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Introduction to Computers
Definition
It’s an Electronic device / machine that accepts digitized input information & processes it according to a list of internally
stored instructions & produces the resulting output information.

A contemporary computer system consists of

1. A central processing unit
2. Storage devices
3. Input devices
4. Output devices
5. Communication devices

The central processing unit manipulates raw data into a more useful form and control the other parts of a computer
system.

Storage devices consist of primary storage and secondary storage devices. Primary storage temporary stores data and
program instructions during processing while secondary storage devices store data and program when they are not being in
processing.

Input devices convert electronic data produced by the computer for input in to the computer.

Output devices convert electronic data provided by the computer system and display them in a form that people can
understand.

Communication devices provide connection between the computer and communications networks.

Buses are circuitry paths for transmitting data and signals among the computer system. For information to flow throughout
a come system and to be in a form suitable for processing all symbols, pictures or words must be reduced to a string of
binary digits.

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The diagram below illustrates the parts of a Computer.

CPU

Control Unit (cu)

ALU

Input Main Memory Output

Unit Unit

Backing Storage

Key Command / signal flow

Data/ signal flow

Application of Computers
 Used for Education in school, colleges etc.
 Used in hospital for controlling machines.
 Used for entertainment e.g. games.
 Used for communication e.g. Internet, E-mail etc.
 Used in military.
 Used for security.
 Used in business e.g. recording of data system.
 Computer network in an organization saves cost.

THE CPU AND MEMORY

The CPU is the part of the computer system where the manipulation of symbols, numbers and letters occurs, and it
controls the other parts pf the computer.

Located near the CPU is the PRIMARY STORAGE (sometimes known as primary memory or main memory) where data and
program instructions are stored temporarily during processing.

Buses provide pathway for transmitting data and signals as the cpu, primary storage, and other devices in the computer
system. The characteristics of the CPU and primary storage are very important in determining a computers speed and
capability.

The CPU consists of:

1. Arithmetic and logic unit (A.L.U)
2. Control unit

The ALU performs the computers principle logical and arithmetic operations. It adds, subtracts, and multiplies, divides
and determining whether a number is positive, negative or o.

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In addition to performing arithmetic functions, the ALU must be able to determine when one quantity is greater than or
less than another and when two quantities are equal.

The CU coordinates and controls the other parts of the computer system. It reads a stored program one instruction at a
time, and directs the components of the computers system to perform the program-required tasks.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAIN MEMORY

Main memory is classified into 2 namely
a) Random Access Memory (RAM)
b) Read Only Memory (ROM)

Random Access Memory

Characteristics
 Programs can be written into & read from RAM.
 It is largest part of main memory.
 It is volatile i.e. its contents are lost when power failure occurs.
 RAM is reusable.

Functions of RAM
 Stores data & applications awaiting to be processed.
 Holds instructions which are being executed or whose parts have been executed by the computer.
 Stores results before they are communicated to recipients.

Read Only Memory

Characteristics
 Contents can only be read.
 Its non-volatile i.e. data is not lost as a result of power failure.
 ROM cannot be overwritten.
 Its contents are always
Functions of ROM
 Stores data & instructions that is necessary for the normal functioning of the computer hardware.
 It stores programs that are necessary for the initial activation of Hardware.

SECONDARY STORAGE
The computing of the computer system not only depends on the speed and capacity of the CPU but also on the speed,
capacity, and design of storage, input and output technology.

Storage, input and output devices are called peripheral devices because they are outside the main computer system unit.

Most of the information used by a computer application is stored on secondary storage devices located outside the primary
storage area.

Secondary storage is used for relatively long term storage of data outside the CPU. Its a non-volatile and retains data even
when the computer is turned off.

The most important secondary storage technologies are: -

1. Magnetic disk
2. Magnetic tapes
3. Optical disk

MAGNETIC DISK
This is the most widely used secondary storage medium. There are three kinds of magnetic disks namely:
 Floppy disk
 Hard disk

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 Flash disk

Physical Characteristics
 They are made from a light alloy coated on both sides with a layer of magnetizable oxide.
 Data is stored on the disk surfaces along concentric tracks.
 These tracks are divided into sectors similar to blocks on magnetic tapes.
 Data in the disk is stored in binary code.
 Read/ Write heads do not come into contact with the disk surface.

Advantages of magnetic disks.

 Any item of data can be directly addressed depending on the method of file organization used.
 Magnetic disks have a high data transfer rate.
 Input of data can be done random.
 Latest disks e.g. 160GB have a high storage capacity.

