This article was downloaded by: [University of Otago]

On: 27 August 2014, At: 21:42

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Language Awareness
Publication details, including instructions for authors
and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rmla20

Language awareness as
methodology: Implications for
teachers and teacher training
a
Simon Borg
a
Faculty of Education , University of Malta , Msida,
MSD06, Malta
Published online: 26 Apr 2010.

To cite this article: Simon Borg (1994) Language awareness as methodology:

Implications for teachers and teacher training, Language Awareness, 3:2, 61-71, DOI:
10.1080/09658416.1994.9959844

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09658416.1994.9959844

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information
(the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor
& Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties
whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose
of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the
opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by
Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor
and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings,
demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to
or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.
Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-
licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly
forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 LANGUAGE AWARENESS AS
METHODOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR
TEACHERS AND TEACHER TRAINING

Simon Borg

Faculty of Education, University of Malta, Msida, MSD06, Malta

Abstract This paper focuses on language awareness (LA) as a methodology in

foreign language teaching and analyses its implications for teachers and teacher
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

training. An outline of the characteristics of LA as methodology, derived from

the work of Wright & Bolitho (1993), is first given, and the demands which this
methodology makes on language teachers is then discussed. It is shown that LA
as methodology presumes not only linguistic awareness on the part of teachers,
but also an understanding of the learning and teaching processes this method-
ology promotes. The implications of these demands for LA-oriented teacher
training are then addressed in terms of appropriate training content and training
methodology. It is argued that training content needs to be educationally, rather
than linguistically, oriented, and that a reflexive training methodology is an
effective means of developing in teachers the kinds of awareness LA as method-
ology presumes. A sample activity is provided to illustrate this approach to
LA-oriented teacher training.

Introduction
This paper is concerned with language awareness (LA) as a methodology
in foreign language learning and analyses the implications of this interpreta-
tion of LA for teachers and, consequently, for teacher training.1 My interest in
this topic stems from my experience of implementing LA with learners and
teacher trainees, but I was prompted to further reflection during the Second
International Conference of the Association for Language Awareness held at
Plymouth in April 1994, where various aspects of LA as methodology were
discussed, such as appropriate learning materials and their effects on the
learners, but where little was said about the implications of this methodology
for teachers. This is a notable omission from any discussion of methodology,
and one which this paper attempts to redress by being explicitly teacher-cen-
tred in its analysis of LA.
An outline of the characteristics of LA as methodology, derived from the work
of Wright & Bolitho (1993), is first given, and this is followed by a discussion of
the demands which this methodology makes on language teachers. The
implications of these demands for LA-oriented teacher training are then
examined. A practical example of the approach to LA-oriented training which is
promoted in this paper is also provided and analysed.
0965-8416/94/02 0061-11 $1.80/0 ©1994 S. Borg
LANGUAGE AWARENESS Vol. 3, No. 2,1994
61
 62 LANGUAGE AWARENESS

Language Awareness as Methodology

LA as methodology denotes a process/product view of language learning
focusing not just on the outcomes of learning (i.e. knowledge about language)
but also on the means through which these outcomes can be reached (see Wright
& Bolitho, 19932 for a full discussion of this methodology; Wright, 1994; Hall &
Shepheard, 1991 for learning materials which reflect this approach). This view of
LA is characterised by the following main features:

(1) Learning about language is not the intemalisation of a definable body of knowledge
but the on-going investigation of a dynamic phenomenon. This view of language
and learning is fundamental in LA as methodology. It views language not as
so much subject matter to be studied, but as an organic phenomenon (Ruther-
ford, 1987) which learners develop an understanding of through processes
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

