2.

CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Carbohydrates
The Germans first and foremost introduced the word ‘kohlenhydrates’ which
was later on coined to carbohydrates. The name obviously suggests that these
compounds are essentially the hydrates of carbon
• Carbohydrates, were defined as a group of compounds composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in which the latter two elements are in
the same proportion as in water and were expressed by a formula
(CH2O)n, that is, hydrates of carbon.
• All organic compounds containing hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportion found in water are not carbohydrates.
• For example, formaldehyde HCHO for the present purpose can be written
as C(H2O); acetic acid CH3COOH written as C3(H2O)2; and lactic acid
CH3CHOHCOOH written as C3(H2O)3 are not carbohydrates.
• Also, a large number of carbohydrates such as rhamnose (C6H12O5),
cymarose (C7H14O4), digitoxose (C6H12O4), etc., are known which do
not contain the usual proportions of hydrogen to oxygen.
• From the discussion, it can be concluded that the definitions described is
not correct; however, carbohydrates are now defined chemically as
Polyhydroxy aldehyde or Polyhydroxy ketones or compound that on
hydrolyses produce either of the above.
• Carbohydrates are among the first products that are form as a result of
photosynthesis.
• They constitute a large proportion of the plant biomass and are
responsible, as cellulose, for the rigid cellular framework and, as starch,
for providing an important food reserve.
• Of special pharmacognostic importance is the fact that sugars unites with
a wide variety of other compounds to form glycosides and secondary
metabolites.
• Mucilage act as water-retaining vehicles, where as gums and mucilage,
which are similar in composition and properties, are formed in the plant
by injury or stress and usually appear as solidified exudates; both are
typically composed of uronic acid and sugar units.
• Low molecular weight carbohydrates are crystalline, soluble in water and
sweet in taste, for example, glucose, fructose, sucrose, etc.

13
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

• The high molecular weight carbohydrates (polymers) are amorphous,

tasteless and relatively less soluble in water, for example, starch,
cellulose, inulin, etc

CLASSIFICATION

Monosaccharides
• The term ‘monosaccharides’ is employed for such sugars that on
hydrolysis yield no further, lower sugars.
• The monosaccharides are subdivided as bioses, trioses, tetroses, pentoses,
hexoses, heptoses, depending upon the number of carbon atoms they
possess.
Bioses
• They contain two carbon atoms. They do not occur free in nature.
Trioses
• They contain three carbon atoms ,for example, glyceraldehydes.
Tetroses
• They contain four carbon atoms, for example, erythrose, threose, etc.

14
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Pentoses
• They are very common in plants and are the products of hydrolysis of
polysaccharides like hamicelluloses, mucilages and gums, for example,
ribose, arabinose and xylose.

Hexoses
• They are monosaccharides containing six carbon atoms and are
abundantly available carbohydrates of plant kingdom. They are further
divided into two types: aldoses and ketoses. They may be obtained by
hydrolysis of
• Aldoses : Glucose, galactose
• Ketoses : Fructose and sorbose

15
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

• Heptoses
They contain seven carbon atoms, vitally important in the photosynthesis
of plant and glucose metabolism of animals and are rarely found accumulated in
plants, for example, glucoheptose and manoheptose.

Disaccharides:
• Carbohydrates, which upon hydrolysis yield two molecules of
monosaccharides, are called as disaccharides.
• Sucrose Hydrolysis Glucose + fructose (sugarcane), Maltose Hydrolysis
Glucose + Glucose (malt sugar), Lactose Hydrolysis Glucose + Galactose
(cow’s milk).

Trisaccharides:
• These liberate three molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
• Raffinose Hydrolysis Glucose + fructose + galactose (in beet)
(sugarcane),
Gentianose Hydrolysis Glucose + Glucose + fructose (gentian roots).

Tetra-saccharides
• Stachyose, a tetrasaccharide, yields on hydrolysis, four molecules of
monosaccharide, found in manna.

16
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Polysaccharides:
• On hydrolysis they give an indefinite number of monosaccharides.
• By condensation, with the elimination of water, polysaccharides are
produced from monosaccharides.
• Depending upon the type of product of hydrolysis these are further
classified as Pentosans and Hexosans.
• Xylan is pentosan, whereas starch, insulin and cellulose are the examples
of hexosans.
• Cellulose is composed of glucose units joined by β-1, 4 linkages, whereas
starch contains glucose units connected with α- 1, 4 and α- 1, 6 units.
• Polyuronides, gums and mucilages are the other pharmaceutically
important polysaccharide derivatives.