Disadvantages
 They are expensive.
 Data may be accidentally erased or overwritten.
 Data will be lost if the disk is subjected to stress.

Large mainframe or midrange computer systems have multiple hard disk drives because they require immense disk storage
capacity.

Personal computers uses floppy disks, which are removable and portable, with lower storage capacity and access rates
than hard disks.

MAGNETIC TAPES
Physical Characteristics
 Its typically 1.5-inch wide & 2400 feet long.
 It has a plastic base coated with magnetizable material on one side.
 Data is recorded as magnetized spots each representing a binary digit.
 Data is stored in tracks, which run the length of the tape.
 The physical end of the tape is marked by an end of tape marker.

Advantages of Magnetic tapes

 Are relatively cheap.
 A magnetic tape is capable of transferring data to and from internal storage at very high speeds.
 Old data may be erased & the tape reused.
 Data can be sorted by a computer into the sequence required for updating.
Disadvantages
 Its only possible to access records serially i.e. one bit at a time.
 Updated information cannot be written back to the same location on the same tape.
 Transaction file has to be in the same location as the master file before updating starts.

OPTICAL DISKS/COMPACT DISKS/LASER OPTICAL DISKS

These disks use laser technology to store massive quantities of data in a highly compact form. They are available for both
pc and large computers. The most common optical disk system used in personal computer is called CD-ROM (compact disk
read only memory)

Optical disks are most appropriate for applications where enormous quantities of unchanging data must be stored
compactly for easy retrieval for applications, combining text, sound and images.

Disadvantage CD-ROM is read only storage. No data can be written to it, it can only be read. WORM (write once/read
many) and CD-R (compact disk recordable)

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Optical disks systems allows users to record data only once on an optical disk. Once written the data cannot be erased but
can be read indefinitely.

CD-RW (compact disk –rewritable) technology has been developed to allow users to create rewritable optical disks for
applications requiring large volume of storage where the information is occasionally updated.

Digital video diks/digital versatile disks (DVD)

These are optical disks of the same size as CD-ROMS but of even higher capacity. They were initially being used to store
movies and multimedia applications using large amount of video and graphics, but they may replace CD-ROMS because
they can store large amount of digitized text, graphics, audio and video data.

INPUT DEVICES
These are devices through which data is entered into the computer.

The principal input devices consist of: -

Keyboards, pointing devices (e.g. computer mouse and touch screens), and source data automation devices
(optical/magnetic ink character recognition, pen-based input, digital scanners, audio input and sensors), which captures
data in computer readable, form at the time and place where created.

Computer mouse
This is a hand held device with point and click capabilities that is usually connected to the computer by a cable. The comp
user can move the mouse, around on a desktop to control the cursors position on computer display screen, pushing a
button to select a command.
Trackballs or touch pads are often used in place of the mouse as pointing devices.

Touch screen
These allow the users to enter limited amount of data by touching the surface of sensitized video display monitor with a
finger or a pointer.

Optical character recognition

These devices can translate specially designed marks, characters and codes into digital form. The most commonly used
optical code is the bar code, which is used in point of sales systems in supermarkets. The code can include time, date and
location data in addition to identification data.

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

These are used primarily in check processing for banking industry characters on the bottom of a check identifying the
bank, check amount and check number are pre-printed using special magnetic ink. A MICR reader translates these
characters into digital form for the computer.

Pen-based input
Handwriting recognition devices such as pen-based tablets, notebooks and notepads convert the motion made by an
electric stylus pressing on a touch sensitive tablet screen into digital form.

Digital scanner
This translates images such as pictures or documents into digital form and is an essential component of image processing
systems.

Audio inputs
Voice input devices can convert spoken words into digital form for processing by a computer. Microphones and tape
players can serve as input devices for music and other sounds.

Sensors
These are devices that collect data directly from the environment into digital form for processing by the computer e.g.
farmers can use sensors to monitor the moisture of the soil in their fields to help them in irrigation.

OUTPUT DEVICES

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They give the processed information to the user either in the softcopy or hardcopy. Examples include Printer, plotter &
VDUs.

Cathrade ray tube terminals (CRT)/video display terminals, (VDTs), printers and audio outputs. Printers produce a printed
hard copy of information output. They include impact printers e.g. dot matrix and non-impact printers, e.g. laser jet, and
thermol transfer printers.

Factors to consider when selecting a printer.