of continual investigation.
(2) Learning a language should involve talking about the language. LA as methodo-
logy does not simply encourage learners to think about the language and to
express their conclusions through the written medium only. Learners are
actively encouraged to discuss the language analytically, to develop a
metalanguage for doing so, to share their beliefs about language with each
other and to discuss language learning tasks.
(3) Learning is most effective as a process of learner-centred exploration and discovery.
Learning about language has traditionally been perceived in a manner which
conflicts with notions of learner-centredness. LA eliminates this conflict by
approaching explicit language study through learner-centred discovery
activities which involve language exploration.
(4) Effective awareness-raising depends on engaging learners both affectively and cog-
nitively. As a methodology, LA does not assume that learners will be neces-
sarily motivated to participate in language study activities simply because
of the cognitive challenge they present.3 Importance is also given to engaging
learners affectively (e.g. referring to their personal beliefs, attitudes and
feelings) as a means of making them cognitively more receptive. This posi-
tion acknowledges the dependence in learning of the cognitive on the affec-
tive domain (Schumann, 1975).
(5) LA as methodology develops in learners both knowledge about language as well as
skills for continued autonomous learning. 'Learning to learn' has in recent years
become an area of interest in language learning circles. (Ellis & Sinclair, 1989;
Wenden, 1986). LA as methodology incorporates opportunities for learners
to think about, discuss and evaluate their own learning with a view to
increasing their understanding of how the learning process can be made
more effective.

LA as methodology, then, attempts to develop learners' explicit under-

standing of language as well as an awareness of their own learning by involving
them in discovery-oriented tasks which are both affectively and cognitively
motivating. In the next section I will consider the implications of this view of LA
for teachers.
 LANGUAGE AWARENESS AS METHODOLOGY 63

LA as Methodology and the Teacher

Traditionally conceived, formal language teaching did not challenge the
teacher in many ways: the task of imparting knowledge about the language to
learners was conceived of as one where the teacher and/or grammar book
provided rules which the learners practised through series of closed exercises. A
grammar book and a good supply of exercises were all the teacher needed. LA
as methodology, in common with other approaches which have made the task
of teaching a foreign language more challenging (e.g. the Communicative
approach), contrasts with this simplistic view of language learning in the wide
variety of demands it makes upon the teacher. An analysis of the principles of
LA which were outlined above and of existing LA learning materials (e.g. Wright,
1994) indicates that in order to implement LA effectively, teachers will need to
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

respond to a range of demands related not just to their linguistic awareness but
also to beliefs, attitudes and skills relevant to the whole language teaching and
learning process. Several examples of these demands are discussed below,
together with the qualities teachers require to meet them.
(1) To start with the most obvious demand of LA, teachers themselves need to
be linguistically aware. Deficiency in this awareness will hinder the proper
planning, implementation and evaluation of LA by teachers.
(2) Teachers need to accept a fundamental tenet of LA in all its forms — that
language is a legitimate object of study. Not all teachers will immediately
accept this, especially those whose practice is based on extreme forms of
communicative language teaching where formal language study is ana-
thema.
(3) LA implies a critical, analytical view of language. Teachers need to develop
a disposition to look at language in this way, to constantly review their own
beliefs about language, and to be open to the possibility that these may
require modification. Teachers need to be ready to continue learning about
language rather than to consider as complete the knowledge about language
which they possess.
(4) LA promotes the interpretation of language by learners, and diversity in
learning outcomes is considered to be a positive phenomenon which pro-
vides the basis for the active discussion of learning experiences. Teachers
need to develop an understanding of the kinds of tasks which encourage
language exploration and interpretation, and to minimise the use of closed
exercises which provide little scope for such processes.
(5) The process-orientation of LA encourages learners to reflect on their own
learning and to discuss and evaluate their learning experiences with each
other. It seems logical to suggest that for teachers who adopt LA to feel at
ease working within such a learning environment, they themselves should
have personal experience and an understanding of the reflective processes
their practice aims to promote.
(6) LA is clearly a learner-centred methodology, and this implies a range of
possibly novel roles (e.g. facilitator) which teachers will need to adopt.
Teachers need to develop an understanding of these roles and of how they
 64 LANGUAGE AWARENESS

can be applied in such a way to maximise the effectiveness of the LA learning

process.
(7) The discovery-oriented nature of LA makes a prescriptive approach to
language study inappropriate. Teachers need to accept the fact that the
source of learning is not the direct input about language which they provide
learners with, but the outcomes which learners reach as a result of their own
explorations of language and the discussion of these with other learners.
(8) LA prioritises the processes of thinking and discussion, and these priorities
should be reflected in teachers' work. For this to occur, teachers need to
understand the value of these processes in LA, and to develop skills which
will enable them to translate this understanding into classroom practice.
(9) LA also encourages interactive work among learners, and teachers who are
not accustomed to this mode of learning will thus need to develop the skills
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

