Running head: GROUP RESEARCH 2_ INFORMAL LEARNING ​ 1

Group Research Activity 2: Informal Learning, Annotated Bibliography

EIST 8100: Foundations of Instructional Systems Technology, Spring 2019

Daniel Donovan, Christa Guilbaud, Todd Nasife, Sharon Witherspoon

University of North Carolina, Charlotte

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Cunningham, J., & Hillier, E. (2013). Informal learning in the workplace: key activities and

processes. ​Education + Training, 55​(1), 37-51.

https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911311294960

This study aims to describe what effective informal learning looks like within a

governmental organization. The study came from a Canadian province and focused on

looking individuals within the public service sector. The creators of the study sent out a

survey to individuals who had a variety of job titles titles including: team leaders, union

and nonunion labor members, managers, directors and other individuals. This was done

so a variety of perspectives could be gathered on what informal learning looks like. The

creators of the study asked three questions in which respondents were asked to identify an

activity which had a positive impact on their career, one that had a negative impact on

their career and an informal learning related question.

The results showed several important findings regarding informal learning. One

important factor was worker relationships with each other. The study suggested that

formal and informal mentoring was a critical way in which individuals can learn outside

of a classroom environment. Respondents suggested when individuals form relationships

out of respect for one another, they are more likely to share first hand experiences which

foster professional development. Individuals are more likely to help each other grow

within his or her profession. Informal learning also occurred with increasing work

responsibilities or through collaboration with those who have a different background. The

study suggested individuals will have a certain background in a certain area which they

can contribute to a cross-sectional team which allows the individual to gain and gather
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new skills. In addition, providing temporary assignments allows workers to gain

additional skills within a shorter period of time and thus enhance their knowledge.

Finally, according to this study, informal learning can be facilitated by managers through

allowing individuals to showcase their strengths while developing new skills.

The study concludes by suggesting informal learning is a process occurs

individually and in groups. In addition, there are cognitive and psychological processes

involved. The study ends by saying more research needs to be done into the specific

informal learning activities. In addition, one might want to focus on learner motivation

and how it helps with informal learning.

Kim, S., & McLean, G. N. (2014). The Impact of National Culture on Informal Learning in the

Workplace. ​Adult Education Quarterly: A Journal of Research and Theory​,​ 64(1), 39–59.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713613504125

The purpose of the article by Kim and McLean (2014) is to explore how different

aspects of national culture influence informal learning in the workplace. To present their

case, the authors use informal learning in the workplace, national culture, and Hofstede’s

cultural dimensions as the theoretical framework. The article begins by explaining that

the application of Western theories of informal learning by development and training

professionals in Western contexts may yield different results in non-Western contexts.

Kim and McLean (2014) first describe informal learning as the knowledge and skills

gained through individual experiences and group interactions that can happen anywhere

and everywhere. Although they acknowledge that the origins of informal learning

stemmed from the work of Lewin (1935) and Dewey (1938), and (Conlon, 2003). They
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credit Knowles (1950) as formally conceptualizing informal learning and defining it

according to four types of locus perspectives. Knowles describe these locus perspectives

as: of control unintended, self-directed, mediated, and authority directed. The authors

state that research finds that employees learn mostly informally in the workplace and that

there are multiple factors that influence this learning.

A very important factor, Kim and McLean contend, deals with national culture.

The article references the research of Hofstede (2001), to define culture as “the collective

programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of

people from another” (p. 9). According to Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov’s (2010),

national culture deals with four dimensions: power distance, individualism versus

collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term versus

short-term orientation. The article formulates that these four dimensions, and three others

added later by Hofstede and Bond (1988) and Hofstede et al. (2010), account for the

differences in employee performance outcomes and how informal learning happens in the

workplace in non-Western contexts. The authors acknowledge criticism to the Hofstede

cultural frames lens posed by other researchers over its research design and assumptions,

quantitative approach to measure cultures and outdated references to gender (McLean;

2014; McSweeney, 2002; Schwartz, 1994; Taras et al., 2012). However, they counter

those criticisms by emphasizing the fact that the cultural dimensions frame provides a

useful theoretical tool on culture for researchers and practitioners alike. The article makes

reference to other models used to organize cultures, yet still maintain that Hofstede’s

dimensions is preferred for its taxonomy of values in grouping people.

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The authors conducted a literature review of peer- and non–peer-reviewed

articles, book chapters, and books and a search of the following keywords: culture,

cross-cultural, informal learning, and each factor of informal learning (self-confidence,

commitment, feedback, time and space, collaborative relationship, reward, challenging

tasks, and change), to answer the following research questions:

Research Question 1: Does national culture result in differences in the factors influencing

informal learning, such as self-confidence, commitment, feedback, collaborative

relationships, rewards, challenging tasks, change, and time and space?

