CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more

materials that results in better properties than those of the individual
components used alone. In contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its
separate chemical, physical, and mechanical properties. The two constituents
are reinforcement and a matrix. The main advantages of composite materials are
their high strength and stiffness, combined with low density, when compared
with bulk materials, allowing for a weight reduction in the finished part.

A crash guard is a shield made of steel, aluminum, rubber, or plastic that

is mounted on the front and rear of a passenger car. When a low speed collision
occurs, the crash guard system absorbs the shock to prevent or reduce damage
to the car. In existing crash guard the weight is more. In the present trends the
weight reduction has been the main focus of automobile manufacturers. Less
fuel consumption, less weight, effective utilization of natural resources is main
focus of automobile manufacturers in the present scenario.

The above can be achieved by introducing better design concept, better

material and effective manufacturing process. Steel crash guard have many
advantages such as good load carrying capacity. In spite of its advantages, it
stays back in low strength to weight ratio. It is reported that weight reduction
with adequate improvement of mechanical properties has made composites as a
viable replacement material for conventional steel. In the present work, the steel
crash guard used in passenger vehicles is replaced with a composite crash guard
made of glass/epoxy composites. The thickness of the composite crash guard is
calculated by bending moment equation and other dimensions for both steel and

1
composite crash guard is considered to be the same. The objective was to
compare the stress, weight, and cost savings.

1.1 CRASH GUARD

The crash guard is a safety system is used to observe the low speed
collision. It is placed in car body. The car crash guard is designed to prevent or
reduce physical damage to the front and rear ends of passenger motor vehicles
in low-speed collisions.

Fig no 1.1 Crash Guard

Automobile crash guards are not typically designed to be structural

components that would significantly contribute to vehicle crashworthiness or
occupant protection during front or rear collisions. It is not a safety feature
intended to prevent or mitigate injury severity to occupants in the passenger
cars. crash guards are designed to protect the hood, trunk, grille, fuel, exhaust
and cooling system as well as safety related equipment such as parking lights,

2
headlamps and taillights in low speed collisions. The national highway traffic
safety administration (NHTSA) produces some crash guard standard to the light
passenger vehicle. The crash guard standard, prescribes performance
requirements for passenger cars in low-speed front and rear collisions. It applies
to front and rear crash guards on passenger cars to prevent the damage to the car
body and safety related equipment. The crash guard standards are,

 The front and rear crash guards on passenger cars should prevent the
damage to the car body.
 crash guard should withstand at a speed of 2 mph across the full width
and 1 mph on the corners.
 crash guard should also withstand 5 mph crash into a parked vehicle.
 Placement of the crash guard is 16 to 20 inches above the road surface.
So all crash guards should satisfy the above standards.

1.2 Composite Crash Guard

In recent days, various materials like composites are experimented in

almost all parts of the automobiles and it has also ventured into crash guard.
Due to reduction in weight, composite materials are preferred over conventional
steel crash guard. Composite crash guard absorbs more collusion energy than
steel crash guard.

3
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Today's plastic auto crash guards and fascia systems are aesthetically
pleasing, while offering advantages to both designers and drivers. The majority
of modern plastic car crash guard system fascias are made of thermoplastic
olefins (TPOs), polycarbonates, polyesters, polypropylene, polyurethanes,
polyamides, or blends of these with, for instance, glass fibers, for strength and
structural rigidity. Hosseinzadeh RM and et.al.

The mechanical behviour of jute and kenaf fiber reinforced

polypropylene composites has been studied by Schneider and Karmaker Pothan
et al. reported that kraft pulped banana fiber composite has good flexural
strength. Luo and Netravali studied the mechanical properties like tensile and
flexural strength of the green composites with different pineapple fibre
percentage and compared with the virgin resin. Belmeres et al. reported that
sisal, henequen, and palm fibre have similar physical, chemical, and tensile
properties. A systematic study on the properties of henequen fiber has been
made by Cazaurang et al. And reported that fibers have mechanical properties
suitable for reinforcement in thermoplastic resins. Various aspects of banana
fiber reinforced polymer composites have been studied by various investigators.
Cazaurang et al. have done a detailed study on the properties of henequen fibre
and concluded that these fibers have mechanical properties suitable for
reinforcing thermoplastic resins.

The mechanical properties of jute fiber reinforced polyester composites

were evaluated by Gowda et al. It is reported from their study that they have
better strengths as comparison to wood based composites. The use of cotton

4
fibre reinforced epoxy composites along with glass fibre reinforced polymers
was done by Khalid et al. The effect of various loading rate on mechanical
properties of jute/glass reinforced epoxy based hybrid composites has been
studied by Srivastav et al. showed that chemical treatments (alkali, benzoyl
chloride, KMnO4and silane treatment) of banana fiber based polypropylene
composites improved the thermo physical properties (thermal conductivity and
diffusivity) in each case. Kushwaha et al. have found the optimum alkali
percentage for best results and have discussed the effects of chemical treatments
on mechanical properties bamboo fiber composites. Hongwei Ma et al. effect of
silane coupling under different types of radiation on the structural properties of
bamboo fiber reinforced poly (lactic acid) bio composites.