to manage it effectively. This presupposes, for example, an understanding

of the principles underlying group work.
(10) Teachers who implement LA will also need to accept that helping learners
to become more effective learners is an integral part of their work. This will
include encouraging learners to evaluate the LA work they do, to share these
evaluations with each other, to compare different ways of going about LA
tasks, and to learn to use different sources of information useful in LA work
(e.g. grammar books and dictionaries).
(11) Language study is accepted by many teachers as being inescapably arid, but
LA challenges teachers to make it a motivating experience by engaging
learners in both the cognitive and affective domains. Effective LA work will
activate learners both mentally and emotionally.
The range of demands described above indicates that implementing LA is not
simply a question of applying a new technique; it is a challenging process which
may require teachers to make radical changes to their own practice. This is
particularly true of teachers whose notions of language study are still informed
by traditional models and, hence, whose beliefs about language, learning and
teaching conflict with those underlying LA as methodology. Changing these
beliefs, as Luxon (1994) has noted, can be a painful process, and one which many
teachers may be unwilling or unable to submit to unless they are provided with
adequate support. The major source of this support will obviously be teacher
training, and it is the issue of LA-oriented teacher training programmes which
will be addressed in the last section of this paper.

LA-Oriented Teacher Training

By LA-oriented training I refer to any form of teacher training which attempts
to prepare teachers to adopt LA as methodology in their classrooms. Such
training may be pre- or in-service, and it may consist of a course in its own right
or else of a component on a larger course. In this section, LA-oriented training is
discussed in terms of training content and training methodology. My aim here
is not to outline a comprehensive training programme, but, on the basis of the
discussion so far, to identify topics which LA-oriented training could focus on,
 LANGUAGE AWARENESS AS METHODOLOGY 65

and to describe an approach to training appropriate to the task of preparing

teachers to adopt LA as methodology.

Training content
Earlier on I illustrated the range of demands which LA as methodology makes
of teachers. An analysis of these demands provides the basis for identifying
content relevant to LA-oriented training, and in the box below I have identified
a number of issues arising from this analysis.
Awareness of Language Grammar
Phonology
Lexis
Discourse
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

Awareness of Learning Theories of learning

Learner-centredness
Heuristics
Collaborative learning
Autonomous learning
Awareness of Teaching Developing skills in
Language analysis
LA task design
Managing interactive learning
Accepting notions of
Language as an object of study
Teachers as facilitators
Teaching as learning

The variety of topics listed here reflects the variety of demands which LA, as
we have seen, makes of teachers, and suggests that James & Garrett's claim (1991:
21) that LA begins with teacher awareness needs to be interpreted in a broad
sense which includes not only awareness of language, but also what are referred
to in the box above as awareness of learning and awareness of teaching. Under
awareness of language one finds the expected topics — linguistically informed
language teachers will understand the language systems—grammar, phonology
and lexis, and their function in discourse. By awareness of learning is meant an
understanding of the nature of the learning processes LA promotes. The issues
listed under this heading have already been shown to be fundamental to LA.
Awareness of teaching implies the development of the skills and notions teachers
require to manage LA effectively. Skills in analysing language, for example, or
the notion of teacher-as-facilitator of learning, are vital to effective LA practice.
The three kinds of awareness identified above are equally important and the
order in which they are described is not meant to imply a hierarchy; thus, for
example, an understanding of what inquiry-oriented learning involves, and of
the nature of LA task design, is just as fundamental as an understanding of the
present perfect tense for teachers who want to adopt LA as methodology in their
 66 LANGUAGE AWARENESS

