of WP 30 and Master Glenium 383
335 ties of cement used were in compliance with the specifications in BS EN 197-1 [14].
8788 supplied by Macro Dimension Concrete (MDC) Pte. Ltd. and BASF Malaysia. 384
WP 30 is classified as Type F admixture with high range water reducing property 385
336 2.1.2. Pulverized fuel ash (PFA) while Master Glenium 8788 is classified as Type G admixture with high range water 386
337 Pulverized fuel ash (PFA) used in the study was collected from the precipitator reduction and retarding property as prescribed in ASTM C 494 [59]. Tap water sup- 387
338 unit of a local coal-fuelled power plant. Results obtained from the Blaine fineness plied from a local potable water network complied to the requirement prescribed in 388
339 analysis indicated that PFA used in the study had a specific surface area of the BS 3148 [60] was used. 389
340 3244 cm2/g. The specific gravity of the PFA was determined to be 2.8. Similarly,
341 the details on the physical and chemical properties of the PFA has been character-
2.2. Methods 390
342 ized and deliberated extensively in the authors’ prior work [53].
2.2.1. Mixture proportioning 391
343 2.1.3. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) The binder to fine aggregate ratio was maintained constantly at 1 to 3 according 392
344 Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) used in this experimental pro- to the standard proportion prescribed in BS EN 196-1 [61]. The design was in accor- 393
345 gramme was supplied from Macro Dimension Concrete (MDC) Sdn. Bhd. GGBS dance to the absolute volumetric method standard prescribed in ACI 211.1 [62]. The 394
346 has been categorized according to the standard procedure prescribed in BS EN volume of the paste and fine aggregate was fixed accordingly to avoid shortage of 395
347 196-2 [54] and complies to the specification in MS EN 15167-1 [55]. The specific the materials during casting. The weight has been fine-tuned according to the speci- 396
348 gravity of the GGBS was reported as 2.93 with a specific surface area of fic gravity obtained and the replacement level of the GQD, particularly as shown 397
349 4650 cm2/g. specifically in Table 2. A series of mortars were fabricated from the combination 398
of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS) 399
350 2.1.4. Granite quarry dust (GQD) and Pulverised Fly Ash (PFA) with a constant ratio in 5: 4: 1. As for the aggregate 400
351 The GQD used in this experimental program was supplied by from a local phase, NRS was partially substituted by the quarry dust at various sand replace- 401
352 quarry in Kedah, Malaysia. The micrograph in Fig. 1 shows the physical appearance ment levels of 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%. A total of 6 mortar mix designs 402
353 of GQD. A qualitative examination of the micrograph shows that the particles of were fabricated together with the control mortar mix in order to study the interac- 403
354 GQD are granular, irregular and angular in geometry. The X-ray Diffraction (XRD) tion between a ternary blended mortar with different ratio of NRS and GQD. The 404
355 image of GQD was presented in Fig. 2. By comparing two XRD images between polycarboxylate-ether (PCE) type of superplasticizer with the commercial code 405
356 GQD and NRS in Figs. 2 and 4, GQD possesses a similar mineralogy composition WP 30 and Master Glenium 8788 were used in this experimental program. A total 406
357 as NRS is majorly quartz. Such similarity in mineralogy composition indicated that of 1.2% superplasticizer dosage was used comprising of the combination of 0.6% WP 407
358 GQD is feasible to be used as a NRS replacement material in the cementitious com- 30 and 0.6% Master Glenium 8788 was added to achieve the desired workability. 408
359 posites production. GQD used in the study was washed and sieved through a 5 mm The water/binder (w/b) ratio was the initiated design at 0.30 with the further addi- 409
360 sieve while retaining on the 75 µm test sieve in accordance to the standard pre- tion of water until achieving 150 mm ± 5 mm flow diameter by using the flow table 410
361 scribed in BS 882 [56]. The GQD samples have been dried to the saturated surface method. The flow table method used was complied with the specification in ASTM C 411
230 [63]. This is to produce a mortar mix which can be properly compacted within 412
the steel mold. The mix proportion of mortar is summarized as in Table 2. CM indi- 413
cates the mix with only OPC used as the only hydraulic binder and NRS as the only 414
fine aggregate in the mortar mix. GQD0, GQD20, GQD40, GQD60, GQD80, and 415
GQD100 indicated the mix with ternary blended mortar while seen different in 416
the GQD replacement level at 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%. 417
2.2.2. Mixing, forming and curing 418

Each batch of mortar was fabricated by using an epicyclic type mechanical 419
mixer which complies to the standard prescribed in ASTM C 305 [64]. The mortar 420
was mixed homogeneously according to the sequence as follows. First, the binder 421
and the fine aggregate were weighed and prepared according to the mix design vol- 422
ume and placed in the mixing bowl in 3 equal parts. In order to achieve a homoge- 423
nous mix, the binder and fine aggregate were mixed for 10 min at low mixing speed 424
in dry condition. Next, 80% of mixing water according to the mix design was then 425
added to the mix at the high mixing speed for 2 min. The superplasticizers were 426
then added into the wet mix separately and mixed for 1 min each followed by 427
the subsequent water and mixed for 2 min at a high mixing speed. The workability 428
of the fresh mortar was then examined by using a flow table which complied to the 429
specification prescribed in ASTM C 230 [63] in order to achieve 150 mm ± 5 mm of 430
flow diameter. The addition of water was required if the flow diameter failed to 431
comply at 150 mm ± 5 mm. The mortar used in the flow table test was remixed 432
with the additional water for 2 min until the flow diameter achieved 433
Fig. 1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the GQD at 150 times 150 mm ± 5 mm. The final water to binder ratio was then calculated and recorded 434
magnification. as shown in Table 2. The mortar was then transferred to the steel mold with a speci- 435
24 November 2018
Fig. 2. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) image of the GQD.
sion of 40 mm 40 mm 160 mm were fabricated for every mix design and each 450
testing age. The bulk density of the hardened cementitious composites was tested 451
at 24 h, 7, 28 and 90 days during the curing age. The average bulk density obtained 452
was rounded to the nearest whole number and reported. 453
2.2.5. Compressive and flexural strength 454