Research Question 2: How are the factors influencing informal learning affected by each

of the five dimensions of national culture?

The authors found that informal learning may have different outcomes according

to national cultures based on factors of Hofstede dimensions of national culture.

Regarding some of the main findings, in the power distance dimension, there are degrees

of sensitivity to power relationships and communications between employees and

manager which may also affect employee learning preferences. Group activities and goals

were preferred in collectivistic cultures as opposed to individualistic cultures where

learning is more autonomous, self-directed. Informal learning was also found to be

different if the culture was perceived as having stronger feminine or masculine qualities.

In regards to uncertainty-avoidance cultures, individuals may respond with varying

degrees of anxiety and in these cultures there may be a need fo specific and clear

guidelines in the learning contexts.

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The authors posit that given that national culture influences facets of informal

learning, practitioners should consider these factors when applying Western theories to

non-Western contexts in the workplace and be prepared to challenge them when

necessary for theories that are more relevant.

Sangrà, A. Wheeler, S.(2013). “New Informal Ways of Learning: Or Are We Formalising the

Informal?”. In: “Informalisation of Education” [online dossier]. ​Universities and

Knowledge Society Journal (RUSC).​ Vol. 10, No 1, pp. 286-293. UOC.

http://rusc.uoc.edu/rusc/ca/index.php/rusc/article/view/v10n1-sangra-wheeler.html

ISSN 1698-580X

As Livingstone (1999: 51) points out, informal learning can be defined as "any

activity involving the pursuit of understanding, knowledge or skill which occurs outside

the curricula of educational institutions, or the courses or workshops offered by

educational or social agencies."

There are three types of informal learning; Self-directed, Incidental learning and

socialization. Self-directed learning refers to 'learning projects' undertaken by individuals

(alone or as part of a group) without the assistance of an 'educator' (teacher, instructor,

facilitator), but it can include the presence of a 'resource person' who does not regard

herself or himself as an educator. It is intentional because the individual has the purpose

of learning something even before the learning process begins, and it is conscious, in the

sense that the individual is aware that she or he has learned something. The second type

refers to o learning experiences that occur when the learner did not have any previous
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intention of learning something out of that experience, but after the experience, she or he

becomes aware that some learning has taken place and it is unintentional but conscious.

The third type refers to learning experiences that occur when the learner did not have any

previous intention of learning something out of that experience, but after the experience,

she or he becomes aware that some learning has taken place and it is unintentional but

conscious.

This article presents a critical review of the latest developments in informal

learning and points out the need for evidence-based research to establish what actual

learning can be attained informally.​ It points out that the increase of learning technology

is changing the learning journey for individuals charting their own trajectories - a

departure from the constraints of formal, institutional models. ( Sangra’ & Wheeler,

2013) Cross (2010), Downes (2007) and Siemens (2004) have all described the benefits

of informal learning, underpinned by connectivism. Learning becomes increasingly

informal as people develop complex networks to help each other, thus intensifying the

perception that education and training are no longer exclusively provided by institutions

since both can also result from collaboration between individuals and their specialized

networks(Sangra’ and Wheeler, 2013). Researching informalism is still in its early stages

of development due to its inability to be assessed or its lack of sustainability.

Yanchar, S., & Hawkley, M. (2015). Instructional Design and Professional Informal Learning:

Practices, Tensions, and Ironies. ​Educational Technology & Society, 18(​ 4), 424–434.

http://www.jstor.org.librarylink.uncc.edu/stable/jeductechsoci.18.4.424
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This article discusses qualitative findings from research done on the role of

informal learning among instructional designers. The goal of this study was to add to the

research on this topic, as well as, determine what implications informal learning might

have for instructional designers after their formal training has ended. The study included

six instructional designers all of whom worked at an instructional design center for a

major university. Those participating had various roles and their experience ranged from

two to twenty-five years. Each participant was interviewed twice for about an hour each

time with the first interview being broader in nature and the second more targeted. The

interviews were then transcribed and analyzed for themes and relevant quotes from each

participant. The results of the analysis were summarized in three themes that were further

broken into two or three categories. The authors list three main implications gathered

from this study. The first implication is the need for organizations to recognize the

importance of informal learning for instructional designers to improve their skills in the

field. Another was that informal learning requires more flexibility than is offered with the

usual formal training and scholarly designs and models. The final implication from the

study is in the willingness of instructional designers to participate in informal learning

and critically examine this process in their work.