In their paper says that crash guard beams are one of the main structures
of passenger cars that protect them from front and rear collisions. In this paper,
a commercial front crash guard beam made of glass mat thermoplastic (GMT) is
studied and characterized by impact modeling using according to the E.C.E.
UNITED NATIONS AGREEMENT [UNITED NATIONS AGREEMENT,
Uniform Provisions concerning the Approval of Vehicles with regards to their
Front and Rear Protective Devices (crash guards, etc.), E.C.E., 1994]. Three
main design factors for this structure: shape, material and impact condition are
studied and the results are compared with conventional metals like steel and
aluminum. Finally the aforementioned factors are characterized by proposing a
high strength SMC crash guard instead of the current GMT. In this paper,
Marzbanrad JM et.al

Discussed the most important parameters including material ,thickness,

shape and impact condition are studied for design and analysis of an automotive
front crash guard beam to improve the crashworthiness design in low-velocity
impact. The simulation of original crash guard under condition impact is

5
according to the low-speed standard of automotives stated in E.C.E. United
Nations Agreement Regulationno.42,1994. In this research, a front crash guard
beam made of three materials: aluminum, glass mat thermoplastic (GMT) and
high-strength sheet molding compound(SMC) is studied by impact modeling to
determine the deflection, impact force, stress distribution and energy-absorption
behavior.

The mentioned characteristics are compared to each other to find best

choice of material, shape and thickness .The results show that a modified SMC
crash guard beam can minimize the crash guard beam deflection, impact force
and stress distribution and also maximize the elastic strain energy. In addition,
the effect of passengers in the impact behavior is examined. Different countries
have different performance standards for crash guards. Under the International
safety regulations originally developed as European standards and now adopted
by most countries outside North America, a cars. America (FMSS: Federal
Motor Vehicle Safety Researchers are trying to improve many of existing
designs using novel approaches. Many times there is conflicting performance
and cost requirements, this puts additional challenge with R&D units to come
up with a number of alternative design solutions in less time. Some of the
modern CAD and FEM tools are capable of effecting quick changes in the
design within virtual environment.

6
 CHAPTER-3

COMPOSITE MATERIAL

Introduction of composites

 Composite is a combination of two or more chemically distinct and

insoluble phases.
 Constituent materials or phases must have significantly different
properties for it to combine them: thus metals and plastics are not
considered as composites although they have a lot of fillers and
impurities
 The properties and performance of composites are far superior to those of
the constituents
 Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases (reinforcement)
embedded in a continuous phase (matrix)

Examples: –

 Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)

 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized
composite)

Some examples of composite materials:

 ply wood is a laminar composite of layers of wood veneer,

 Fiber glass is a fiber-reinforced composite containing stiff, strong glass
fibers in a softer polymer matrix and concrete is a particulate composite
containing coarse sand or gravel in a cement matrix (reduced 50%).

7
3.1 CLASSIFICATION

3.1.1 BASED ON THE TYPE OF MATRIX MATERIAL

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
 Carbon/Carbon Composites (C/Cs)

3.1.2 BASED ON THE GEOMETRY OF REINFORCEMENT

 Particulate reinforced Composites

 Whisker/Flakes reinforced composites
 Fiber reinforced composites

3.2 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

(PMCs) Are prominent class of composites compared to other composite

materials in commercial applications

Fiber Materials: Boron, Graphite, Carbon

Most of the PMCs use either carbon-graphite or aramid fibers, which are
the main commercial fibers

Matrix Materials:

Thermoplastic, Epoxy and Thermo-set materials.

 Thermoplastics offer the advantages of good mechanical and tribological

properties.
 Epoxy resin remains the most important matrix polymer.

8
3.3 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMCS)

 MMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of non

metallic reinforcements incorporated into the metallic matrix.
 MMCs are widely used in engineering applications where the operating
temperature lies in between 250 ºC to 750 ºC.

Matrix materials:

Aluminium, Titanium, Copper, Magnesium and Super alloys.

Reinforcement materials:

Silicon carbide, Boron, Molybdenum and Alumina

3.4 CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMCS)

CMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of

metallic/non-metallic reinforcements incorporated into the ceramic matrix
CMCs are widely used in engineering applications where the operating
temperature lies in between 800ºC to 1650ºC

3.5. CARBON/CARBON COMPOSITES (C/CS)

C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that must operate in extreme
temperature ranges. Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon yarn
fabric, 3-D woven fabric, 3-D braiding, etc.

Applications:

C/C composites meet applications ranging from rockets to aerospace

because of their ability to maintain and even increase their structural properties
at extreme temperatures.

9
Advantages:

 Extremely high temperature resistance (1930°C – 2760°C).

 Strength actually increases at higher temperatures (up to 1930°C).
 High strength and stiffness.
 Good resistance to thermal shock.

3.6 Uses of composites

The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are

light as well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design
flexibility because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The
downside is often the cost. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the
raw materials are often expensive.

3.7 Merits of composite materials composites

Can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight, so ratios of
strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater than steel or
aluminium

 High specific strength and

 High specific stiffness Long fatigue life
 High creep resistance Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Low density
 Low thermal conductivity
 Better wear resistance Improved corrosion resistance
 Better temperature dependent behavior

10
3.8 Advantages of Composite Materials

 Increase in yield strength and tensile strength at room temperature and

above, while maintaining the minimum ductility or rather toughness
 Low thermal expansion coefficient
 Increase in creep resistance at higher temperatures compared to that of
conventional alloys Increase in friction resistance Increase in fatigue
strength, especially at higher temperatures,
 Improvement of thermal shock resistance
 Improvement of corrosion resistance
 Increase in Young’s modulus
 Reduction of thermal elongation.

