OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS

By:
DR. LOW WEN PEI
FACULTY OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND
MATHEMATICS
INTI INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
CONTENT:
 Introduction
 Propertis of Open-Channel Flows
 Types of Flow in Open Channel
 State of Flow in Open Channel
 Velocity Distribution in Open Channel
 Geometrical Properties of Open Channel
 Freeboard
 Fundamental Equations
 The Continuity Equation (conservation of mass)
 The Energy Equation (Conservation of Energy)
 The Momentum Equation (momentum principle)
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS HYDRAULIC ENGINEERS
(CIVIL ENGINEERS)?

Deals with flowing water

Water can flow in two different channels – pipes and open channel
No Flow in Pipes Flow in Open Channel
1 No water surface Water surface can be clearly seen
2 The flow responds to energy The flow is driven by the elevation difference
grade line
3 Known Depth Depth usually unknown and normally function of
discharge and geometry
4 Water flow by the difference Water flow by gravity/ atmospheric pressure
in pressure
5 Example: Pipe Example: river, stream, canal, culvert, sea, etc.

Half Full pipe is considered as Flow in

Open Channel or Flow in Pipes ?
 Properties OF OPEN-CHANNEL FLOWS
 Natural Flows:
 Not regular nor prismatic and their materials of construction can vary
widely. Prismatic channel- channel with the same cross-sectional shape and
with the same bottom slope along the channel reach.

 The surface roughness often change with time and elevation.

 Difficult to accurately than for man made channels.

 The situation is more complicated if the boundary is not fixed (i.e. erosion
and deposition of sediments).

 eg. Streams, rivers, creeks, floods, etc.

 Human-made/ Artificial systems:
 Channels made by man.

 Usually constructed in a regular cross-section shape.

 Commonly constructed of concrete, steel, or earth and have the surface

roughness reasonably well defined.

 Analysis of flow in such well defined channels will give reasonably accurate
results.

 eg. Irrigation canals, sewers, culverts drainage, etc.

TYPES OF FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL
Type of Flow in Open Channel

Steady Flow Unsteady Flow

Time Criteria (dy/dt)

Uniform Non-uniform
Flow Flow Space Criteria (dy/dx)

Rapidly Gradually Rapidly Gradually

Varied Varied Varied Flow varied flow
Flow Flow
 Time criteria (dy/dt)
 Steady Flow
 The water depth (y) at one section in the channel remains the same at all time (t).
 Unsteady Flow
 The water depth (y) at one section in the channel varies with time.
 Space criteria (dy/dx)
 Uniform Flow (a)
 The water depth (y) remains the same along the channel reach (x).
 Non-uniform Flow (b)
 The water depth (y) varies along the channel reach (x)
 It is further divided into:
 Rapidly Varied Flow
 Depth change is rapid
 Gradually Varied Flow
 Depth change is gradual
 SteadyUniform Flow  constant depth in time and
distance
 SteadyRapidly Varied Flow  varies depth rapidly and
remain constant at all time
 SteadyGradually Varied Flow  varies depth gradually
and remain constant at all time
 State of Flow in Open Channel

State of flow is influenced by 3 different

forces:
 Inertia Force
 Viscous Force
 Gravity Force

In flowing water, inertia force is more dominant.

 Impact of Inertia Force and Viscous Force

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
= 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑅𝑒
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜈𝑅𝜌 𝜈𝑅
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝜐
 Where:-
 𝜈 = average flow velocity (m/s)
 R= hydraulic radius / pipe diameter (m)
 𝜌= fluid density (kg/m³)
 𝜇 = fluid dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)
 𝜐= fluid kinematics viscosity (m²/s)
 Depending on the Reynolds number, state of flow in
open channel may be:

1.Laminar flow (Re≤500)

• Very slow and shallow flowing water in very
sooth open channels

2.Transitionflow (if 500< Re <1000)

• Ordinary flow in ordinary open channels
• Between laminar and turbulent flow

1.Turbulent flow (Re ≥1000)

• Faster and chaotic flow
 Impact of Inertia Force and Gravity Force

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
= 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝐹𝑟
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜈
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔𝐷
A combination of both the
 Where: numbers is used to describe
channel flow conditions.
 𝜈= average flow velocity (m/s)
 g= gravitational acceleration (m/s²)
 D= hydraulic water depth (m), A/T; A is the
area and Tis the top width of the channel
 Depending on the Froude number, 𝐹𝑟 , the state of flow in
open channel may be:

1. 𝐹𝑟 =1: Critical Flow (Intermediate)

2. 𝐹𝑟 <1: Subcritical Flow (slow and deep flowing water)
3. 𝐹𝑟 >1: Supercritical Flow (fast and shallow flowing water)
Question 1:

A sluice gate introduced to a

flow imposes subcritical flow
upstream of the gate and
supercritical flow
downstream of the gate.
Depths y1 and y2 make up an
alternate depth pair

The system shown in the figure has a specific discharge of 3m²/s. The
depth, y1, upstream of the sluice gate is 2 meters. Determine the
upstream Froude number, Fr
 Velocity Distribution in Open Channel
 The flow velocity, 𝑣 is also important to solve open channel problems. In
reality, velocity varies from essentially zero at the channel bottom to
generally a maximum value at or near the water surface.

 Velocity also varies across the width of the channel in potentially very complex
ways depending upon the channel shape.