SUCROSE:
 It is called table sugar.
 It is formed by combination of 2 units of monosaccharide Fructose &
Glucose.

17
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

SUGAR CANE:
 Common names:
Sugar cane, noble cane (English), sarkara (Sanskrit), paunda (Hindi).
 Botanical name:
Saccharum officinarum L.
 Family:
Poaceae (grass family)
 Part used:
 Thick, joined fibrous stalks.
 Habitat
Hot humid tropics, in moist soils.
Brazil is the largest producer of Sugar cane in world. It is also cultivated in
Pakistan, India, China, Thailand & Mexico.

DESCRIPTION:
 Tropical, perennial grass, that form lateral shoots.
 Sweet in taste , outer surface is greenish brown, while inner surface is
yellowish white.

18
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

 Typically it is 3 to 4m in length & 5cm in diameter.

CULTIVATION:
 It is cultivated in Tropic & Sub tropic areas with plentiful supply of water
& Sun light for continuous period of more then 6 month each year.
 It grows on highly fertile soil.
 It is harvested by hand or mechanically.
 In hand harvesting, the field is first set on fire,
 Fire burns dry leaves & kills the insects etc leaving stalks & roots harm
less & then they are Cut just above the ground level.
 In mechanical harvesting, Sugar cane harvester is used.
PROCESSING:
Two stages
1. Milling, 2. Refining.
1. MILLING:
In this stage, the cane juice is extracted by different techniques.
2.REFINING
 The juice is centrifuged to remove impurities.
 After this the sugar solution is clarified by adding phosphoric acid and
Ca. hydroxide.
 After filtering the syrup is decolorized by activated carbon.

19
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

 The purified syrup is then concentrated and crystallized in vacuum to

produce refined sugar.
 To produce granules, sugar must be dried by heating in rotary dryer and
then by blowing cool air through it.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS :
 11-16 % fibers
 12-16 % soluble sugars (sucrose)
 2-3 % non sugar
 63-73 % water

Uses:
 Used as table sugar.
 Used as sweetening agent in syrups.
 Used as demulcent.
 Used as bacteriostatic and preservative.
 Used to mask disagreeable tastes in troches and tablets.
 Used to relive low B.P.
 Used to treat diarrhea.
 It is also used as taste enhancer and preservative in food industry.

SUGAR BEET:
Synonyms-
Spinach Beet. Sea Beet. Garden Beet. White Beet.
BOTANICAL NAME :
Beta vulgaris (Linn.)
FAMILY :
Chenopodiaceae.

20
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Parts Used---Leaves, root.

Habitat :
IT is grown in temperate zone.
Russia is the largest producer of sugar beet, it is also cultivated in U.S,
Germany, Ukraine, Turkey.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZVxPkv0r7JY

DESCRIPTION :

• It has conical , white fleshy root.

21
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

• Sugar is formed through process of Photosynthesis in leaves and stored

In root.
• Its weight is mostly o.5 – 1 kg.
• It is green or purple In color.
• It has broad leaves with crown which is usually leveled with or just
above ground surface.
PROCESS :
 After harvesting the beet roots are washed , sliced into thin strips and
passed through machines to extract sugar content.
 The juice is mixed with hot milk of lime (Ca. hydroxide in water) , the
thin juice is concentrated via evaporation to make thick juice ,
 The crystals are then formed which are further dried and granulated to
form sugar.
Chemical constituents:
 It contains certain amount of sucrose,
 The HCl-isolated pectin contained 81.8% galact-uronic acid.
 Also contain folic acid and other minerals such as sodium , Mg , Ca , Fe
,vitamin A , vitamin C.
Uses:
 1.It have zero saturated fat , contain increased carbohydrates and is great
instant source of energy.
 2.It also contain minerals such as sodium , magnesium , calcium , iron ,
vitamin A , vitamin C etc.
 3.Contain folic acid for production & maintenance Of new cell.
 4.It guard against cancers especially colon cancer [Pectin extracted from
sugar beet, used as an anticancer].
 5. It cleanse the blood , cleanse colon & strengthen gall bladder & liver.
 6. It also treats & cure boils and acne.
 7.also used in beverages.