3.9 APPLICATIONS

Space craft: Antenna structures, solar reflectors, Satellite structures, Radar,

Rocket engines, etc.

Aircraft: Jet engines, Turbine blades, Turbine shafts, Compressor blades,

Airfoil surfaces, Wing box structures, Fan blades, Flywheels, Engine bay
doors, Rotor shafts in helicopters, Helicopter transmission structures, etc.

Miscellaneous: Bearing materials, Pressure vessels, Abrasive materials,

Electrical machinery, Truss members, Cutting tools, Electrical brushes, etc.

Automobile: Engines, bodies, Piston, cylinder, connecting rod, crankshafts,

bearing materials, etc.

11
 CHAPTER-4

MATERIALS AND METHODS

4.1 TYPES OF CRASH GUARDS

4.1.1 Plastic Crash Guard

Most modern cars use a reinforced thermoplastic crash guard, as they are
cheap to manufacture, easy to fit and absorb more energy during a crash. A
majority of car crash guards are custom made for a specific model, so if you are
looking to replace a cracked crash guard with a similar one, you would have to
buy from a specialist dealer. However, many companies now offer alternative
designs in thermoplastic, with a range of fittings designed for different models.

4.1.2 Body Kit Crash Guard

Modified cars often now have a full body kit rather than just a front and
rear crash guard. These kits act as a skirt around the entire body of the car and
improve performance by reducing the amount of air flowing underneath the car
and so reducing drag. Due to each car's specifications, these have to be specially
purchased and can be made from thermoplastic, like a standard crash guard, or
even out of carbon fiber.

4.1.3 Carbon Fiber Crash Guard

Carbon fiber body work is normally the thing of super-cars, but many car
companies, and specialist modifiers, are starting to use it for replacement body

12
part on everyday cars. This is because it is very light and is safe during a crash.
It is, however, a lot more expensive than normal thermoplastic.

4.1.4 Steel Crash Guard

Originally plated steel was used for the entire body of a car, including the
crash guard. This material worked well, as it was very strong in a crash, but it
was very heavy and dented performance. As car engine design has improved,
steel crash guards have pretty much disappeared for anything except classic
cars. Replacing one involves a lot of searching for scrap cars or having one
specially made. Improving passenger car damageability and repairability has
been an important RCAR topic since the Council was established in 1972.

In order to prevent unnecessary damage to the structure of passenger cars

in low speed crashes, a 15 km/h, 40 % overlap test was implemented in the
1980s and revised again in 2006 (the impact angle was changed from 0° to 10°
and the rear impact moving barrier weight was increased from 1000 to 1400kg).
This test is referred to as the RCAR Structural Test.

Car manufacturers design their vehicles to perform well in this RCAR

structural test but some have fitted vehicles with countermeasures that do not
exhibit good crash behavior in real world crashes. In some cases, manufacturers
have eliminated the crash guard beam and replaced them with localized
countermeasures, such as crush cans, to manage the test.

Such sub-optimised designs are in most cases not robust and often lead to
expensive damage in car-to-car crashes. Insurance claims data indicate that rear
crash guards are often under-ridden by a striking vehicle due to crash guard

13
system instability or vertical dive of vehicles during braking. In these cases it is
desirable to have crash guard systems that have sufficient vertical overlap to
maintain engagement. To this end, crash guards should ideally be mounted at
slightly different heights front and rear but have sufficient height to maintain
engagement over a wide range of circumstances. However, insurance data also
show that rear crash guards are overridden when struck by high ride-height
vehicles (SUVs, pickup trucks). Vehicle damageability would be improved in
both these situations with taller front and rear crash guard beams.

Real world claims data also show a significant number or crashes in

which damage is limited to the vehicle corners. Vehicle crash guards should
prevent or limit much of the damage sustained in these minor crashes. However,
many vehicles do not have crash guard reinforcement beams that extend
laterally much beyond the frame rails, leaving expensive vehicle components
such as headlamps and fenders (wings) unprotected.

An international RCAR working group has developed test procedures to

assess how well a vehicle’s crash guard system protects the vehicle from
damage in low speed impacts. Damage in these tests closely replicates the
damage patterns observed in real world low speed crashes and addresses three
components of crash guard performance: 1. Geometry – vehicle crash guards
need to be positioned at common heights from the ground and extend laterally
to the corners in order to properly engage other vehicles in low speed crashes. 2.
Stability – vehicle crash guards need to be tall and wide enough to remain
engaged with the crash guards of other vehicles despite vehicle motion due to
loading, braking, etc

The above can be achieved by introducing better design concept, better

material and effective manufacturing process. Steel crash guard have many

14
advantages such as good load carrying capacity. In spite of its advantages, it
stays back in low strength to weight ratio. It is reported that weight reduction
with adequate improvement of mechanical properties has made composites as a
viable replacement material for Al-Ni-Si. In the present work, the steel crash
guard used in passenger vehicles is replaced with a composite crash guard made
of composites. The thickness of the composite crash guard is calculated by
bending moment equation and other dimensions for both steel and composite
crash guard is considered to be the same. The objective was to compare the
stress, weight, and cost savings.