classrooms. Although developing teachers' awareness of language is an essential

aspect of LA-oriented training, teachers will not be adequately prepared to
implement LA in their classrooms if their training consists solely in a course in
elementary linguistics, without any reference to the learning and teaching
dimensions of LA. Such an approach would reflect a linguistics-driven view of
LA, in contrast to the broadly educational interpretation of the term I wish to
promote here.
Where LA-oriented training forms part of a larger course, the strictly speaking
non-linguistic issues I have identified as suitable training content may be
addressed through other course components. Thus a pre-service course may
have separate components on, for example, 'Theories of Learning' and 'Reflective
Teaching'. Such a situation would not imply that the LA component ignores
issues related to awareness of learning and teaching. These issues would still
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

need to be incorporated into LA-oriented work in order to illustrate their practical

application and relevance, especially if the support being provided by other
course components is predominantly theoretical in nature. This support would
of course serve a useful function in providing trainees with a broad framework
within which the issues relevant to learning and teaching raised by LA could be
viewed.

Training methodology
Effective training obviously depends not just on the selection of training
content but perhaps more importantly on the methodology through which this
content is addressed. LA as methodology — as all teaching — is a practical
activity, and an appropriate training methodology for LA-oriented courses will
need, first of all, to reflect this practical orientation. This suggests a 'reflexive'
(Britten, 1985: 224) approach to training — one which, as far as possible,
exemplifies the practice it encourages trainees to adopt. An appropriate
methodology for LA-oriented work then would be one which is based upon the
methodology of LA itself. Let us examine this idea in more detail.
Earlier in this paper, LA was described as a methodology for foreign language
learning which is task-based, participant-centred and inquiry-driven, which
involves the investigation of language and which focuses on both learning
processes and products. Approached reflexively, LA-oriented training would
exhibit these same characteristics. This training methodology, through language-
focused tasks, would first of all provide trainees with opportunities to develop
their own awareness of language. It would also enable them to experience, first
hand, LA as methodology, and, by focusing on specific aspects of this experience
(e.g. the interaction patterns during a task), to develop their awareness of issues
relevant to LA-oriented learning and teaching. A further advantage of this
approach to training is that it integrates different aspects of the course content
identified above and emphasises the interrelationships between issues related to
language, learning and teaching within the methodological framework LA is
based upon.
Wright & Bolitho (1993) have provided examples of reflexive LA-oriented
language teacher training, but they are not as broadly educational as I suggest
 LANGUAGE AWARENESS AS METHODOLOGY 67

here in their selection of content.4 In the sample training task given in the
Appendix, I have adapted their approach to incorporate opportunities for
trainees to develop an awareness of learning and teaching, as well as of language.
The training procedure adopted in this task consists of four stages, which are
briefly described below.

Stage 1: Pre-task questions

Trainees are asked to draw upon their existing schemata (experience,
knowledge, attitudes, beliefs) in order to think about and discuss an issue related
to learning and/or teaching in LA as methodology. The aim here is to activate
trainees' affectively by encouraging them to make explicit and to share their
current views about the issue which will be explored during the training task.
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

Stage 2: Awareness of language task

The trainees experience an LA task which focuses their attention on a
particular feature of the language. Trainees are meant to experience this task as
learners, and therefore the task should be challenging and actually help trainees
to learn something new, or else to reconsider their existing beliefs about an issue.
The task should involve the trainees in exploring language, sharing and
analysing their own beliefs about language, and reaching their own conclusions
about language use.

Stage 3: Reflection and analysis

Here the trainees reflect on the task just performed in order to review the
questions on learning/teaching they considered at Stage 1, and to analyse further
the issues raised by these questions. This phase of reviewing the lesson can be
facilitated by the use of a record of the lesson—video or audio recordings, copies
of the trainer's lesson plan, or observers' notes made by trainees during the
lesson. At this stage, trainees are encouraged to perceive and to examine the
relevance of the learning/teaching issue being focused on to LA as methodology.

