1) SYNECDOCHE - an association of some important part with the whole it represents.
Example: The face who launched a thousand ships. 2) SIMILE - an indirect association. Example: She is like a flower. 3) PERSONIFICATION - giving human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc.) Example: The sun is looking down on me. 4) OXYMORON - a self-contrasting statement. Example: Loud silence 5) METONYMY - an association wherein the name of something is substituted by something that represents it. Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate. 6) METAPHOR - a direct comparison. Example: You are the sunshine of my life. 7) IRONY - the contrast between what was expected and what actually happened. Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break. 8) HYPERBOLE - an exaggeration. Example: Cry me a river. 9) EUPHEMISM - creating a positive connotation out of something negative. Example: Comfort women (prostitute) 10) ELLIPSIS - omission of words in a sentence. Example: She walked away and so the world turns.... 11) ASYNDETON - not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions). Example: No retreat, no surrender 12) APOSTROPHE - a direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away. Example: Love, please come and take me! The Top 20 Figures of Speech 1. Alliteration - the repetition of an initial consonant sound. 2. Anaphora - the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or verses. 3. Antithesis - the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases. 4. Apostrophe - reaking off discourse to address some absent person or thing, some abstract quality, an inanimate object, or a nonexistent character. 5. Assonance - identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words. 6. Chiasmus - a verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the first but with the parts reversed. 7. Euphemism - the substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit. 8. Hyperbole - an extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect. 9. Irony - the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Also, a statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea. 10. Litotes - a figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite. 11. Metaphor - an implied comparison between two unlike things that actually have something important in common. 12. Metonymy - a figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it's closely associated; also, the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by referring to things around it. 13. Onomatopoeia - the use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to. 14. Oxymoron - a figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory terms appear side by side. 15. Paradox - a statement that appears to contradict itself. 16. Personification - a figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with human qualities or abilities. 17. Pun - aplay on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words. 18. Simile - a stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between two fundamentally dissimilar things that have certain qualities in common. 19. Synecdoche - a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole (for example, ABCs for alphabet) or the whole for a part ("England won the World Cup in 1966"). 20. Understatement - a figure of speech in which a writer or speaker deliberately makes a situation seem less important or serious than it is. LITERATURE Robert Browning - dramatic monologue style of writing · Wole Soyinka - 1st African Nobel Laureate · PLOT - most important in Aristotle's Poetics · "The Prince" by Niccollo Machiavelli - a political power handbook · "The Little Prince" by Antoine de Saint-Exupery · Fyodor Dostoevsky - most common theme of writing: enormous contradictions of human nature · Lyric poetry - about emotions/feelingsb musical accompaniment; not intended to be sung · Ballad - narrative poem; intended to be sung · Epistolary - a compilation of works or series of documents or letters with connection; popular in the 18th Century · Picaresque - stories about the adventures of a low-class indivudual (example: Robinhood) · Mahabharata - the true epic of India with mythology and religion · Gilgamesh - 1st heroic narrative of world literature · "Ode to a Grecian Urn" by John Keats - about beauty; "A thing of beauty is a joy forever." · "War and Peace" by Leo Tolstoy - about the Napoleonic invasion of Russia · "Kublai Khan" by Coleridge - a collection of dreams stimulated by drugs · HAIKU - Japanese poem about transitoriness of life; captures a moment to memorialize · Lord Tennyson works: -Break, break, break -Breaking the Bar -In Memoriam -My Last Duchess · Blank verse poetry - no rhyme; with meter · Free verse - no rhyme; no meter; a characteristic of Modernism poetry · "A Rose is a Rose, is a Rose" by Gertrude Stein - she is one of the "Lost Generation" writers · Filipino local color style - Manuel Arguilla's "How My Brother Leon Brought Home A Wife" · American local color style - Mark Twain's (Samuel Langhorn Clemens) "Adventures of Huckleberryfin"and "Life on Mississippi" · Marks of Post-Modernism: -intertextuality -metafictionality · "The Filipino Rebel" by Stevan Javellana - story of a woman torn between love & obedience · "A Child of Sorrow" - 1st English Philippine novel · "Bamboo in the Wind" by Azucena Grajo Urranza - last desperate effort of Filipinos to be free from colonization · Sucesos Felices - 1st newsletter in the Philippines. FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION ● John Locke -was an English philosopher and physician "Father of Liberalism”; to form character (mental, physical, and moral); Education as Training of the mind/Formal discipline ; Notable ideas - "Tabula rasa" ● Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator and author. "Father of scientific method" "Father of empiricism" ● Jean Jacques Rousseau was a Francophone Genevan philosopher, writer and composer of the 18th century. “holistic education"(physical, moral, intellectual) Notable ideas - moral simplicity of humanity; child centered learning; Famous novel: "Emile" or On Education; Human Development ● Edgar Dale was an American educator who developed the "Cone of Experience" aka "Father of Modern Media in Education" ● Erik Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on "psychosocial development" of human beings. ● Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. "Social regeneration of humanity" Notable ideas: "Four-sphere concept of life" his motto was “Learning by head, hand and heart" ● Friedrich Frobel was a German pedagogue a student of Pestalozzi who laid the "foundation of modern education" based on the recognition that children have unique needs and capabilities. "Father of kindergarten" ● Johann Herbart was a German philosopher, psychologist and founder of pedagogy as an academic discipline. ; ● Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist ; " Father of Modern educational