4.2 SELECTION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
materials used in this work are

 Borassus fruit fiber

 Agave tequilana
 epoxy

4.2.1 BORASSUS FRUIT FIBER

In the present work the authors prepared a new composite system using
Borassus fruit fibers as reinforcement and epoxy as resin matrix. Epoxy resins
are used widely in industry because of their strong adhesive properties, standard
thermoset, excellent chemical resistance, and better mechanical
properties.Borassus flabellifer L (toddy or Palmyra palm) is a member of palm
tree family, normally found in the tropical regions of Africa, Asia, and New
Guinea. The Palmyra palm has been one of the most important trees in those
regions; it is economically useful and widely cultivated in Cambodia and India,
where it is used over 800 different ways. The fruits contain cellulosic semisolid
flesh, which is armored by fibers.

15
 A detailed study of the effect of alkali treatment on the morphology and
mechanical and thermal properties of these fibers was reported in the literature
and suggested that these fibers could be utilized as the reinforcement
component in composite manufacturing. Borassus fruit fibers are inexpensive,
abundantly available, and eco-friendly, and hence it is essential to explore the
potential utility of these fibers to the technical world. In such an endeavor, we
recently developed natural fiber–reinforced polymer matrix composites using
Borassus fruit fiber as reinforcement. In this work, we treated Borassus fruit
fibers by alkali, silane (3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane), and alkali combined
with silane to improve tensile properties of composites. From a literature review
it is clear that no work has been reported on mechanical performance of alkali
and silane-treated Borassus fiber/epoxy composites. The treatment effects on
the fibers were characterized by scanning electron microscopy BORASSUS
(TODDY PALM) FIBER/EPOXY COMPOSITES 613 Downloaded by
[University of Johannesburg] at 14:25 13 October 2015 and infrared
spectroscopy. Thus, the aim of this study was to prepare composites with
chemically modified Borassus fibers and epoxy matrix and subsequently to
characterize their structural, tensile, morphological, and chemical resistance
properties.

16
 Fig no 4.2.1 Borassus fruit fiber
PROPERTIES OF BORASSUS FRUIT FIBER ;

PROPERTIES VALUE
Density 1.2-1.3
Tensile strength (Mpa ) 220-240
Youngs modulus(Gpa) 2.5-5.40
Elongation at break (% ) 2-4.50

Table no 4.2.1 Properties of Borasses fruit fiber

4.2.2 AGAVE TEQUILANA FIBER

Agave tequilana (Aloe barbadensis Miller) is a perennial plant of the

Xanthorrhoeaceae family . It is also placed by most sources in the Liliaceae
family although it has been designated its own family, known as Aloeaceae .
agave tequilana is well known for its succulent leaves and the medicinal and
cosmetic properties of the gel obtained from them. It is widely cultivated around

17
the world, but has escaped from cultivation and become naturalized in the warm
regions of the Mediterranean, Northern Africa, the Indian subcontinent, South
America, and the Caribbean, which makes it quite difficult to correctly establish
its origin.

Agave tequilana looks like a cactus but it isn’t – the plant is a member of
the lily family which includes garlic and onion. Inside the leaf is a jelly-like
substance. Early users of Agave tequilana discovered that when the jelly was
applied to a wound, it would heal faster – a remarkable feat in a time, long
before anti-biotic ointments, when the infection of a minor wound was often
fatal. Descriptions and instructions for twelve different recipes for the internal
and external uses of Agave tequilanacan be found in an Egyptian relic, dating to
around 1,500 BC. By 400 BC, the properties of Agave tequilana were well
accepted from China to India. Today, Agave tequilana is cultivated throughout
the world. Terms including; the potted physician and nature’s medicine chest,
attempted to describe the significant historical uses of Agave tequilana. The
properties of Agave tequilana, due to its long history of use, were mostly
folkloric. Early attempts to scientifically validate its uses produced mixed
results; different assessments of the anecdotal evidence and a wide chasm
between the proponents of Agave tequilana and the detractors. The highly
charged debate, between the two camps, contributed to public confusion,
diminishing interest in the supplemental value of Agave tequilana products.
Thankfully, improved, more modern scientific methods are beginning to restore
the reputation of Agave tequilana

18
.

Fig.4.2.2 Agave tequilana fiber

USES OF AGAVE TEQUILANA

 Medicinal use
 Food use
 Cosmetic use

PROPERTIES OF AGAVE TEQUILANA;

PROPERTIES VALUE

Density 0.85-1.1 g/cm³

Tensile strength 175-203 MPa

Young’s modulus 1.85-3.70 GPa

Elongation 1.92-3.50 %

Table no 4.2.3 Properties of Agave fiber

19
4.3 FIBER COMPOSITE MATRIAL PROCESS

4.3.1 DIE MAKING

The tooling involved moulding is quite similar to that of stamping dies.
The principal difference is that stamping requires force, while molding does not.
In molding, two units are required whose design is such that, when brought
together, they make up a system of closed cavities linked to a central orifice.
Liquid is forced through the orifice and into the cavities, or molds, and when the
solidifies, the molds open and the finished parts are ejected.

4.3.2 MAKING PROCESS

Borassus fruit fiber and agave tequilana knitted fabric with are used in this
study. Hardener used is polyamide hardener. The epoxy resin and hardener are
mixed in the ratio of 2:1 and stirred thoroughly. Release agent used was
mansion polish. Experimental methods most mentioned method to clean fibers
found in literature is distilled water cleaning and then alkaline treatment
(NaOH). The concentration of NaOH used is 5%. The fibers are washed with
fresh water thoroughly. The fibers are then soaked in NaOH solution for 8
hours. The fibres were then washed several times with fresh water to remove the
residual NaOH sticking to the fibre surface and neutralized by Acetic acid
finally washed again with water. The fibers were then dried at room temperature
for 10 hours. Removal of lignin, hemi cellulose, silica and pith from the fiber to
have better impregnation between fiber and matrix and improving fiber surface
roughness to have a better interaction are the main objectives of fiber chemical
treatment. The compression molding process was used for manufacturing of
composites. The fibers were cut in an equal length of 30 mm. The epoxy resin
and hardener were mixed in the different ratio and stirred thoroughly before
applying to fibers.