The compressive strength of the mortar in this experimental program was 455
examined by using a broken prism method as prescribed in ASTM C 349 [67]. The 456
broken prism after subjected to flexural load was then compressed by using Univer- 457
sal Testing Machine (UTM) and the maximum load was obtained. The compressive 458
strength of the mortar was taken as the average of the 6 tested broken prism parts. 459
The flexural strength performance of the mortar was examined by using three-point 460
loading method as per procedures prescribed in ASTM C 348 (ASTM C 348, 2002). A 461
total of 3 samples with the edge dimension of 40 mm 40 mm 160 mm prisms 462
were fabricated for every mix design and testing age. Both the compressive and 463
flexural strength of the mortar mix was examined on 24 h, 7, 28 and 90 days of 464
the curing age in this experimental program. An average of three tested specimens 465
was taken as the representative mechanical strength result. The maximum permis- 466
sible compressive and flexural strength variation within the same batch of the 467
tested specimen was set at 10% as per the standard specification stated earlier. 468
Fig. 3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of NRS at 150 times

magnification. 2.2.6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) assessment 469
An ultrasonic pulse velocity was examined by measuring the propagation veloc- 470
ity of a transmitted longitudinal ultrasonic pulse across the cross-sectional area. 471
436 fic dimension according to the test. The mortar was placed in the mold in 3 equal Mortar prisms were measured at the dimensions of 100 mm 100 mm 500 mm. 472
437 layers with each layer compacted for 10 s. All the specimens were then cured in The transmission of the ultrasonic pulse was examined by using an electro- 473
438 the mold for 24 h. Upon being demoulded, the test specimens were sealed with acoustical transducer which held in contact with one surface of the concrete under 474
439 polyethylene to prevent moisture loss until the date of the test. test. The pulse of vibrations was then converted into an electrical signal by a second 475
transducer after the pulse traversing a known path length in the specimen. The 476
transmitted time and velocity was then displayed on the electro-transducer. The 477
440 2.2.3. Fresh property assessment standard procedures were conducted according to the standard prescribed in BS 478
441 The fresh property of the mortar was assessed by using flow table method EN 12504-4 [69]. A mortar prism with the dimensions of 479
442 which complied to the specification stated in ASTM C 230 [63] and performed 100 mm 100 mm 500 mm was fabricated for all mix designs and examined at 480
443 according to the procedure prescribed in ASTM C 109 [65]. The targeted workability 24 h, 7, 28 and 90 days during the curing stage. 3 readings were taken and the aver- 481
444 was fixed at 150 ± 5 mm flow diameter. This is to ensure adequate placement of age velocity representative of the UPV result was taken. 482
445 fresh mortar into the steel mold.
2.2.7. Water absorption 483

446 2.2.4. Bulk density of hardened cementitious composites The water absorption of the mortar was performed according to the procedures 484
447 The bulk density of the hardened mortar was examined through the water dis- prescribed in BS 1881-122 [70]. 3 Mortar specimens with the dimensions of a 485
448 placement method according to the standard prescribed in BS EN 12390-7 (BSI, 75 mm diameter and a 100 mm height were fabricated for each testing age by using 486
449 2009) which is suitable for the test sample in all shapes. 3 prisms with the dimen- the steel mold. The water absorption of the mortar specimens was examined on the 487
24 November 2018
Fig. 4. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) image of NRS.
2.2.8. Intrinsic permeability 491

Intrinsic permeability is a method used to indicate the ease of the flow of liq- 492
uids, gases or dissolved deleterious substances such as chloride or sulfate ions or 493
carbon dioxide through the mortar specimens. The intrinsic permeability of the 494
mortar in this experimental program was examined by using the Leeds Cell Per- 495
meameter which is recommended by Cabrera and Lynsdale [71] by using carbon 496
dioxide gas. A similar test was conducted by Cheah and Ramli [72] by subjecting 497
the samples under nitrogen gas. Test specimens consisted of three numbers of mor- 498
tar cylinders with diameters of 45 mm and 50 mm in height. The test samples were 499
dried in an oven for 72 h under the temperature of 105 ± 5 °C to remove moisture. 500
Upon installation, the flow rate of gas through the specimens was determined. The 501
time of the gas flow over a constant flow distance within a 3 mm diameter flow 502
meter was obtained. The K value represented the intrinsic air permeability on that 503
particular sample and calculated by using the formula proposed by Cheah and 504
Ramli [72]. The intrinsic air permeability of the mortar was taken as the average 505
three tested representative samples and expressed to the nearest 0.1 m2. 506
2.2.9. Total porosity 507

Fig. 5. Particle distribution of the GQD and NRS. The total porosity of the mortar was examined by using the method prescribed 508
in RILEM [73]. It was a method to examine the porosity of the specimens by using 509
the immersion method into a vacuum desiccator. 3 mortar specimens with the 510
dimensions of 45 mm in diameter and a 50 mm height were fabricated for each 511
Table 1
testing age. The porosity of the mortar mix was examined right after demould at 512
Physical properties of the GQD and NRS.
7, 28 and 90 days. On the particular testing age, the test samples were dried in 513
Property Standard Natural river sand Granite Quarry Dust the oven to remove moisture for 72 h. The test samples were then cooled to the 514
references (NRS) (GQD) room temperature after being removed from the oven and weight by using the 515
weighing machine. Subsequently, the test samples were fully submerged in the vac- 516
Specific gravity BS 812-2 [58] 2.63 2.75
uum chamber for 48 h. The mass in the water and the mass in the air were then 517
Water BS 812-2 [58] 1.61 2.22
measured after the test samples were removed from the vacuum chamber. The 518
absorption
average value obtained represents the total porosity of the mortar mix and 519
(%)
expressed to the nearest 0.01% by using the standard equation for total porosity sta- 520
Fineness BS 812-103.1 2.57 2.76
ted in RILEM [73]. 521
modulus [57]
2.2.10. Capillary action assessment 522