 Cost—this refers to the printer initial cost & subsequent cost of maintenance as well as consumable items e.g. ribbons,
papers & toners.

 Speed –is determined by the volume of printing expected. A big organization needs a fast printer like laser printer.

 Print Quality—this is determined by the nature of reports to be generated & their recipients.
 Computer system interface (portability) ---a printer should be able to connect to almost all computers.

Audio output voice output devices convert digital output data back intelligible speech.
Speakers connected to the computer can deliver other audio output such as music.

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Software
To play a useful role in the organization’s IT infrastructure, the computer hardware requires computers software.

Software is the detailed instruction that controls the operation of a computer system.

A software programme is a series of statements or instructions to the computer.

The process of writing or coding programs is called programming and individuals who specialize in these tasks are called
programmers.

There are two major types of software

1. System software
2. Application software

System software
This is a set of generalized programs that manage the computers resources such as the central processor communications
links and peripheral devices.
Programmes who write system software are called system programmers.

Application software
This describes the programs that are written for or by users to apply the computer to a specific task e.g. software for
processing an order or software for generating a mailing list. Programs who write application software are called
application software.

Relationship between application software and system software.

Table

The types of software are interrelated and can be thought of a set of nested boxes, each of which must interact closely
with the other boxes surrounding it.
The system software surrounds and controls access to the hardware application software must work through the system
software in order to operate.
End users work primarily with application software. Each type of software must be specifically be designed for a specific
machine to ensure its compatibility.

System Software (Detailed)

These coordinate various parts of the computer system and mediate between application software and computer
hardware. The system software that manages and controls the computer’s activities is called the operating system.

Types of system software includes: -

 Operating system.
 Utility programs.
 Language translators.

Operating system (OS) software.

The operating system is the computers system’s chief’s manager.

The OS performs the following functions:

1. Allocates and assigns system resources.
It provides locations in primary memory for data and programmes, controls the input and output devices.
2. Schedules use of computer resources and computer jobs. The OS coordinates the scheduling of work in various
areas of the computer so that different parts of different jobs can be worked on at the same time.
3. Monitors computer system activities. The OS keeps tracks of each computer job and may also keep track of who
is using the systems of what programs have been run and of any unauthorized attempt to access the system.
4. OS capabilities such as multiprogramming, virtual storage, multiprocessing, timesharing and multi tasking enable
the computer to handle many different tasks and users at the same time.
5. Logging & Accounting---the OS counts for who log in. Logging means identifying oneself by typing the user name &
password.
6. Provides an interface / link btn the user & output devices.

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7. Error reporting –during the program execution, i.e. there occurs an error, the OS furnishes diagnostic messages
to the user & the program execution is stopped for the user’s corrective responses.

Examples of Operating Systems

 Windows 95, 98, 2000, windows xp, ms dos.

Features of a good Operating System

 Better I/O control.
 Offer automatic recovery from error situations.
 Offer automatic recovery scheduling of jobs on priority basis.
 Offer storage protection.
 It should allow dynamic storage allocation in terms of capacity.
 Reliable i.e. able to perform the tasks as required without failure.
 User friendly. Simple & easy to operate.

Utility Programs
These are programs written to enhance the efficiency of carrying out routine/repetitive tasks.
These tasks can also be done by the OS but not as efficiently as utility programs.
Utility programs provide a useful service to the user of the computer providing facilities for performing common tasks.
Common types of utility programs include
1. Debuggers – used as aid to removing errors from a program
2. Editors – Provide a service of commands, which the user can use to look at a program or data to make alterations.
3. Peripheral transfer program – Devices helping in the transfer of data to and from the C.P.U.
4. Sort utility – Programs used to arrange files so that they can be read into a specified sequence or pre-determinal
criteria.
5. Merge utility – used to enhance the combining of two files into a single file e.g. mail merge.
6. Back up utility – Enables the user to make duplicate copies of a file or information on a hard disk.
7. Anti virus utility – A virus is program that has the capability of detecting or corrupting computer files. Anti virus
utility is a utility program that scans the hard disk, diskettes and computer memory to detect viruses.

Language translation
Program that convert program written in human sensible form into machine form. Examples
 Compilers---translators, which transform source, code programs written in high-level languages into machine
code. (Binary code)
 Interpreters---this transform one high-level language statement at a time.
 Assemblers—translators, which transform source programs into 2nd generation languages to match the machine
code programs.