20
4.4 EPOXY RESIN

Epoxy Resins Epoxy resins have been commercially available since the
early 1950’s and are now used in a wide range of industries and applications.

Fig no 4.4 Epoxy resin

Epoxies are classified in the plastics industry as thermosetting resins and they
achieve the thermo set state by means of an addition reaction with a suitable
curing agent.

21
 Table no 4.4 Properties of epoxy

The curing agent used will determine whether the epoxy cures at ambient
or elevated temperatures and also influence physical properties such as
toughness and flexibility

4.4.1 PROPERTIES OF EPOXY

The primary reason for epoxy’s popularity is its superb mechanical

strength. Welding is often the only alternative. Epoxy is nearly always cheaper
and faster than welding. Epoxy also has excellent resistance to chemicals. After
setting, there is no worry of a chemical reaction that will weaken the seal. It also
resists heat. That resistance makes it ideal for electronics and electrical systems
and other industrial applications. Those who use epoxy are aware of the superb
mechanical strength and low curing contraction. They also know the epoxy
resins are well-balanced industrial materials and suited to a broad range of
applications. Engineers are faced with concerns about heat dissipation, electrical
insulation, adhering dissimilar substrates, light weighting, sound dampening,

22
vibration, and reduction corrosion. Appearance has to be considered, as well as,
assembling costs. Epoxy is an adhesive formulation that meets all of those
concerns. Its thermal and electrical properties, strength, and durability are what
epoxy is noted for. Those properties along with the resistance to immersion and
hostile chemical vapor are the reason epoxy often is chosen by engineers.

4.4.2 Performance Properties

Performance properties held by epoxy are:

 Biocompatibility
 Environmentally friendly
 Flame resistant
 Food Safe

It has excellent gap filling properties. Epoxy is resistant to cold, radiation,

and steam. The superior performance of epoxy remains when exposed to
adverse environmental conditions.

4.5 MIXING PROCESS

Two part epoxy compounds are normally supplied in separate A - B

containers, either both full or in a pre-measured kit. Under the Resin lab
designation; Part A is the epoxy resin and the Part B is the polyamine hardener,
with some systems the Part B may be an anhydride. Epoxy resins are normally
clear to slightly amber, high viscosity liquids which may be filled with mineral
fillers to improve performance and lower cost. These sometimes can settle to
the bottom of the container and must be stirred to a homogeneous consistency
before adding the hardener. Epoxy resins can cause mild skin irritation and a
form of dermatitis upon repeated contact. It is important to limit skin contact
with any epoxy resin or hardener. Therefore, we recommend that you wear
rubber gloves when mixing and using the epoxy compounds.

23
4.6 HARDENERS

Part B, the hardener, is typically a polyamine or mixture of polyamines

and has can have strong ammonia-like smell. Most are considered DOT
Corrosive materials and should be respected as such. They are typically light
colored to dark amber liquids. The hardener, like the resin, can be filled with
metal or mineral fillers to improve performance or lower costs. And just like the
resin, these fillers may settle over time and must be stirred to a homogeneous
consistency before mixing with the resin. Some epoxy hardeners are based on
anhydrides rather than amines. These hardeners are more likely used in
electrical potting and encapsulation applications and are likely to be heat cured
in nature. Both polyamines and anhydrides are somewhat sensitive to moisture.
Keep containers tightly sealed and when used in meter-mix-dispense equipment
it is best to use a dry nitrogen purge or a dessicating air drier on the vent. Static
Mixing Guidelines Resin lab Technical Data Sheets include this general guide
for ranking the ability of a product to function acceptable in a range of
applications. In general best case is a 1/1 ratio with even viscosity, worst case is
a 10/1 ratio with a wide viscosity difference. The type of cartridge can also have
a dramatic effect on dispense quality, especially when used in a pulsing mode.
Larger and thin walled cartridges can induce a lead / lag effect where A and B
show an extreme ratio change in a very short period do to the expansion and
relaxation of the cartridge barrel. The thicker walled cartridges show much less
tendency to produce this lead lag effect which is a primary cause on intermittent
tacky areas on small potting or castings

24
 Table no 4.6 Properties of Hardeners

This rating scale is a general guideline to give the user an expected level of
success in a typical bench-top dispensing scenario. Important process variables
to consider are: Cartridge type and size, wall thickness; manual or pneumatic
gun type; static mixer design and dimensions; product viscosity spread and
ratio; shot size, shot frequency, flow rate; temperature range during use.

This scale also address’s product stability in a cartridge. Factors such as

filler content and settling rate, storage temperature and cartridge orientation are
important factors which affect this. It is important for the user to define the
optimum static mix for each dispensing process, a change in any of the above
variables can affect the mix quality. Dispensing the product on a flat surface
using the dispensing pattern can help show the quality of mixing in terms of
thoroughness and lead/lag consistency.