A method proposed by Benachour [74] was used to examine the total porosity 523
488 testing age at 24 h, 7, 28 and 90 days. The average percentage calculated repre- in the mortar specimen. A total of 3 samples for each mix design with the dimen- 524
489 sented the water absorption value and was expressed to the nearest 0.01% by using sion of 40 mm 40 mm and 160 mm were fabricated and cured for 7 days. The 525
490 the standard equation stated in BS 1881-122 [70]. samples were heated in the oven at the temperature of 105 ± 5 °C until no further 526
weight change was recorded. The samples were then cooled to the room tempera- 527
ture and the longitudinal surface of the specimen was wrapped by using a cello- 528
phane tape and the weight of each specimen was measured. The samples were 529
then placed on the moist sand bed with a thickness of 2 cm. The weight of the spec- 530
24 November 2018
Table 2
Mixture proportions (kg/m3) of different mortar mixes.
Mix Designation OPC (kg/m3) GGBS (kg/m3) PFA (kg/m3) NRS (kg/m3) GQD (kg/m3) SP Dosage (%) Water (kg/m3) w/b
CM 545 0 0 1602 0 1.20 202 0.37
GQD0 274 218 55 1644 0 1.20 180 0.33
GQD20 274 218 55 1328 334 1.20 174 0.32
GQD40 274 218 55 996 669 1.20 174 0.32
GQD60 274 218 55 664 1003 1.20 174 0.32
GQD80 274 218 55 332 1338 1.20 174 0.32
GQD100 274 218 55 0 1685 1.20 169 0.31
531 imens was taken every hour on the first day, every day during the first week and ulus of the GQD was reported as 2.76 which are higher than the 566
532 every week until the third week. The average result of three tested samples was
fineness modulus of 2.57 for the NRS. The higher the value of the 567
533 expressed in a capillary absorption coefficient (g/cm2).
fineness modulus indicates a coarser overall grading of the GQD 568
as compared to NRS. Besides, the particle size distribution graph 569
534 2.2.11. Drying shrinkage
535
showed that the GQD sample possesses a higher fraction of coarse 570
The dimensional stability of the mortar was examined by following the stan-
536 dard procedure prescribed in ASTM C 157 [75]. Two mortar prisms with the dimen- particles that have passed through the 1.18, 2.36 and 5 mm testing 571
537 sions of 75 mm 75 mm 285 mm were fabricated as tested on the testing age at sieves. The fine particles in the GQD were believed to reduce the 572
538 1, 7, 14, 28, 56, 90 and 112 days. A standard reference rod with the length of workability of the mortar mixture due to the high specific surface 573
539 298.5 mm was used to calibrate the drying shrinkage instrument to 0.000 mm.
area of the GQD. The higher specific surface area tends to increase 574
540 The mortar specimen was then placed into the shrinkage instrument and the read-
541 ing is taken until the value remained constant. The average result from two test the water demand in the cementitious composites [37]. There are 575
542 prisms was obtained and used to represent the length change (%). 51.16% of NRS and 50.32% of the GQD have which have passed 576
through the 1.18 mm test sieve. Based on the results, it was indi- 577
543 2.2.12. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis cated that the NRS used possessed a higher fines fraction that is 578
544 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was conducted in order to study smaller than 1.18 mm. At the same time, there were 48.84% of 579
545 the microstructure morphology of the mortar mix. Selected samples were cut into NRS and 49.68% of the GQD retained on the 1.18 mm test sieve. 580
546 the cross-sectional dimension of 10 mm 10 mm with 10 mm depth and coated by
These results have indicated that the GQD possessed a higher frac- 581
547 a layer of gold. The image was taken by using a FEI Quanta FEG 650 scanning elec-
548 tron microscope. tion of coarser particles and lesser finer particles than NRS. This 582
was believed to have reduced the specific surface area of the fine 583
aggregates in cementitious composites. As the specific surface area 584
549 3. Results and discussion is reduced, the water demand required to achieve the desired 585
workability tended to be reduced. 586
550 3.1. Workability of the mortar
551 Based on Fig. 6, the water required to achieve a 150 ± 5 mm 3.2. Bulk density 587
552 diameter flow decrease in the presence of the GGBS and PFA. This
553 would be evident of the presence of SCMs improved workability of Table 3 shows the bulk density of the mortar mix with different 588
554 the mortar mixture. The inclusion of SCMs in the mortar tends to GQD sand replacement levels. Overall, the bulk density of the mor- 589
555 reduce the water demand up to 11%. The observation is in close tar was reported in the range of 2303 kg/m3 to 2388 kg/m3under 590
556 agreement to the claim that the particles size of GGBS and PFA normal weight mortar category. The bulk density of the mortar 591
557 are generally smaller than PC which has filled up the gaps and mix was increasing from 1 to 90 days. The increase in bulk density 592
558 pores in the cementitious matrix which in turn enhanced the was due to the continuous hydrations within the specimens which 593
559 workability of the cementitious mixture [76]. As the GQD contents have promoted a denser microstructure of the specimens on pro- 594
560 increased in the ternary blended mortar, the water demand of the longed curing durations [77]. The bulk density of ternary blended 595
561 mortar mixture to achieve the desired workability tends to cementitious composites at the early age (1 day and 7 days) which 596
562 decrease. This phenomenon was attributed to the grading of the consisted of 40% of GGBS and 10% of the PFA was relatively lower 597
563 GQD and natural river sand [36]. Based on the particle size distri- than the control mix which was the full OPC blend mortar. The 598
564 bution shown in Table 2, the GQD possessed a higher fraction of replacement of cement content has reduced the volume of the for- 599
565 the coarser particles than the NRS. Nevertheless, the fineness mod- mation of hydrates in the matrix of the cementitious composite 600
which was used to fill up the pores in the matrix of the cementi- 601
tious composite. This resulted in a reduction of the density of the 602
mortar at the early age [78]. However, further curing up to 28 days 603
and above showed that the bulk density of the ternary blended 604
mortar possessed relatively higher result than the control mix. This 605
was believed to be due to the presence of a pozzolanic reaction 606
which promotes a denser cementitious matrix at the later age of 607
the test mortars. The presence of the PFA and GGBS have reduced 608
the water demand which has, in turn, produced a denser 609