Stage 4: Follow up
Follow up involves trainees in exploring further both the language point
analysed as well as the issues related to learning and teaching which were raised.
This may involve trainees in, for example, evaluating the way a language point
is taught in a textbook or presented in a grammar book, devising their own LA
task (which could be tried out at Stage 2 of a subsequent activity), or completing
a reading task.
The training procedure outlined above can be adopted for the analysis of a
wide range of issues related to language, learning and teaching in LA. Despite
this, it is not proposed here as a definitive model, but rather as an example of the
practicability of a reflexive LA-oriented training methodology in which the
development of the different kinds of awareness demanded by LA of teachers is
catered for. Approached in this manner, training reflects the ultimately educa-
tional nature of LA, and provides teachers with the broad preparation which a
linguistically-oriented training course can never hope to supply.
 68 LANGUAGE AWARENESS

Conclusion
Language awareness activities have become popular with teacher trainers in
recent years as a discovery-oriented alternative to the direct transmission of
linguistic facts to practising or prospective language teachers. However, much
of this work remains clearly linguistic in its emphasis, and is conducted in
isolation of the wide range of pedagogical issues which underpin LA as a
methodology for classroom practice. It thus fails to prepare teachers to respond
to the variety of demands which implementing LA as methodology in the
classroom presents. As an alternative to this situation, and in the light of these
demands, this paper has suggested that LA-oriented training adopt a broader
interpretation of the teacher awareness demanded by LA so that it includes not
only awareness of language, but also awareness of learning and awareness of
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

teaching. Approached in this manner, training will reflect the strong educational
orientation of LA as methodology and prepare teachers not only to cope with the
linguistic requirements of LA, but equally vitally, to develop the attitudes, beliefs
and skills related to language, learning and teaching which are required for its
effective administration.

Appendix 1: Sample LA-Oriented Training Task

The example below illustrates the reflexive approach to LA-oriented training
described in this paper. It integrates language work (in this case, focus on the
superlative adjectives) with opportunities to investigate issues related to learning
and teaching (here, teacher and learner roles in LA are examined).

Pre-task questions
Roles of teachers and learners
(1) Think about a typical grammar lesson which you have experienced either as
a teacher or a learner. Make two lists, one for the roles which the teacher
adopts during such a lesson, and one for those which learners adopt during
the same lesson.
(2) Share your lists with a colleague, describing the kind of grammar lesson you
had in mind. If there are any major differences in your notion of the typical
grammar lesson, briefly discuss these.
(3) Hold on to your lists — you will be referring back to them later on.

Awareness of language tasks

Superlative adjectives
The following activity focuses your attention on the use of the superlative
adjectives in English.
(1) Think about your own understanding of superlatives adjectives in English.
Write down the 'rules' you know about this area of grammar.
(2) Discuss these with a colleague, making a note of any differences in your
opinions.
 LANGUAGE AWARENESS AS METHODOLOGY 69

(3) Do the following task:

Consider the following sentences, all taken from authentic samples of written
English in which various European countries were being compared to each
other, and decide which of them are 'correct' as they stand, and which require
the to be written in the space provided. When you have finished, compare
your answers with those of a colleague.
(1) Swiss workers feel their firms are most efficient.
(2) The Dutch feel they have best working conditions and
best-organised work. They are also happiest about their pay.
(3) One in three of all marriages in Europe ends in divorce. In the Mediter-
ranean, Greek and Italian couples are apparently most content
with their lots (or most inhibited by local religious conventions).
(4) Italians feel their jobs are safest. They are, however, also
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

least keen on their workmates, and least happy with the effi-
ciency of their firms they work for.
(5) For short distances, British trains are most expensive — 79p for
10km, against France's 42p and Greece's 21p.
(6) French women are by far most conscious of why it is important
to smell nice. According to research, they spend 1 billion pounds a year
on luxury perfumes.
Think about these questions individually, then discuss them with 2-3 colleagues.
(1) What criteria guided your decision to include or omit the? Did you apply any
of the rules you listed before doing the activity?
(2) Were there any sentences you had trouble deciding on? Why do you think
these sentences presented this problem?
(3) Were there any sentences you were immediately sure of? What made you
feel so sure?
(4) The above sentences all illustrate the use of superlative adjectives in English.
Most grammar books say that the use of the with these forms is compulsory,
a few suggest cases where it is optional. What do you feel about the use of
the with superlative adjectives?
(5) Here are the forms of the superlative adjectives as they originally appeared
in the sentences:
(1) the most efficient
(2) (a) the best working conditions; (b) the best-organised work; (c) happiest
(3) (a) most content (b) most inhibited
(4) (a) safest (b) least keen (c) least happy
(5) the most expensive
(6) the most conscious
(6) Reflect upon this information for a while. Does it alter your views on the use
of the with superlative adjectives in any way? Modify, if necessary, the
original list of beliefs about superlative adjectives which you made.
(7) Discuss the conclusions you drew from the above activity and write up a list
of all different information about the use of the superlatives in English which
 70 LANGUAGE AWARENESS

your group has as well as any issue(s) you feel you want to clarify further.
Be ready to discuss this with the rest of the class.