4.7 SURFACE PREPARATION

If the surfaces that you intend to adhere together are not prepared
properly, the best adhesive in the world will not hold them together. The major
problems in adhesive delamination are dirt and oil. Whenever possible, the
surfaces to be adhered should be abraded with sand paper or by sand or shot
blasting before the adhesive is applied. Oil on the surface of steel or even oil

25
from fingerprints can ruin a bond. If the surface to be bonded is painted, the
bond of the paint to the substrate will be a limiting factor in the overall bond
quality. Plastic surfaces should be abraded and when possible flame treated or
corona treated to remove any plasticizer from the surface and provide an oxygen
rich surface environment for the adhesive. Mixing: When hand mixing the
epoxy resins and the hardeners, it is best to pour the resin, the Part A, into the
mixing vessel first. The product should be weighed to the nearest gram or to the
nearest 0.5%, whichever is more precise.

Next, the Part B is added using the same weighing procedure. Mix the
two components using a stir stick or a paint mixer in a drill or drill press. Mix
the product for at least 3 minutes by the clock. scraping the sides and bottom of
the mix vessel frequently. [Remember, it's just like baking a cake!] After the
products have been thoroughly mixed, the mixture should be poured into the
mold or used in the adhesive step. Often, the end product must be totally free of
voids and bubbles. If this is the case, the mix must be vacuumed before being
poured into the mold. This is done by putting the mix vessel into a vacuum
chamber and pulling a vacuum of at least 28" Hg.

This will usually degas the product within 5 minutes. The reaction
mixture will bubble and froth. You should have a mix container at least 4 times
the volume of the liquid in the container for vacuum degassing. Therefore, 1
quart of the liquid product will require gallon bucket to degas the mixture. If
you intend to vacuum degas a product, make sure that you tell Star Technology
about your wishes. We will need to formulate to product with a delayed gel time
and extra air release additives to allow sufficient time to accomplish the
process.

4.8 REACTION RATES

26
 Now is probably a good time to talk about the reaction rate of the mixture
and what effects it. Reaction rates are usually stated at a certain temperature and
at a certain mass of material. If you are working with a larger mass, the reaction
time will be shorter. Lower masses and thin films will be much longer. If the
reaction starting temperature is higher, the reaction rate will be faster. A rule of
thumb is that for every 10 degrees C that you increase the temperature of the
reactants, the reaction rate will double [the gel time will be cut in half]. That is
why larger masses will react more quickly than small masses. As the reaction
proceeds, it generates its own heat. The heat builds up inside the mixing vessel
and the reaction goes faster, which makes more heat, which makes the reaction
go even faster

4.9 Hand Lay-Up Process

Fig no 4.9 Handlay-up

4.9.1 PROCESS

Gel coat is first applied to the mold using a spray gun for a high quality
surface. When the gel coat has cured sufficiently, roll stock fiber reinforcement
is manually placed on the mold. The laminating resin is applied by pouring,
brushing, spraying, or using a paint roller. FRP rollers, paint rollers, or
squeegees are used to consolidate the laminate, thoroughly wetting the

27
reinforcement and removing entrapped air. Subsequent layers of fiber glass
reinforcement are added to build laminate thickness. Low density core materials
such as end-grain balsa, foam, and honeycomb, are commonly used to stiffen
the laminate. This is known as sandwich construction.

4.10 Molds

Simple, single cavity molds of fiber glass composites construction are

generally used. Molds can range from small to very large and are low cost in the
spectrum of composites molds.

4.11 MATERIALS PREPARATIONS

The palm and agave fiber which is taken as reinforcement in this study is
collected from local sources. The epoxy resin and the hardener are supplied.
Wooden mould having been first manufactured for composite fabrication. The
fiber material is mixed epoxy resin by simple mechanical stirring and the
mixture was poured into various mould, keeping in view the requirement of
various testing conditions and characterization standard.

The composite sample of different composition are prepared .the

composite of mixing ratio Borassus Fruit Fiber 25%,Agave Tequilana
Fiber20%with mixing of epoxy resin 55%. The different type of fiber is used,
while keeping the length of the glass fiber constant. The detailed composition
and designation of composite materials. A releasing agent is used on the mould
release sheets to facilitate easy removal of the composite from the mould after
curing. The entrapped air bubbles are removed carefully with a sliding roller

28
and the mould is closed for curing at a temperature Of 30 degree C for 24 hours
at a constant load of 50kg .after curing the specimen of suitable dimension is cut
using a diamond cutter for mechanical test as per the ASTM standards.

4.12 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE CRASH GUARD

 One of the most advantageous reasons for considering their use over steel
is their reduced weight.
 Absorb more collision energy.
 Excellent corrosion resistance.
 High impact strength
 It should have good rust resistance.
 It should have high strength.
 Light in weight.
 Easy to manufacture in large quantity.
 Low cost.

29
 CHAPTER-5
MECHANICAL PROPERTY TEST

5.1 SELECTION OF TEST

5.1.1 TENSILE TEST

Tensile tests are performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests
are used in selecting materials for engineering applications. Tensile properties
frequently are included in material specifications to ensure quality. Tensile
properties often are measured during development of new materials and
processes, so that different materials and processes can be compared. Finally,
tensile properties often are used to predict the behavior of a material under
forms of loading other than uniaxial tension.