microstructure matrix results in relatively higher bulk density 610
[79]. Table 3 shows that as the GQD replacement level increases, 611
the bulk density of the ternary blended mortar increases. This is 612
largely due to the presence of denser material use in the cementi- 613
tious composites [80]. The specific gravity of the GQD used in this 614
experimental program was reported as 2.75 while 2.63 for NRS as 615
shown in Table 1. The researchers have reported that the density of 616
Fig. 6. Workability of mortar mix. the mortar varies with the denser materials used which produced a 617
24 November 2018
Table 3
Bulk density of the mortar mix.
Mix design Hybridization ratio (%) GQD replacement Bulk density (kg/m3) - standard deviation
level (%)
OPC GGBS PFA NRS GQD 1 day 7 days 28 days 90 days
CM 100 0 0 100 0 2303 ± 4.92 2318 ± 2.62 2323 ± 0.72 2324 ± 0.16
GQD0 50 40 10 100 0 2301 ± 4.32 2303 ± 3.74 2327 ± 1.73 2330 ± 4.43
GQD20 50 40 10 80 20 2342 ± 4.50 2342 ± 3.46 2343 ± 2.31 2343 ± 4.03
GQD40 50 40 10 40 60 2347 ± 0.23 2347 ± 3.68 2349 ± 4.08 2361 ± 1.25
GQD60 50 40 10 60 40 2356 ± 2.00 2356 ± 5.31 2363 ± 5.23 2366 ± 3.09
GQD80 50 40 10 20 80 2362 ± 4.16 2362 ± 0.47 2368 ± 3.54 2371 ± 4.92
GQD100 50 40 10 0 100 2370 ± 5.23 2370 ± 3.68 2382 ± 2.49 2388 ± 4.91
618 denser matrix of the mix [81]. As the GQD replacement level
619 increases, the density of the cementitious composites increases
620 as the volume of denser GQD increases. Furthermore, the fines
621 from the GQD have are believed to have filled up the pores inside
622 the matrix which have produced a denser and a more compact
623 cementitious matrix. This results in a higher density of the mortar
624 [82].
625 3.3. Compressive and flexural strength
626 Figs. 7 and 8 shows the compressive and flexural strength per-
627 formance of the control mix and the ternary blended mortar with
628 various GQD replacement levels. Based on the compressive and
629 flexural strength performance shown in Figs. 7 and 8, the control
630 mix possessed higher compressive and flexural strength at the Fig. 8. Flexural strength performance of the mortar mix.
631 early ages (1 day and 7 days). This was largely due to the presence
632 of GGBS and PFA in the ternary blended mortar. The presence of
tend to promote later age strength of the cementitious composites 651
633 SCMs such as GGBS and PFA have been reported to exhibit a lower
which have been reported by the previous findings. The presence 652
634 mechanical strength performance at the early age in the past find-
of GGBS and PFA has enhanced the later age strength by producing 653
635 ings [76,77,83]. The strength at day 1 shows the GGBS-PFA ternary
the secondary C-S-H and C-A-S-H hydrates. Hence, they have filled 654
636 blended mortar (GQD0) has exhibited a normalized compressive
up the pores in the primary C-S-H network formed by the primary 655
637 strength of 44% of the control mix (CM) and a compressive strength
hydration of cement results in a denser cementitious matrix 656
638 of 77% at 7 days. This was because the pozzolanic reaction between
[77,78,84]. At the early ages (1 day and 7 days), the presence of 657
639 the PFA and the lime generated by the OPC hydration is relatively
the GQD tends to improve the compressive strength performance 658
640 slower. There was also lower hydraulic reactivity of GGBS as com-
as compared to the mortar mix with NRS only. As the GQD replace- 659
641 pared to the primary hydration of OPC [84]. Hence, the dilution of
ment level increases up to 60%, the mortar mix possessed a more 660
642 OPC content for GQD0 and all mixes containing GQD affected the
remarkable increment in the mechanical performance. However, 661
643 early compressive strength performance as the OPC volume has
beyond 60% of GQD replacement levels, the presence of GQD does 662
644 been substituted by GGBS and PFA by 50%. Thus, the results
not further improve the mechanical performance of the ternary 663
645 showed that the ternary blended mortar with different GQD
blended mortar. Improvement in mechanical performance is lar- 664
646 replacement levels possessed relatively a lower early strength than
gely due to the better bond strength between the binder and 665
647 the control mix (CM). From 28 days onwards, the ternary blended
GQD particles [39]. GQD is a material which is relatively rough in 666
648 mortar with different GQD replacement levels possessed a higher
texture and angular in shape as observed in Fig. 1 as compare to 667
649 compressive strength than the control mix (CM). This phenomenon
NRS which is more rounded in shape as shown in Fig. 2. The rough 668
650 was attributed to the presence of GGBS and PFA. GGBS and PFA
texture of the GQD has induced a better frictional resistance 669
between the paste and the fine aggregates [38,41,43]. Results 670
showed an improvement in mechanical strength performance with 671
the inclusion of the GQD as a sand replacement material. An angu- 672
lar shape of the GQD revealed an enhancement of resistivity 673
towards the crack propagation through the interlocking of particles 674
in the cementitious composites [45,47,85]. Nevertheless, a more 675
compact matrix was produced with the aid of the GQD resulting 676
in mechanical strength improvement [39,43]. At the same time, 677
the presence of the GQD has further reduced the water demand 678
which results in relatively a lower w/b ratio compared to the tern- 679
ary blended mortar mix with only NRS. Generally, the w/b ratio 680
reflects the strength performance of the cementitious composites. 681
The strength performance is inversely proportional to the w/b 682
ratio. The reduction in water consumption has narrowed the ITZ 683
which consequently increased the bond strength between the 684
cement paste and aggregate [86]. As from the results, the increase 685
Fig. 7. Compressive strength performance of the mortar mix.
24 November 2018
686 in the GQD replacement level up to 60% showed an improvement enhancement of the UPV results. The GQD within 60%, 80%, and 732
687 in both compressive and flexural strength performance. Beyond a 100% replacement levels showed a better performance as com- 733
688 60% replacement level, the inclusion of the GQD does not improve pared to the mix with 0%, 20% and 40% GQD replacement levels. 734
689 the mechanical strength performance further. In both compressive The presence of the GQD tends to compensate the negative impact 735
690 and flexural strength performance, GQD80 possessed a similar per- by GGBS and PFA at the early ages (1 day and 7 days). At the age of 736
691 formance as GQD 20 which is similar as GQD0. Nevertheless, there 28 days, the UPV results with the presence of SCMs showed better 737