Application Software
It’s a set of instructions or programs designed to help the user save a specific application or problem/task.
A.S. can be bought from manufactures or can be manufactured in house.
An advantage of acquiring a suite of programs rather than an individual program is that it would be cheaper.
A suite is a set of applications put together.
Application programs are normally designed to solve a particular task or problem.
1. Off-the-shelves packages.
2. Tailor made/in-house packages/ bespoke.

Application packages
They are standardized ready made program that can be bought from the market.
Designed to solve a particular problem but not meant for a single user.
Examples
a. Accounting packages – application software designed to help accountants solve their day to day routines/tasks
e.g. bank reconciliation, payroll processing, production of scheduled reports etc e.g. sage, QuickBooks, surs
system, excel, pastel.
b. Spreadsheets - allow users to create tables and financial schedules by allowing data to be displayed into rows and
columns arranged on V.D.U. spread sheet is a grid of rows and columns used by accountants and the others
produce financial reports and projects. Spreadsheets offers the following:
 Functions- summation, addition, standard deviation, mean e.t.c.
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 Formatting – allows the user to improve on the appearance of the spreadsheets e.g. entering labels and
values.
 Consolidation – allows the users to match several works in a summary sheet while keeping the original
sheets intact.
 Graphics – allows users to display numerical data in a variety of numerical forms including bar charts, bar
graphs, line graphs etc.

Uses of spreadsheets
I. Financial modeling such as cost computation and financial analysis.
II. Budgeting, planning, stock control e.t.c.

c) Text manipulation packages – categorized into

1) Word processor e.g. Ms word, word perfect.
2) Desktop publishing.
3) Word processor – manipulation of data i.e. editing, formatting, Spell checking.
4) Desktop publishing – text manipulation and design word are performed. Mostly used by publishers of
books, newspapers e.t.c. E.g. PageMaker, Ms PowerPoint, publisher, corral draw.

Advantages
I. Portable
II. Developed by experts therefore well tested and are likely to be free of errors.
III. Cheap coz they are produced in large scale therefore advantage of economic scale.
IV. Most application packages are well documented i.e. accompanied by user manuals
V. User friendly- easy to operate.
VI. Readily available – tasks less time to implement them.

Disadvantages
I. Since they are not tailor-made, can’t solve unique problems of users.
II. The user does not have the ownership right.
III. Require regular training especially every time a new package version is introduced into the market.
IV. Require regular maintenance and are subject to regular obsolescence due to rapid development in software
technology and hence they become obsolete or out of date.

In House Or Tailor Made Software

This is software designed to meet the unique needs of a user.
It’s developed with the user in mind to solve his unique problem.
Tailor-made software is suitable under.
1. Where there is enough time to develop own program
2. User’s problem is unique
3. When there is availability of programmers
4. If developing a program in house is cheaper.

Advantages
1. Tailor made- capable of meeting user’s specific problems/requirement
2. Require less training since the users are involved or were part of development
3. There is security since only users within the organization have the knowledge of the software operation therefore
outsiders interference is greatly reduced.
4. The user or the organization gets all the ownership rights.
5. Since the users are respected for the development of software, any maintenance or modifications can also be
done in-house therefore in-house software is not prone to risks of obsolescence.

Disadvantages
1. Require a lot of time to be implemented
2. Not highly potable i.e. specifically designed to run on specific computers.
3. Most of them may not be well documented i.e. may have no user manuals.
4. They are costly coz the user has to meet all the expenses and does not benefit from economics of scale.
5. Likely to have errors due to improper testing.

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Factors to be considered while selecting appropriate software.
1. Cost- software that an organization chooses should give good value for money i.e. cost effective.
2. User Friendliness – should be easy to use. Should offer online help facilities to the user.
3. Flexibility – it should be capable of meeting the current and future needs of the users as they change. Allow for
expansions and upgrading.
4. Maintainability- good software should give room for modifications when errors are found and need to be
eliminated.
5. Compatibility – it should fit into the existing technology as easily as possible.
6. Portability – it should be able to run in a variety of computer systems.
7. Reliability – It must be capable of performing the designated function without failure.
8. Security – It should be fault tolerant i.e. it should allow the user to easily handle mistakes made during data
entry.
9. Documentation – it must be accompanied by instruction manuals high lighting how to use and install the system.
10. User Requirement - to take care of the users unique needs. The needs of the users will influence the type of
software to be acquired e.g. financial analysis and financial focusing would require spreadsheet software.

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