The strength of a material often is the primary concern. The strength of

interest may be measured in terms of either the stress necessary to cause
appreciable plastic deformation or the maximum stress that the material can
withstand. These measures of strength are used, with appropriate caution (in the
form of safety factors), in engineering design. Also of interest is the material’s
ductility, which is a measure of how much it can be deformed before it
fractures. Rarely is ductility incorporated directly in design rather, it is included
in material specifications to ensure quality and toughness.

Low ductility in a tensile test often is accompanied by low resistance to

fracture under other forms of loading. Elastic properties also may be of interest,
but special techniques must be used to measure these properties during tensile

30
testing, and more accurate measurements can be made by ultrasonic techniques.
This chapter provides a brief overview of some of the more important topics
associated with tensile testing. These include

 Tensile specimens and test machines

 Stress-strain curves, including discussions of elastic versus plastic
deformation, yield points, and ductility
 True stress and strain
 Test methodology and data analysis
It should be noted that subsequent chapters contain more detailed information on
these topics.

5.1.2 Tensile Specimens and Testing Machines

Consider the typical tensile specimen. It has enlarged ends or shoulders

for gripping. The important part of the specimen is the gage section. The cross-
sectional area of the gage section is reduced relative to that of the remainder of
the specimen so that deformation and failure will be localized in this region.

Fig no 5.1.2 Tensile Specimen

The gauge length is the region over which measurements are made and is
centered within the reduced section. The distances between the ends of the
gauge section and the shoulders should be great enough so that the larger ends
do not constrain deformation within the gauge section, and the gauge length
should be great relative to its diameter. Otherwise, the stress state will be more
complex than simple tension. Detailed descriptions of standard specimen

31
shapes are given in Chapter 3 and in sub-sequent chapters on tensile testing of
specific materials.

5.1.3 Tensile Strength

The tensile test of the composites was performed as per the ASTM D3039
standards. The test was done using a universal testing machine (Tinius Olsen
H10KS).The specimen of required dimension was cut from the composite cast.
The test was conducted at a constant strain rate of 2 mm/min. The tensile test
arrangement is shown in figure

Fig no 5.1.3 UTM

32
 Tensile test is used to determine the tensile strength of the specimen, %
elongation of length and % reduction of area. Tensile test is usually carried out
in universal testing machine.

A universal testing machine is used to test tensile strength of materials. It is

named after the fact that it can perform many standard tensile and compression
tests on materials, components, and structures. The specimen is placed in the
machine between the grips and an extensometer if required can automatically
record the change in gauge length during the test. If an extensometer is not
fitted, the machine itself can record the displacement between its cross heads on
which the specimen is held. However, this method not only records the change
in length of the specimen but also all other extending / elastic components of the
testing machine and its drive systems including any slipping of the specimen in
the grips. Once the machine is started it begins to apply an increasing load on
specimen. Throughout the tests the control system and its associated software
record the load and extension or compression of the specimen. Tensile test is
used to find out

Tensile strength

Yield strength

% Elongation

% Reduction

5.2 HARDNESS TEST

This gives the metals ability to show resistance to indentation which

show it’s resistance to wear and abrasion. Hardness testing of welds and their
Heat Affected Zones (HAZs) usually requires testing on a microscopic scale
using a diamond indenter. The Vickers Hardness test is the predominant test

33
method with Knoop testing being applied to HAZ testing in some instances.
Hardness values referred to in this document will be reported in terms of
Vickers Number, HV.

Fig no 5.2 Hardness Machine

5.3 TOUGHNESS TEST

The principal measurement from the impact test is the energy absorbed in
fracturing the specimen. Energy expended during fracture is sometimes known
as notch toughness. The energy expended will be high for complete ductile
fracture, while it is less for brittle fracture. However, it is important to note that
measurement of energy expended is only a relative energy, and cannot be used
directly as design consideration. Another common result from the Charpy test is
by examining the fracture surface. It is useful in determining whether the
fracture is fibrous (shear fracture), granular (cleavage fracture), or a mixture of

34
both.

Fig no 5.3 Impact Test

5.3.1 Fracture Toughness Test

The fracture toughness of the composite specimens was measured using

Fracture Tester (MTS 810 material test system). The specimens were cut
according to dimensions as specified by the ASTM E1820; this test method is
for the opening mode (Mode I) of loading. The objective of this test method is
to load a fatigue pre cracked test specimen as shown in Figure 8 to induce either
or both of the following responses:

 Unstable crack extension, including significant pop-in, referred to as

“fracture instability” in this test method;
 Stable crack extension, referred to as “stable tearing” in this test method.
Toughness determined at the point of instability.

35
 Stable tearing results in continuous fracture toughness versus crack
extension relationship (R-curve) from which significant point-values may be
determined. Stable tearing interrupted by fracture instability results in an R-
curve up to the point of instability. This investigation split into two major
computation scopes to estimate the fracture toughness and energy release rate: it
include the experiment data for fiber reinforcement epoxy composites
specimens. Meanwhile, the compact tension (CT) specimen was instructed
according to the ASTM E 1820 standard for the fracture toughness
measurement. The thickness was 10mm for all the specimens, while the initial
notch length to specimen was between 10mm and the notch tip was sharpened
with a razor blade to simulate a sharp crack.

36
 CHAPTER-6

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This chapter deals with the evaluation of the mechanical properties of

Borassus and Agave fiber reinforced composites. Result have been presented
using basis of Better results on mechanical properties are tensile strength,
impact strength and hardness strength were calculated.

It can be seen that Borassus and Agave fiber reinforced composite will
have potential applications due to its improved the behavior, the mechanical
properties can be enhanced with the increasing percentage of reinforcement
matrix.