692 is a slightly decrement in both mechanical strength performances performance than the control mix. The high content of GGBS and 738
693 in GQD100. As compare to GQD0, GQD100 has shown a 4.2% and PFA hybrids was claimed to enhance the medium term mechanical 739
694 3.4% lower compressive strength as well as a 4.4% and 1.0% lower performance due to the rigorous continuous time-based formation 740
695 flexural strength at 28 days and 90 days of curing. As such, it can of the C-A-S-H framework from GGBS-PFA hybrid [77]. At 90 days, 741
696 be concluded that full utilization of the GQD does not show a the ternary blended mortar with various GQD replacement levels 742
697 remarkable decrement in mechanical strength performance which showed better UPV performance as compared to the control mix. 743
698 can be fully utilized in cementitious composite production with These results were attributed to the combined enhancement 744
699 SCMs. The decrement in mechanical strength performance in effects of both SCMs and the GQD. The presence of SCMs such as 745
700 GQD100 was established due to the presence of an excessive con- GGBS and PFA improved the microstructure of the cementitious 746
701 tent of fines which are the fractions that pass through the 75 µm composites. This was done through the continuous pozzolanic 747
702 test sieve [56] from the GQD. Excessive fines have induced a higher reaction at a later age. The presence of the GQD had also densified 748
703 specific surface area which required more binder to bind the aggre- the overall aggregate phase. Theoretically, a lower w/b ratio and a 749
704 gate phase [41,82]. Insufficient paste content due to the high total denser material used in the production of cementitious composites 750
705 surface area of the aggregate phase tends to produce a poor inter- tends to improve the UPV performance due to a more compact and 751
706 locking between the aggregate and binder with an adverse effect denser microstructure [80]. The w/b ratio was reported to reduce 752
707 on mechanical strength [37]. In addition, Singh et al. [39] has as the GQD replacement level increases in Fig. 6. However, results 753
708 claimed that the GQD tends to incur resistivity to the flow due to obtained showed that a reduction of w/b by GQD does not further 754
709 its natural physical properties as discussed before. Although lesser improve the UPV performance as there is further reduction in w/b 755
710 water demand was required in GQD100, however, due to its higher ratio. This can be observed in the GQD80 and GQD100 mix which 756
711 water absorption properties, the free water in the cementitious possessed relatively lower UPV results at the later age (90 days). 757
712 matrix was absorbed by the GQD. This resulted in a poor degree Although incorporation of the GQD has further reduced the water 758
713 of compaction. Such a phenomenon has led to a higher void and demand, the reduction in water does not show continuous 759
714 poorer microstructure matrix resulting in lower compressive and improvement of UPV results along with increasing the GQD 760
715 flexural strength performance. replacement levels. This was largely due to the higher fraction of 761
fine content which has increased the total specific surface area of 762
the aggregate phase. As such, the paste volume demand was 763
716 3.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of propagation expected to be higher. As the binder content was kept constant, 764
the reduction in water consumption was believed to consequently 765
717 Ultrasonic pulse velocity of propagation is a type of non- reduce the paste volume in GQD80 and GQD100 resulting in a rel- 766
718 destructive assessment to indicate the density of compactness of atively poor interlocking microstructure. Therefore, a porous 767
719 the cementitious composites. This gives an indication of the veloc- matrix was formed. Overall, the presence of the GQD showed a rel- 768
720 ity of a pulse using ultrasonic longitudinal waves transmitted atively higher UPV result as compared to the control mix and 769
721 across the length of the cementitious composites. The ultrasonic GQD0. Singh et al. [40] claimed that the presence of GQD tends 770
722 pulse velocity of propagation of a mortar mix with different GQD to densify the matrix of the cementitious composites. Meanwhile, 771
723 replacement levels is shown in Fig. 9. Based on Fig. 9, the results an increase in the adhesion of concrete specimens with positively 772
724 showed a similar trend in compressive and flexural strength per- higher UPV results was obtained. Nevertheless, fully utilization of 773
725 formance as previously discussed. Ternary blended mortar showed the GQD exhibited similar UPV values. GQD0, however, exhibited 774
726 relatively lower UPV values as compared to the control mix at the better performance in the UPV values than the control mix at 775
727 early ages (1 day and 7 days). This was largely due to the hydration 90 days of curing age. Such a phenomenon can be explained. Full 776
728 in cement as the early age produced a more compact microstruc- utilization of the GQD with a ternary blended binder possesses a 777
729 ture as compared to the ternary blended mortar. Based on the similar performance as ternary blended mortar with full NRS as 778
730 7 day results, the use of the high volume of GQD tends to produce aggregate with an improved cementitious composite microstruc- 779
731 a denser overall aggregate phase which has had results in the ture at a prolonged curing age. 780
3.5. Water absorption 781
Fig. 10 showed the water absorption of the mortar mix with dif- 782
ferent GQD replacement levels. Overall, the mix with GGBS and 783
PFA possessed relatively high water absorption as compared to 784
the control mix at the testing age of 1 day and 7 days. GGBS and 785
were claimed to enhance the mechanical and durability perfor- 786
mance at the later age according to previous literature. However, 787
the presence of GGBS and PFA as SCMs has shown a negative 788
impact towards the early age (1 day and 7 days) performance in 789
terms of water absorption results. Amer et al. [87] reported that 790
this phenomenon was due to the hydration of cement produced 791
the hydrates framework which acts as a basic skeleton of percolat- 792
ing solids to the microstructure in the early curing age. The substi- 793
tution up to 50% of OPC with the combination of GGBS and PFA 794
Fig. 9. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of propagation of the mortar mix. have reduced the total cement content contributing to a higher 795
24 November 2018
Fig. 10. Water absorption of the mortar mix.