 However, we rarely consider this variation. Instead we work with a single,

aggregate value of velocity that represents a mean value across both the
depth and width of the channel cross-section.
Geometrical Properties of Open Channel
 y= water depth (or flow depth), meter
 T= top water width, meter
 B @ b= bottom channel width, meter
 P= wetted perimeter, meter
 A= wetted cross-sectional area, m²
 W= side length, meter
 R= hydraulic radius, meter;R=A/P
 Z= side slope with 1 Vertical: z horizontal or 1 (V): z(H)
 Sₒ= channel bottom slope, tan 𝜃
𝐴
 D= hydraulic water depth, meter ;𝐷 =
𝑇

 Q= flow rate (or discharge), m³/s ;𝑄 = 𝐴𝜈

 𝜈= average flow velocity, m/s
 Freeboard
 Vertical distance between the highest water level anticipated in
the design and the top of the retaining banks. It is a safety factor
to prevent the overtopping of structures.
Question 2:
 GivenRectangle channel cross-section with
depth of flow 1.2m, channel width 2m and
freeboard 0.6m. Find T, A, P, R and D?
Question 3:

 Given Trapezoidal channel cross-section

with depth of flow 1.0m, channel width
0.5m, freeboard 0.2m and channel side
slope 1:1. Find T, A, P, R and D?
Fundamental Equations
 The equations which describe the flow of fluid are derived
from three fundamental laws of physics:

 Conservation of matter (or mass)

 Conservation of energy
 Conservation of momentum
 Conservation of matter
 Matter can not be created nor destroyed, but it may be converted
(e.g. by a chemical process).

 Influid mechanics we do not consider chemical activity so the law

reduces to one of conservation of mass.

 Conservation of Energy
 Energycan not be created nor destroyed, but may be converted from
one type to another (e.g. potential may be converted to kinetic
energy).

 Energy ‘losses’ energy converted from mechanical (potential or

kinetic) to some other form such as heat. (e.g. Friction loss)
 Conservation of momentum
 Thelaw of conservation of momentum a moving body cannot gain or lose
momentum unless acted upon by an external force.

 This is a statement of Newton’s Second Law of motion:

Force= rate of change of momentum

 To derive the basic equation the above conservation laws are applied by
considering the forces applied to the edges of a control volume within the
fluid.
The Continuity Equation (conservation of
mass)
 For any control volume,
 mass of flow entering - mass of flow leaving = change of mass within the control
volume
 Steady flow & fluid incompressible
 Mass flowing entering= mass flow leaving
 Considering the control volume above which is a short length of open channel of
arbitrary cross-section then, if 𝜌 is the fluid density and Q is the volume flow
rate/ discharge then mass flow rate is 𝜌Q and the continuity equation for steady
incompressible flow can be written
𝜌𝑄 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝜌𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔

 As Q, the volume flow rate / discharge is the product of the area, A and the
mean velocity, 𝜈 then at the upstream face (face 1) where the mean velocity is
𝜈1 and the cross-sectional area is 𝐴1 then :
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝜈1 𝐴1
 Similarly at the downstream face, face 2−→ 𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝜈2 𝐴2

 Therefore the continuity equation can be written as

𝜈1 𝐴1 =𝜈2 𝐴2
Question 4:
A pipe of diameter 0.2 m increases gradually
to 0.3 m. if it carries 0.08 m³/s of water,
what are the velocities at the two sections?

1 2
The Energy Equation (Conservation of
Energy)
 Consider the forms of energy available for the above control volume.
 If the fluid moves from the upstream face 1, to the downstream face
2 in time δt over the length L.
 The work done in moving the fluid through face 1 during the this time
is
 Work done=𝑝1 𝐴1 𝐿
 Where 𝑝1 is pressure at face 1
 The mass entering through face 1 is
Mass entering=𝜌1 𝐴1 𝐿
 Therefore the kinetic energy of the system is:
1 1
 KE= 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝐿𝑣 2
2 2

 If z1 is the height of the centroid of face 1, than the potential energy of

the fluid entering the control volume is:
 PE=mgz= 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝐿g𝑧1

 The total energy entering the control volume is the sum of the work
done, the potential and the kinetic energy:
1
 Total energy=𝑝1 𝐴1 𝐿+ 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝐿𝑣 2 +𝜌1 𝐴1 𝐿g𝑧1
2

 We can write this in terms of energy per unit weight. As the weight of
water entering the control volume is 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝐿g then just divide by this to
get the total energy per unit weight:
𝑝 𝑣12
 Total energy per unit weight= 1 + + 𝑧1 ----(1)
𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔

 At the exit to the control volume, face 2, similar consideration as (1)

• If no energy is supplied to the control volume from between the inlet and
the outlet then energy leaving = energy entering and if the fluid is
incompressible 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 = 𝜌

So,
𝑣𝑣122 𝑣22

• With a real fluid, energy loss is and want to investigate its effect

𝑣12 𝑣22
+ energy losses
Question 5:
A sluice gate in a 2.0 m wide horizontal rectangular
channel is discharging freely as shown in Figure. If the
depths a small distance upstream (y1) and downstream
(y2) are 2.5m and 0.2 m respectively, estimate the
discharge in the channel.

(1)By neglecting energy losses at the gate

(1)By assuming the energy loss at the gate to be 10% of the

upstream depth y1.
The Momentum Equation (momentum
principle)
 The concept of the conservation of momentum follows from Law 2.
𝑉2 −𝑉1
 𝐹=𝑀
𝑡
𝑀 What is Newton’s 2nd
 𝐹= ( )(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) Law?
𝑡
𝑀 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
 𝜌𝑄 = = × =
𝑡 𝑚3 𝑠 𝑠

 And Q=Av
 Therefore, 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 − 𝑉1

 The equation states that the algebraic sum of all external forces
acting in a given direction on a fluid mass equals the time rate of
change of linear momentum of the fluid mass In the direction.
 There are two kinds of forces associated with flow
in an open channel:
 Static (Fs) is quantified by hydrostatic pressure
distribution integrated over the depth of flow

 Dynamic (FD) is the product of mass flow rate

and the velocity:
Thank you!!