6.1 TENSILE TEST PERFORMANCE:

The tensile specimen is straight sided and has a constant cross section
with beveled tabs adhesively bonded from both ends. Here we using ASTM
A370 standard for tensile test.

The details of Tensile Test of composite for Borassus and Agave fiber
with epoxy resin mixtures as follows:

Cross Peak Load % UTS

Sectional (in KN) Elongation [N/mm2]
Composites
Area [mm2]

S Glass fiber 35% & Epoxy

resin 75%

37
 310 17.53 5.64 56.55

Borassus 20%, Agave 25 &

Epoxy resin 55% 310 19.42 5.98 62.65
Table 6.1 Tensile Strength of Borassus and Agave fiber Reinforced
Composite Compared with S-Glass fiber
Tensile Strngth [N/mm2]

62.65

56.55

S-GLASS FIBER NATURE FIBER

Composites

Graph 6.1 Effect of Fibers on Tensile Test

`The graph 6.1 shows the relationship between the fabrication parameter,
(different reinforcement and matrix) and tensile strength in N/mm2. Maximum
tensile strength was observed that the addition of Borassus and Agave
reinforcement in composite, having more tensile strength of polymer based
composites.

6.2 IMPACT TEST PERFORMANCE:

The impact test is for evaluating the toughness and notch sensitivity of
engineering materials. Impact test is done in Charpy Impact test bed. The
specimen is placed horizontally in the test bed. The pendulum is lifted and is

38
made to hit the specimen from height. Each method particle absorbs energy
when it is hit under some height. Here ISO 148-1is used for testing.

The details of Charpy impact Test of composite for Borassus and Agave
with epoxy resin mixtures as follows:

IMPACT
S.NO COMPOSITES VALUE in,
[joules]

1 S Glass fiber 35% & Epoxy resin 75% 6.5

2 Borassus 20%, Agave 25 & Epoxy resin 55% 8

Table 6.2 Impact Value of Borassus and Agave fiber Reinforced

8
Impact Value in, J

6.5

S-Glass fiber Natural Fiber

Composites

39
 Graph 6.2 Effect of Fibers on Impact Test

The graph 6.2 shows the relationship between the fabrication parameter
and impact value in Joules. It having more impact strength of Adding Natural
fiber on the polymer based composites.

6.3 HARDNESS TEST PERFORMANCE:

The hardness is defined as the material resistance to the indentation. This

hardness test is for evaluating the material hardness. This hardness test was
done by using Knoops hardness test. Here we using ASTM D2240 for testing.
The details of Tensile Test of composite for Borassus and Agave fibers with
epoxy resin mixtures as follows:

Observed Observed Observed Average

COMPOSITES value, value, value, Hardness
1 2 3 Value

S Glass fiber 35% & Epoxy resin

75% 40.1 42.7 43 41.93

40
Borassus 20%, Agave 25 & Epoxy
resin 55% 41.6 42.2 43.7 42.5

Table no 6.3 Hardness Strength Of Reinforcement Fibers

41.6
Hardness Value

40.1

S-Glass fiber Natural fiber

Composites

Graph 6.3 Effect of Fibers on Hardness Test

The graph 6.3 shows the relationship between the fabrication parameter
and hardness value. The maximum hardness value obtained in addition of
Borassus and Agave fiber reinforcement in composite, having more hardness
strength of polymer composites.

41
 CHAPTER-7

APPLICATIONS

 Automobile components

 Corrosion resistance areas

42
 CHAPTER-8
CONCLUSION

The composite crash guard using (borassus fruit fiber and agave
tequilana) fiber material completed for composite crash guard is investigated
and compared with steel crash guard. The composite crash guard weighs about
lesser than steel crash guard. It is proved that fuel economy of the vehicle is
improved as the composite crash guard weighs less when compared with steel
crash guard. From the study, it is concluded that fiber reinforced composite
material is a suitable material for manufacturing the crash guard.

43
 CHAPTER-9
REFERENCE

 Hosseinzadeh RM, Shokrieh M, and Lessard LB, “Parametric study od

automotive composite crash guard beams subjected to low-velocity
impacts”, J. CompositeStuct., 68 (2005):419-427.

 Marzbanrad JM, Alijanpour M, and Kiasat MS, “Design and analysis of

automotive crash guard beam in low spee frontal crashesh”, Thin Walled
Struct., 47 (2009): 902- 911.

 http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/testing/procedures/TP- 581-01.pdf.

 Mohapatra S, “Rapid Design Solutions for Automotive crash guard

Energy Absorbers using Morphing Technique”, Altair CAE users
Conference 2005, Bangalore, India.

 http://www.google.com/patents/about/6817638_crash
guard_system.html?idc1gQAAAAEBAJ

 Andersson R, Schedin E, Magnusson C,Ocklund J, “The Applicability of

Stainless Steel for Crash Absorbing Components”, SAE Technical Paper,
2002.
44
 Butler M, Wycech J, Parfitt J, and Tan E, “Using Terocore Brand
Structural Foam to Improve crash guard Beam Design”, SAE Technical
Paper, 2002,

 Carley ME, Sharma AK, Mallela V, “Advancements in expanded

polypropylene foam energy management for crash guard systems”, SAE
Technical Paper, 2004.

 Evans D and Morgan T, “Engineering Thermoplastic Energy for crash

guards”, SAE Paper, 1999.

45