Fig. 11. Intrinsic air permeability of the mortar mix.
796 water absorption at early ages of 1 day and 7 days. It was also
797 observed that the incorporation of the GQD tends to compensate 7 days testing. Owaid et al. [78] also believed such results obtained 843
798 the cement dilution effect at the early ages as found in the mechan- were due to the presence of PFA. The PFA retarded the hardening 844
799 ical performance section. Densification in the cementitious matrix process of the cementitious composites resulting in a more porous 845
800 by the GQD slightly improved in its water absorption properties of microstructure produced on the first day. At 7 days, the k-value for 846
801 the ternary blended mortar [41]. Densification in the cementitious the ternary blended mortar with the GQD exposed different 847
802 matrix is supported by the bulk density result as aforementioned replacement levels varying from 0% to 100% reported nearly to 848
803 in Table 3. As reported previously, fully utilization of the GQD in the k-value of the control mix. From the results explained in 849
804 ternary mortar did not further improve the water absorption prop- Fig. 11, the presence of the GQD tends to compensate the reduction 850
805 erties at an early age (1 day and 7 days). The excessive fines from of the performance due to SCMs in the early age (1 day and 7 days) 851
806 the GQD tended to increase the total specific surface area which as mentioned previously. From the results shown in Table 3, the 852
807 resulted in a higher paste demand. The deficiency in paste volume presence of the GQD tends to increase the bulk density on that par- 853
808 has resulted in poor interlocking between aggregate and paste. At ticular mix design also at an early age (1 day and 7 days). A denser 854
809 28 days onwards, the ternary blended mortar started to exhibit sig- material which is the GQD used in the production of cementitious 855
810 nificant resistivity towards the water absorption. The ternary composites tends to produce a denser microstructure resulting in 856
811 blended mortar with the GQD replacement levels of 0%, 20%, 40%, an improvement on the resistivity of air permeability. GQD20, 857
812 and 60% were reported to exhibit better resistivity towards the GQD40, and GQD60 have shown relatively lower k-values than 858
813 water absorption as compared to the control mix. Furthermore, GQD0 on the first day of its curing age. Partially GQD replacement 859
814 the presence of the GQD has reduced the number of voids and cap- up to 60% has reduced the k-value range from 7.4% to 24.9% as 860
815 illaries within the cementitious matrix [40]. The phenomenon was compared to GQD0 on the first day of testing. Presence of the 861
816 also believed to be attributed to the improvement of pore structure GQD up to 60% tends to improve permeability resistivity at an early 862
817 in the paste-aggregate ITZ [50]. Allam et al. [49] reported that the age. Overall, the k-value decreases as the GQD increases up to 80% 863
818 presence of the GQD tends to enhance the mixture grading. Such from 28 days onwards. Partial replacement of the GQD tends to 864
819 enhancement has resulted in producing a more compacted mixture improve the microstructure of the cementitious composites pre- 865
820 which permits water to enter the specimen. The result also showed sent a more adequate grading, subsequently, reduce volume and 866
821 that large volume of the GQD replacement levels up to 80% and connectivity of the capillary pores. From Fig. 11, the k-values of 867
822 100% permitted relatively higher water absorption as compared GQD80 and GQD100 were observed relatively higher than the 868
823 to the mix coded GQD0. However, it was also observed that there GQD0 mix at all ages. Singh et al. [39] reported that beyond opti- 869
824 was not much significant difference between the control mix with mal replacement levels, there was a remarkable reduction in per- 870
825 GQD80 and GQD100. meability resistivity performance. The fines from the GQD have 871
increased the total specific surface area, which in turn, increased 872
826 3.6. Intrinsic air permeability the paste demand with a consequential effect as discussed in prior 873
sections. However, with GQD80 it was found that there is an 874
827 The results of the intrinsic air permeability of the mortar mix improvement in air permeability resistivity when compared with 875
828 with different GQD replacement levels have been shown in the control mix. From the bulk density result recorded in Table 3, 876
829 Fig. 11. Intrinsic air permeability is a method to investigate the GQD80 possessed a relatively higher density. Such phenomenon 877
830 ease of liquids, gases and dissolved deleterious substances such explained a denser microstructure possessed a more refined 878
831 as chloride or sulfate ions or carbon dioxide ability to penetrate microstructure; thus reducing the intrinsic air permeability value 879
832 through the mortar/concrete mix [71]. Similar to the mechanical at 28 days onwards. Such a phenomenon does not apply to the sit- 880
833 strength and water absorption performance, ternary blended mor- uation in the mix coded GQD100. GQD100 possessed relatively 881
834 tar exhibited a relatively higher k-value at the 1 day testing age higher intrinsic air permeability value than the control mix at all 882
835 which is similar to the findings from Owaid et al. [78]. The authors ages. The differential recorded data was reported at 143.3%, 883
836 claimed that the presence of continuous pores was largely due to 55.7%, 9.6% and 2.0% at the specific testing age. The differential 884
837 low GGBS reactivity and the slow pozzolanic reaction of the PFA was found decreased at the prolonged curing age. At the prolonged 885
838 at the early age (1 day and 7 days). From Fig. 9, the k-value of curing age, the impairment in full utilization of the GQD tended to 886
839 the ternary blended mortar with different GQD replacement levels decrease. 887
840 from 0% to 100% were reported 153% to 253% higher than the con-
841 trol mix at the first day of testing. However, the k-value of the tern-
842 ary blended mortar showed a remarkable reduction from 1 day to
24 November 2018
888 3.7. Total porosity the initial flow diameter, however, the water absorption properties 936
of the GQD was reported at 2.22% which is much more than the 937
889 Fig. 12 showed the results of the total porosity of the mortar NRS with 1.61% water absorption. Higher water absorption proper- 938
890 mix with different sand replacement levels with the GQD. The ties have further absorbed the free water in the fresh cementitious 939
891 results of the total porosity are in line with the results of intrinsic composites resulting in less favorable compaction degree during 940
892 permeability as shown in Fig. 9. The porosity from a control mix to the placement of fresh mortar into the steel mold. 941
893 GQD100 reported 12.02%, 14.05%, 13.55%, 13.51%, 13.31%, 14.67%
894 and 15.06% at day one of testing, while, 8.85%, 9.79%, 9.62%, 3.8. Capillary absorption assessment 942
895 9.53%, 8.99%, 9.84% and 10.15% was reported as the porosity at
896 7 days of testing. The results have shown that the ternary blended The capillary absorption of the mortar mix with different GQD 943
897 mortar exhibited a higher porosity as compared to the control mix replacement level results was shown in Fig. 13. Basically, the cap- 944
898 at an early age (1 day and 7 days). The high porosity of the mortar illary absorption is given an overall insight towards the pore grad- 945
899 containing GGBS and PFA at an early age (1 day and 7 days) was ing of the cementitious composites. It is important to indicate the 946
900 attributed to the dilution effect of cement as discussed earlier. resistivity of the cementitious composites towards the aggressive 947
901 The porosity of the ternary blended mortar was reduced signifi- ions such as sulfate and chloride penetration. This is believed to 948
902 cantly from 1 day to 7 days as compared to the control mix. On give a negative impact towards the long-term durability perfor- 949
903 prolonged curing duration up to 90 days, the porosity of the mance of the cementitious composites. The samples used were 950
904 cementitious composites tends to decrease. This phenomenon cured up to 28 days by using moist curing methods. Thus, the per- 951
905 was attributed to the refinement of microstructure by the binders. formance of the specimens was able to give an indication of the 952
906 Furthermore, from the results we have observed GQD20, GQD40 service life of the mortar mix. The results showed that the rate of 953
907 and GQD60 exhibited lower porosity than GQD0. The reduction absorption was high during the first 8 h at a larger linear gradient 954
908 of the porosity was reported in 1.7%, 2.7% and 8.2% for GQD20, in all mixes. This phenomenon was attributed to the water 955
909 GQD40, and GQD60 at 7 days curing. The phenomenon was largely absorbed to fill up the larger pores in the cementitious matrix. 956
910 due to the presence of the GQD improving the bonding perfor- 100% of the GQD replacement level showed the highest amount 957
911 mance on the paste-aggregate interface. Reduction in quantity on of water absorbed in the first 8 h while 60% of the GQD replace- 958