psychology; connectionism; law of effect. ; "Realize the fullest satisfaction of human wants" PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION ● IDEALISM Plato (own ideas) nothing exist except in the mind of a man/ what we want the world to be ● REALISM – Aristotle; Herbart; Comenius; Pestalozzi; Montessori; Hobbes; Bacon; Locke (experience) fully mastery of knowledge ● BEHAVIORISM – Always guided by standards/by procedure; purpose is to modify the behavior ● EXISTENTIALISM -Kierkegaard; Sartre; "Man shapes his being as he lives" -Focuses on self/individual ● PRAGMATISM/EXPERIMENTALISM -William James; John Dewey - learn from experiences through interaction to the environment -Emphasizes the needs and interests of the children ● PERENNIALISM Robert Hutchins focuses on unchanging/universal truths ● ESSENTIALISM -William Bagley - teaching the basic/essential knowledge -Focuses on basic skills and knowledge ● PROGRESSIVISM Dewey/Pestalozzi (process of development) focuses on the whole child and the cultivation of individuality ● CONSTRUCTIVISM -JeanPiaget -Focused on how humans make meaning in relation to the interaction b/w their experiences and their ideas. Nature of knowledge w/c represents an epistemological stance. ● SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM George Counts - recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating his new social order highlights social reform as the aim of education ➡ ACCULTURATION - learning other culture; the passing of customs, beliefs and tradition through interaction and reading. ➡ ENCULTURATION - the passing of group's custom, beliefs and traditions from one generation to the next generation ➡ Convergent questions - are those that typically have one correct answer. ➡ Divergent questions - also called open-ended questions are used to encourage many answers and generate greater participation of students. PRINCIPLES & THEORIES OF LEARNING & MOTIVATION ● Psychosexual Theory/Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud ● Psychosocial Theory - Erik Erikson's Theory of Personality ● Ecological Theory - Eric Bronfenbrenner’s Theory of Development ● Sociohistoric Cognitive Linguistic Theory - Lev Semanovich Vygotsky ● Cognitive Development - Jean Piaget; John Dewey; Jerome Brunner ● Phenomenology - Abraham Maslow; Carl Rogers; Louis Raths ● Behaviorism - Edward Thorndike; Ivan Pavlov; Burrhus Frederick Skinner ● Moral Development - Lawrence Kohlberg ● Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning ● Edward Thorndike - connectionism ● B.F. Skinner - operant conditioning & reinforcement ● Albert Bandura - "bobo doll" experiment; modelling; self eficacy ● David Ausubel - Meaningful Reception Theory ● Jerome Bruner - Discovery Learning Theory/Inquiry method ● Wolfgang Kohler's - Insight Learning Problem ● Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin's - Information Processing Theory ● Robert Gagne's - Cumulative Learning Theory ● Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligence ● Kurt Lewin's - Field Theory/ his concept of life space ● Brofenbrenner's - Ecological System Theory ● Lev Vygotsky - Social Constructivism; ✔JEAN PIAGET -- " the school should be creating men & women who are capable of doing new things not simply repeating what other generation have done. STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 1.SENSORY MOTOR (BIRTH - 2y/o) -- infants knowledge. 2.PRE-OPERATIONAL ( 2-7y/o) -- pretent to play but still struggle with logic,mental symbols interest. 3.CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11) -- think logically, hypothetically and concepts, solve problems 4.FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11-UP) -- deductive reasoning and understanding of abstract ideas, think symbolically. =================================== LAWRENCE KOHLBERG -- "right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined & agreed upon by the whole society. LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT 1.PRE-CONVENTIONAL -- obedience & punishment (consequences), individualism & exchange 2.CONVENTIONAL --interpersonal relationship, maintain social order. 3. POST-CONVENTIONAL -- social contract and individual rights, universal principles, set of values and beliefs. =================================== URIE BROFENBRENNER -- ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY MICROSYSTEM -- sorroundings of individual: family, friends, neighborhood MESOSYSTEM -- connections between context, school experiences to church experience. EXOSYSTEM -- includes other people and places that the child herself may not interact with often herself but that still have a large effect on her. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY STAGES 1.Stage: Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Basic Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Important Events: Toilet Training Outcome: Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. 2. Stage: Preschool (3 to 5 years) Basic Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt Important Events: Exploration Outcome: Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. 3.Stage: School Age (6 to 11 years) Basic Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority Important Events: School Outcome: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. 4.Stage: Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Basic Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion Important Events: Social Relationships Outcome: Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. 5.Stage: Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Basic Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation Important Events: Relationships Outcome: Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. 6.Stage: Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Basic Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation Important Events: Work and Parenthood Outcome: Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. 7.Stage: Maturity(65 to death) Basic Conflict: Ego Integrity vs. Despair Important Events: Reflection on life Outcome: Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair. Philosophers Related to Learners Development *SIGMUND FREUD -- "the mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water. COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY ID -- pleasure center EGO -- reality center SUPER EGO -- conscience / judgment center. PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEV'T ORAL -- thumb sucking, biting ANAL -- toilet training, control of their bowel. PHALLIC -- sexual interest, genital stimulation. LATENCY -- sexual urges & interest were temporary GENITAL -- adult sexual interest and activities come to dominate. Odipus complex - son vs father towards mother/wife feelings. (Excessive attachment)(Phallic stage) Electra complex - daughter vs mother towards father/husband feelings. (Excessive attachment)(Phallic stage) Personality Dynamics LIFE INSTINCT DEATH INSTINCT