22
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Dextrose:
D-glucose
D(+)-glucopyranose
 Naturally present in grapes and other fruits.
Preparation
 Usually obtained by hydrolysis of starch.
 Heating at 45 lb presure for 35 min.
 Dextrose is then crystalized,washed and dried.
 99-100% pure.
Uses:
 NUTRIENT ( mouth, enema, injection)
 Dextrose and NaCl inj
 Present in anticoagulant citrate phosphate dextrose soln (storage of
blood).
 Food industry

Liquid Glucose:
 Obtained by incomplete hydrolysis of starch
 Composed of Dextrose, also contains Dextrin, Maltose and Water.
Preparation
 Corn starch is mixed with dil HCl at 30 lb pressure for 22 min
 Centrifuged and filtered
 Evaporated to syrupy liquid.
Description:
 Thick colourless or yellowish liquid
 Odourless and sweet in taste.

23
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Uses:
 Sweetning agent in pharma industry
 Substitute of sucrose in syrup
 Tablet binder and coating agent.

Fructose:
 D-fructose,
 Levulose ,
 D(-) fructopyranose,
 Fruit sugar.

 A Ketone sugar occurs naturally in fruits and honey.

 Also obtained from sucrose and inulin on hydrolysis.

Description:
 Colourless crystals or white crystalline powder
 Odourless and sweet in taste
 Soluble in water
Uses:
 Food for diabetic people
 Diabetic acidosis
 Infant feeding formulas
 Ingredient in electrolyte replinsher, given parentrally.

24
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

HONEY:
Synonyms
Madhu, Madh, Mel, Purified Honey.
Biological Source
Honey is a viscid and sweet secretion stored in the honey comb by various
species of bees, such as Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata, Apis florea, Apis indica
belonging to family Apideae.
Geographical Source
Honey is available in abundance in Africa, India, Jamaica, Australia,
California, Chili, Great Britain and New Zealand.

Collection and Preparation of Honey:

 The nectar of the flowers is a watery solution containing 25% sucrose
and 75% water. The worker bee sucks this nectar through its hollow tube
of mouth (proboscis) and deposits in honey-sac located in abdomen.
 The enzyme invertase present in saliva of the bee converts nectar into
invert sugar, which is partially utilized by the bee and the remaining is
deposited into honey comb.
 Honey comb is smoked to remove the bees and honey is obtained by
applying the pressure to it or allowing it to drain naturally.
 The honey of commerce is heated to 80°C and allowed to stand. The
impurities which float over the surface are skimmed off and the liquid is
diluted with water to produce honey of 1.35 density.

 Honey is liable to fermentation, unless it is suitably processed. Honey is

heated to 80°C and cooled rapidly before it is sent to the market, so as to
avoid fermentation.
 If honey is not prepared by centrifugation method, is required to be
filtered through wet cloth or funnel.

HONEY
Morphology:

25
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

 Pale yellow to reddish brown viscid fluid

 Pleasant and Characteristic odour
 Sweet, slightly acrid Taste
 The taste and odour of honey depends upon the availability of
surrounding flowers from which nectar is collected.
 On prolonged storage it usually turns opaque and granular due to
crystallization of dextrose and is termed as ‘Granulated honey’.
History:
 The honey was first known historically as a flavoured sweetening
agent and was once the official honey of the National Formulary.
 Its use dates back to ancient times, with Egyptian medical texts
(between 2600 and 2200 B.C.) mentioning honey in at least 900
remedies.

 During war time it was used on wounds as an antiseptic by the ancient
Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Chinese, and even by the Germans as late as
World War I.
 Almost all early cultures universally hailed honey for its sweetening and
nutritional qualities, as well as its topical healing properties for sores,
wounds and skin ulcers.
 It has consistently appeared in modern use for the same purposes by the
laity and medical profession.
 Today, bees are commonly kept in Europe, the Americas, Africa and
Asia; at least 300,000 tons of honey is produced annually.
Chemical Constituents:
Moisture 14–24%,
Dextrose 23–36%,
Levulose (Fructose) 30–47%,
Sucrose 0.4–6%,
Dextrin and Gums 0–7% and
Ash 0.1–0.8%.

26
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

 Besides, it is found to contain small amounts of essential oil, beeswax,

pollen grains, formic acid, acetic acid, succinic acid, maltose, dextrin,
colouring pigments, vitamins and an admixture of enzymes, diastase,
invertase and inulase.
 The sugar contents in honey varies widely from one country to another as
it is exclusively governed by the source of the nectar and also the
enzymatic activity controlling the conversion into honey.