912 the continuity of capillary pores in the cementitious matrix was ment level showed the least water absorbed. The observation is 959
913 also resulting in a less porous microstructure. However, it was indicative of the ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replace- 960
914 observed that a high GQD replacement level exhibited higher ment level possessing the highest degree of continuous capillary 961
915 porosity than GQD0 at all ages. GQD80 exhibited 4.4%, 0.5%, 1.6% pores in the cementitious matrix. Thus, it is expected that the resis- 962
916 and 1.2% higher than GQD0, while GQD100 exhibited 7.2%, 3.7%, tance to the ingress of aggressive ions such as sulfate and chloride 963
917 5.4% and 3.7% higher than GQD0 at all testing ages. This was largely is relatively lower due to the high rate of absorptivity [80]. The Ca 964
918 due to the presence of excessive fines from the GQD producing an value of the ternary blended mortar with 40% of the GQD replace- 965
919 increase in paste demand. A deficiency of paste volume led to poor ment level was relatively higher as compared to the ternary 966
920 interlocking microstructure results though higher porosity was blended mortar with 0% of the GQD replacement level within the 967
921 observed. In addition, there was no observed significant reduction first 8 h. However, on the second day onwards, the Ca value of 968
922 in porosity of the control mix from 28 days to 90 days of testing. the ternary blended mortar with 40% of the GQD replacement level 969
923 Meanwhile, the ternary blended mortar with different GQD was observed to be lower than the ternary blended mortar with 0% 970
924 replacement levels still possessed some reduction in porosity. of the GQD replacement level. This is primarily due to the larger 971
925 The presence of the GQD possessed a lower porosity up to 60% of pores in the ternary blended mortar with 40% of the GQD replace- 972
926 GQD replacement levels. Beyond 60% GQD content by total fine ment level. This was relatively more than GQD0. From the second 973
927 aggregate, higher porosity was observed. Higher porosity observed day onwards, the overall Ca results exhibited lower cumulative 974
928 in the mixes GQD80 and GQD100, was believed to reflect the weight gain as compared to the first 8 h. This was because the 975
929 reduction of mechanical strength performance [80] as discussed large-sized capillary pores were completely filled up by the first 976
930 earlier. As compared to the control mix, GQD100 possessed a rela- 8 h. Overall, the use of GGBS and PFA as SCMs tends to reduce 977
931 tively higher total porosity (%). Generally, a lower w/b tends to pro- the degree of capillary pores in the cementitious matrix. The for- 978
932 duce a denser and a more refine microstructure [80]. However, a mation of the hydrates from GGBS and PFA has densified the 979
933 reduction in the w/b ratio would lead to insufficient proper com- cementitious matrix which results in a lower Ca value. Generally, 980
934 paction which also leads to a more porous microstructure [77]. the use of the GQD at various levels of sand replacement levels 981
935 Although GQD100 required a relatively lower w/b ratio to achieve up to 80% enables the reduction in the degree of capillary pores. 982
Fig. 12. Total porosity of the mortar mix. Fig. 13. Capillary absorption of the mortar mix.
24 November 2018
983 This was believed due to the presence of rough and angular shapes Figs. 15–17 showed the SEM image of ternary blended mortar 1028
984 of the GQD physical appearance. Improvement of the performance with 0%, 60% and 100% of GQD replacement levels at 150 times 1029
985 through better paste-aggregate bond reduced the continuity of magnification. The qualitative assessment was conducted at 150 1030
986 capillary pores [81]. This improvement was believed to have times magnification to study the overall morphology of the test 1031
987 reduced the porosity and air content in the cementitious compos- samples. A qualitative assessment revealed that the mortar matrix 1032
988 ites. The ternary blended mortar with up to 100% of the GQD as of GQD0 possessed a number of pores in the image. As shown in 1033
989 sand replacement possessed a similar capillary absorptivity prop- Fig. 16, GQD60 exhibited a more refined microstructure as com- 1034
990 erty as the control mix. pared to GQD0 and GQD100 shown in Figs. 15 and 17. This was 1035
believed to be due to the low w/b ratio results in producing a den- 1036
991 3.9. Drying shrinkage behavior ser microstructure. Reduction in the w/b ratio theoretically tends 1037
to improve the compactness of the microstructure. The image cap- 1038
992 Theoretically, drying shrinkage on the cementitious composites tured in GQD100 mortar showed a significant number of pores 1039
993 was due to the evaporation of internal free water from concrete or among the three mortar samples examined. This was largely due 1040
994 mortar in the hardened state to the surrounding environment. Dry- to the poor compaction of the fresh mortar during placement into 1041
995 ing shrinkage behavior of the mortar mix with different GQD sand the mold due to less free water in the surrounding matrix. A higher 1042
996 replacement levels is depicted in Fig. 14. Based on the test results, magnification was then further applied on the spot to undergo fur- 1043
997 the incorporation of GGBS and PFA has reduced the drying shrink- ther investigation on the morphology of the test specimens. 1044
998 age of the cementitious composites. The presence of PFA and GGBS Figs. 18–20 showed the SEM image of ternary blended mortar 1045
999 has reduced the pore size due to its denser binder phase. This, in with 0%, 60% and 100% of GQD replacement levels at 3000 times 1046
1000 turn, prevents the internal moisture evaporation results reducing magnification at a curing age of 28 days. Based on the observation, 1047
1001 the drying shrinkage behavior [88]. The incorporation of SCMs unhydrated PFA particles were observed at GQD0 in Fig. 18. It was 1048
1002 has reduced the water demand. The free water available was believed that the pozzolanic reaction from the PFA was not fully 1049
1003 decreased for subsequent evaporation from the internal pore being hydrated and contributed to the formation of the hydrates 1050
1004 space, hence, reducing the degree of drying shrinkage [89]. Piasta framework. Zhou et al. [76] reported that the pozzolanic reaction 1051
1005 and Zarzycki [86] reported that lower drying shrinkage was of the PFA is at later age (90 days and onwards). There are a num- 1052
1006 observed on the cementitious composites with a lower w/c ratio. ber of pores also observed in Fig. 18. In Fig. 19, a more compact 1053
1007 Thus, GQD100 with a relatively lower w/c ratio possessed the low- microstructure was observed as compared to the microstructure 1054
1008 est length change. From the results, the incorporation of the GQD shown in Fig. 18. This was believed due to the presence of the 1055
1009 in ternary blended mortar tends to further improve drying shrink- GQD densifying the microstructure matrix. Partial incorporation 1056
1010 age behavior. As the GQD replacement level increases, the drying of the GQD with NRS showed good interlocking interaction. How- 1057
1011 shrinkage was reported to be reduced which is in line with previ- ever, Fig. 19 shows that there is some deficiency in the paste to be 1058
1012 ous findings by other researchers [28,46,52]. This is largely because fully surrounded the aggregate phase. According to the mechanical 1059
1013 the GQD is relatively coarser than the natural river sand. The and durability performance obtained previously, such a deficiency 1060
1014 researchers have claimed that aggregates course in nature have in the paste or hydrate does not show significant variations. Fig. 20 1061
1015 reduced the total specific surface area that reduce water demand represents the SEM image of GQD100 at 3000 times magnification 1062
1016 on that particular mix. With lower free water in the pore space, at 28 days of curing. From the image shown in Fig. 20, a poor inter- 1063
1017 the degree of drying shrinkage of the cementitious composites locking microstructure was observed. There were a significant 1064
1018 would be reduced correspondingly [51]. number of pores observed. An increase in the GQD replacement 1065
levels tends to reduce the w/b ratio to achieve targeted workabil- 1066
1019 3.10. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis ity. However, it was believed that higher water absorption proper- 1067
ties of the GQD tend to the free water in the cementitious matrix. 1068
1020 The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used to analyze the This results in improper compacting in fresh mortar placement. 1069
1021 microstructure of the cementitious composites at high magnifica- There is also a less quantity of cementitious product (hydrates) 1070
1022 tion levels. The back scatter-mode was used in this experimental spotted on the surface of the GQD in GQD100 mix. This was 1071
1023 programme which gives clear graphical information on the internal believed that the fines content in the GQD used were relatively 1072
1024 microstructure of the cementitious composites. Qualitative com-