Reflection and analysis

Roles of teachers and learners
(1) Work in a small group with your colleagues. Review the lesson on superla-
tives, listing the roles the teacher and the learners assumed in the course of
the lesson. For each role you identify, provide an example of when, during
the lesson, it was adopted by the teacher or the learners.
(2) Refer back to your original lists of roles which teachers and learners assume
during grammar lessons. Compare these lists with the ones you have just
made. Are the lists different in any way? If so, identify these differences.
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

(3) Do you feel that any of the roles of teachers and learners you identified in
your original list are inappropriate to the kind of language activity you have
just experienced? If so, try to explain why.
(4) Look at the list of teacher and learner roles identified in your second lists.
What effects (positive and/or negative) on the teaching/learning process do
these roles have?

Follow up
Be ready to discuss the following the next time we meet.
(1) Look at the explanation of superlative adjectives given in the textbook you
use. How accurate is this explanation? Does it need to be modified? If so,
explain how.
(2) What teacher and learner roles are implied in the manner in which your
textbook presents superlatives adjectives to learners?
(3) Wright (1987:62) refers to transmission teachers and interpretation teachers.
What kind of teacher would seem more appropriate for organising the kind
of language awareness activity you did above? Explain.
(4) Section 2 of Wright, T. (1987) Roles of Teachers & Learners. Oxford: OUP.

Notes
1. Throughout this paper, the term LA refers, unless stated, to language awareness as
methodology. Teacher refers to foreign language teachers.
2. Wright & Bolitho focus on LA as methodology in language teacher education, but the
principles behind their approach are applicable to LA work in classroom settings.
3. This cognitive bias is clear, I think, in early LA materials like Bolitho & Tomlinson
(1980). The seminal collection of LA tasks provided here demands intense mental
activity on the part of the learner, without attempting to generate much affective
motivation. My experience has shown that unless learners are intrinsically motivated
to do such work, the cognitive engagement on their part is unlikely to match that
demanded by the activities. Consequently, the latter will fail to reach their objectives.
4. This could be because Wright & Bolitho's work is located within the context of longer
training courses which, as was noted above, may provide separate components related
to issues in learning and teaching.
 LANGUAGE AWARENESS AS METHODOLOGY 71

5. The author originally published this activity as part of an article in Modern English
Teacher 1 (4), 18-20.

References
Bolitho, R. and Tomlinson, B. (1980) Discover English. London: Heinemann.
Britten, D. (1985) Teacher training in ELT. Language Teaching 18, 220-38.
Ellis, G. and Sinclair, B. (1989) Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hall, N. and Shepheard, J. (1991) The Anti-Grammar Grammar Book. Harlow: Longman.
James, C. and Garrett, P. (eds) (1991) Language Awareness in the Classroom. London:
Longman.
Luxon, T. (1994) The psychological risks for teachers at a time of methodological change.
The Teacher Trainer 8 (1), 6-9.
Rutherford, W. (1987) Second Language Grammar: Learning and Teaching. London: Long-
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 21:42 27 August 2014

man.
Schumann, J.H. (1975) Affective factors and the problem of age in second language
acquisition. Language Learning 25, 209-35.
Wenden, A.L. (1986) Helping language learners think about learning. English Language
Teaching Journal 40 (1), 3-12.
Wright, T. (1987) Roles of Teachers and Learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
— (1994) Investigating English. London: Edward Arnold.
Wright, T. and Bolitho, R. (1993) Language awareness: A missing link in language teacher
education? English Language Teaching Journal 47 (4), 292-304.