Uses:
 Honey shows mild laxative, bactericidal, sedative, antiseptic and
alkaline characters.
 It is used for cold, cough, fever, sore eye and throat, tongue and duodenal
ulcers, liver disorders, kidney and other urinary disorders, pulmonary
tuberculosis, marasmus, rickets, scurvy and insomnia.
 It is applied as a remedy on open wounds after surgery.
 It is also useful in healing of carbuncles other and skin inflammation.
 Honey, mixed with onion juice, is a good remedy for arteriosclerosis in
brain.
 Diet rich in honey is recommended for infants, convalescents, diabetic
patients and invalids.
 Honey is an important ingredient of certain lotions, cosmetics, soaps and
creams.
 Honey is used as an ingredient in various cough preparations.
 It is also used to treat asthma.
Adulterant and Substitutes:
Due to the relatively high price of pure honey, it is invariably adulterated
ether with artificial invert sugar or simply with cane-sugar syrup.
These adulterants or cheaper substituents not only alter the optical
property of honey but also its natural aroma and fragrance.

27
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

STARCH:
Synonyms
Amylum.
Biological Source
Starch consists of polysaccharide granules obtained from the grains of
Maize (Zea mays Linn.);
Rice (Oryza sativa Linn.)
Wheat (Triticum aestivum Linn.); belonging to family Gramineae .
Potato (Solanum tuberosum Linn.), family Solanaceae.

Geographical Source
Most of tropical, as well as, sub-tropical countries prepare starch
commercially.

Preparation of Starch
Potato Starch:
 The potatoes are washed to remove the earthy matter.
 They are crushed or cut and converted into slurry.
 Slurry is filtered to remove the cellular matter.
 After filtration, the milky slurry containing starch is purified by
centrifugation and washing.
 Then, it is dried and sent to the market.

28
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Rice Starch :
 The broken pieces of rice resulted during the polishing are used for
processing.
 The pieces of rice are soaked in water with dilute sodium hydroxide
solution (0.5%), which causes softening and dissolution of the gluten
(general name for wheat or rice protein).
 The soaked rice pieces are crushed and starch prepared as preceeded in
potato.

Corn starch:
 Maize grains are washed thoroughly with water to remove the adhered
organic matter.
 They are softened by keeping in warm water for 2–3 days.
 Sufficient sulphur dioxide is passed to the medium to prevent
fermentation.( Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar
to acids, gases, or alcohol. Endosperm is a tissue produced inside the
seeds of most of the flowering plants following fertilization. It surrounds
the embryo and provides nutrition in the form of starch, though it can
also contain oils and protein)
 The swollen kernels are passed through attrition mill to break the grains,
so as to separate the endosperm and outermost coating.
 The starchy material contains gluten; most of this is removed by simple
sieving and then by washing several times with cold water.
 Then centrifuged or filter-pressed and finally, dried in flash dryers on a
moving belt dryer to get starch.

Wheat Starch:
 The wheat flour is converted into dough(Dough= Flour mixed with
water) and kept for a while.
 The gluten in the dough swells and the masses are taken to grooved
rollers, wherein water is added with constant shaking.

29
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

 The starchy liquid coming out of the rollers is processed conveniently to

take out the starch, which is then dried and packed suitably.
Description:
 Colour:
Rice and maize starch are white, while wheat is cream coloured and
potato is slightly yellowish.
 Odour
Odourless
 Taste
Mucilaginous (Mucilaginous polysaccharide substance extracted as
a viscous or gelatinous solution from plant roots, seeds, etc., and used in
medicines and adhesives.)
 Shape
Starch occurs as fine powder or irregular or angular.

Microscopic Characters:
Rice Starch:
The granules are simple or compound.
Simple granules are polyhedral while compound granules are ovoid.

Rice starch
30
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Wheat Starch:

 Simple lenticular granules which are circular or oval in shape.

 Granules contain hilum at the centre and concentric faintly marked

striations.
 Rarely, compound granules with two to four components are also
observed.

Wheat starch

Maize Starch:
Granules are polyhedral or rounded, with distinct cavity in the centre or
two to five rays cleft.

31
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Potato Starch:
 Generally, found in the form of simple granules, which are sub-
spherical, somewhat flattened irregularly ovoid in shape.
 Hilum is present near the narrower end with well-marked.

Chemical Constituents:
 Chemically starch contains two different polysaccharides,
Amylose (β-amylose) and
Amylopectin (α-amylose).
 Amylose is water soluble and amylopectin is water insoluble, but swells
in water and is responsible for the gelatinizing (Starch gelatinization is a
process of breaking down the intermolecular bonds of starch molecules
in the presence of water and heat ) property of the starch.
 Amylose gives blue colour with iodine, while amylopectin yields bluish
black colouration.

32
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Identification Tests:
 1. 1 g of starch is boiled with 15 ml of water and cool. The translucent
viscous jelly is produced.
 2. The jelly turns deep blue by the addition of solution of iodine.