1025 parisons were conducted to study the interaction between ternary
1026 blended mortar with 0%, 60% and 100% GQD under various magni-
1027 fications within the same sample at 28 days and 90 days of curing.
Fig. 15. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 0% GQD replacement levels at
Fig. 14. Drying shrinkage of the mortar mix. 28 days curing age at 150 times magnification.
24 November 2018
Fig. 16. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 60% GQD replacement levels at Fig. 19. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 60% GQD replacement level at
28 days curing age at 150 times magnification. 28 days curing age at 3000 times magnification.
Fig. 17. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replacement levels at Fig. 20. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replacement level at
ment levels increase, the water demand was found to be reduced. 1076
This resulted in less paste volume in the mortar matrix. Insufficient 1077
paste volume was believed to be the main issue in the production 1078
of the poor interlocking cementitious matrix. This accounted for 1079
why full utilization of the GQD in the ternary blended mortar 1080
showed less favorable results in terms of mechanical and durabil- 1081
ity performance as previously discussed. 1082
Figs. 21–23 showed the SEM image of ternary blended mortar 1083
with 0%, 60% and 100% of GQD replacement levels at 150 times 1084
magnification at 90 days of curing. From the image captured the 1085
microstructure of the mortar mixes have been improved to a more 1086
compact microstructure as compared to Figs. 18–20. Firstly, the 1087
improvement in the microstructure morphology is due to the for- 1088
mation of a more complete hydrated product. In such, the mechan- 1089
ical and durability performance has been further improved from 1090
28 days to 90 days of curing age. Therefore, the number of pores 1091
was found to be reduced as compared to the image captured at 1092
Fig. 18. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 0% GQD replacement level at 28 days. However, there were still a few numbers of pores and 1093
28 days curing age at 3000 times magnification. numbers of cracks in the mix GQD0 and GQD100 observed. Overall, 1094
a more refined morphology was observed from Fig. 22 in GQD60. 1095
Figs. 24–26 showed the SEM image of ternary blended mortar 1096
1073 high and increased the specific surface area on the aggregate with 0%, 60% and 100% of GQD replacement levels at 3000 times 1097
1074 phase. The binder volume has been kept constant in all the mortar magnification at 90 days of curing age. Under a larger magnifica- 1098
1075 mix fabricated in this experimental program. As the GQD replace- tion, there were micro-cracks observed in both Figs. 24 and 26. 1099
24 November 2018
Fig. 21. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 0% GQD replacement level at Fig. 24. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 0% GQD replacement levels at
Fig. 22. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 60% GQD replacement level at Fig. 25. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 60% GQD replacement levels at
Fig. 23. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replacement level at Fig. 26. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replacement level at
1100 The presence of micro-cracks has explained the differential in both evaporated water in the surrounding area. The water absorbed in 1103
1101 mechanical and durability performance as compared to GQD60 as the natural river sand was relatively low as compared to the 1104
1102 previously discussed. The micro-cracks were believed due to the GQD which possessed higher water absorptivity shown in Table 1. 1105
24 November 2018
1106 The micro-cracks spotted in 100% of the GQD replacement level Technology and Innovation) for funding the study through the 1165
1107 was believed due to the high fines content contributed by the Science fund Grant (Project no. 06-01-05-SF0848) and PRGS 1166
1108 GQD have consequently impacted the microstructure as discussed (PRGS/1/2017/TK06/USM/02/1). USM Fellowship Scheme 1/18 1167
1109 previously. There was also observed fly ash particles which were from Universiti Sains Malaysia which supported the research per- 1168
1110 believed to have just started its pozzolanic reaction. This phe- sonnel is also duly acknowledged. 1169
1111 nomenon was expected to further enhance the cementitious com-
1112 posite microstructure at longer curing age. Fig. 24 also showed that
Conflict of Interest 1170
1113 the NRS particles were surrounded by sufficient hydrate products
1114 as compared with GQD100 shown in Fig. 26. There was a deficiency
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest. 1171
1115 in the hydrate products present on the surface of the GQD particles
1116 as shown in Fig. 26. Deficiency in the hydrates on the surface of the
1117 GQD in the mix GQD60 was also observed. Fig. 24 has shown a pos- References 1172
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Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Construction and Building Materials

3 The mechanical strength and durability properties of ternary blended

331 2.1. Materials

2.2.2. Mixing, forming and curing 418

Fig. 2. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) image of the GQD.

2.2.5. Compressive and flexural strength 454

Fig. 3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of NRS at 150 times

2.2.7. Water absorption 483

Fig. 4. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) image of NRS.

2.2.8. Intrinsic permeability 491

2.2.9. Total porosity 507

2.2.10. Capillary action assessment 522

625 3.3. Compressive and flexural strength

3.5. Water absorption 781

Fig. 10. Water absorption of the mortar mix.

1024 microstructure of the cementitious composites. Qualitative com-

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