Blue colour disappears on warming and reappears on cooling.

Uses:
 As a nutritive, demulcent, protective and as an absorbent.
 In the preparation of dusting talcum powder for application over the
skin.
 As antidote in iodine poisoning.
 As a disintegrating agent in tablets
 As diluent in dry extracts of crude drug and is a diagnostic aid in the
identification of crude drugs.
 As a starting material for the commercial manufacture of liquid glucose,
dextrose and dextrin(Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight
carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of starch or glycogen).

Cellulose:
 Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a long-chain polysaccharide carbohydrate, of beta-
glucose.
 It forms the primary structural component of plants and is not digestible
by humans

Structure of Cellulose
33
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

History:
 Being found as the principal component of cell walls in higher plants
where it provides the main structural feature. Therefore,
 Cellulose is considered as the most abundant naturally occurring organic
substance on earth.
 It was first noted as such in 1838 by Anselm Payen.
 It occurs in almost pure form in cotton fibre at 98% in combination with
lignin and hemicellulose.
 Cellulose is the most abundant form of living terrestrial biomass.

Applications:
 Cellulose is processed to make cellophane and rayon.
 Cellophane has several applications in pharmaceutical packaging due to
its suitable characteristics such as good compatibility, durability,
transparency and elasticity.
 Cellulose is also used within the laboratory as a solid-state substrate for
thin layer chromatography.
 Cellulose is a major constituent of paper.
Derivatives:
 The hydroxyl groups of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with
various chemicals to provide derivatives with useful properties.
 They have the general formula

Cellulose-O-R
 Cellulose esters and cellulose ethers are the most important commercial
materials.
 Among the esters are cellulose acetate and triacetate, which are used in
cosmetics.

34
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

Uses of Cellulose:
 Anticake agents
 Emulsifier
 Stabiliser
 Dispersing agent
 Thickener
 Gelling agent
Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is the most known cellulose which
extensively used in pharmaceutical industries. MCC grades are
multifunctional pharmaceutical excipients which can be used as
 compressibility enhancer,
 binder in wet and dry granulation processes,
 thickener and viscosity builder in liquid dosage forms
 and free-flowing agents in solid dosage forms.
 Application in bioadhesive and mucoadhesive drug delivery systems.
 Bioadhesives are considered as novel drug delivery systems. These
dosage forms are formulated to use on the skin and mucus membranes
of gastrointestinal, ear, nose, eye, rectum and vagina.
 The main excipients of these formulations are adhesive and film-former
polymer(s).

Cellulose based products:

 Cellulose is the major constituent of Cotton (98%)and Wood(40-
50%).Cotton and wool are the major reservoirs for all cellulose products
such as paper, textiles and construction materials.
 The Paper production industry is of great economic significance to the
world.
 The Textile industry is of great economic significance and relies heavily
on cellulose both for natural and synthetic fibres.

35
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

 The construction industry also utilizes cellulose in products i.e. Carbon

fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP’s) and cellulose nitrate. This was the
first successful plastic. It is used in making toilet pieces and other
industrial items.

Cellulose based Products:

Cellulose acetate (CA),
The polymers like cellulose acetate (CA), cellulose
acetate phthalate (CAP) and cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) do not form gel
in presence of water and they are widely used for preparing pH sensitive and
semi-permeable microporous membranes.
 These membranes are employed for wide variety of controlled release
coating of pharmaceuticals especially in enteric or osmotic drug delivery
devices.
 Used in making packaging materials, toys, tools etc.

Ethyl cellulose
 Aqueous dispersions of ethyl cellulose or its organic solutions can be
used for coating of extended release formulations. After ingestion of
these formulations, an insoluble viscose gel is forming around the tablet
which doesn’t allow to drug to freely release from dosage form.
 Because of water insolubility of EC, it is often used in conjunction with
water soluble polymers such as MC
 It is the lightest and most expensive of the cellulosics.

Methyl cellulose
 It is used in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.
 Is non toxic, non-allargic and is a weak adhesive.
 Methylcellulose is used as
 a tablet and capsule disintegrant,

36
 2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK

 a tablet binder, and

 as a viscosity-increasing agent.
 It exists as a free-flowing white powder and dissolves in cold water to
yield a clear gel.

 Methylcellulose (Citrucel) is also a bulk-forming laxative that works by

absorbing water and swelling in the intestines.
 In its pure state it is used for cleaning the spines of books.
 It works as an excellent solvent of hide glue.

37