Trends in Food Science & Technology 27 (2012) 109e119
Viewpoint
Halal assurance in
food supply chains:
Verification of halal
certificates using
audits and laboratory
analysis
M. van der Spiegel*, H.J. van der
Fels-Klerx, P. Sterrenburg, S.M.
van Ruth, I.M.J. Scholtens-Toma
and E.J. Kok
RIKILT e Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen
University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 230,
6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands (Tel.: D31 (0)
317 480995; fax: D31 (0)317 417717;
e-mail: marjolein.vanderspiegel@wur.nl)
The global halal market is increasing. Worldwide a large num-
ber of standardization and certification organizations has been
established. This article discusses halal requirements, summa-
rizes applied standards and certification, and explores current
verification of halal certificates using audits and laboratory
analysis. Successive research can use the insights to achieve
appropriate assurance of halal food products and proper label-
ling for consumers and buyers.
Introduction
The global halal market is increasing (Nestl
e, 2009; The-
Economist, 2009). The halal food market is currently worth
16% of the entire global food industry and could account
for 20% of world trade in food products in the future
(Nestl
e, 2009). Asia, Africa and Europe account for
* Corresponding author.
0924-2244/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2012.04.005
respectively 63%, 24%, and 10% of the global market
(Hashim, 2010). Apparently, an increased number of con-
sumers asks for food products that comply with Islamic
law, like food products that do not contain pork or that con-
tain ritually slaughtered meat. Pew Forum on Religion &
Public Life (2011) estimates the total number of Muslims
worldwide at 1.62 billion heads, representing 23.4% of an
estimated 2010 world population of 6.9 billion. Europe
has a Muslim population of approximately 44.1 million
Muslims, constituting about 2.7% of its total population
(Pew-Forum-on-Religion & Public-Life, 2011). Conse-
quently, the Muslim population constitutes a considerable
market segment in today’s food market.
Until recently, the food industry has largely ignored the
Muslim consumer segment (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008). But
nowadays, the global halal food industry is developing. Es-
pecially Asian countries have taken initiatives such as the
development of halal standards, traceability systems, and
halal science centres (Hava, 2009; HSC, 2009; Junaini &
Abdullah, 2008). Currently, European food industry also in-
vests in the production of halal food. Some European re-
tailers added fresh halal meat to their assortments, and
some European manufacturers export products to Muslim
countries. Most of the halal products are channelled
through the Netherlands to serve markets within Europe,
the Middle East and Africa. The Netherlands boasts the first
ever facility of halal storage and warehousing in the world,
which has in turn stimulated the development of a world-
wide halal supply chain (WHF, 2009).
All products produced for the needs of Islamic con-
sumers must comply with halal criteria. These criteria refer
to the nature, origin, and the processing method of the food
product (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008). A halal food product is
defined as a food produced according to Islamic law
(Cerani
c & Bozinovi
c, 2009). Halal dietary laws determine
which foods are permitted or prohibited (i.e. haram) for
Muslims. These laws are found in the Quran and the Ha-
dith, and are explained and interpreted by Muslim scholars
(Riaz & Chaudry, 2004a). For Muslims, the dietary laws are
binding and must be observed at all times (Bonne &
Verbeke, 2008). Therefore, it is important to ensure the ha-
lal status of the food products. However, halal products on
the consumer market have often been found as haram in
many countries (Lam & Alhashmi, 2008). Failures are,
for instance, improper use of halal certificates or labels
on products (Hava, 2009; HMC, 2009a, 2009b), cross-
110 M. van der Spiegel et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 27 (2012) 109e119
contamination in the production of halal and haram food at
manufacturers, use of animals that are not slaughtered ritu-
ally (HMA, 2007; HMC, 2009b), and no consideration on
animal welfare (Stichting-Dier&Recht, 2010).
Muslims are attentive to the content of their foods, for
instance, since food chains are becoming longer and more
complex (Bergeaud-Blackler, 2005; Bonne & Verbeke,
2008). Products and ingredients are increasingly originating
from international trade. Moreover, composite products
may be mixed or contaminated with haram food. Numerous
ingredients like emulsions or aromas have an unclearly de-
fined origin which are not obligated to declare on the food
label (Cerani
c & Bozinovi
c, 2009). Food can be contami-
nated with pork, added in the form of emulsifier or other
substances such as gelatine, enzyme, glycerine, and leci-
thin. For example, pork fat can be used in bread as a sub-
stance of emulsifier E471 and E472. Other aspects of
halal production that cannot be measured analytically are
animal welfare, the ritual slaughter method, treatment and
separation of halal animals, cleaning and disinfection, sep-
aration of halal and haram food at all stages of the halal
food supply chain, and low concentrations of haram con-
taminants. Certification and labelling are needed to show
consumers and buyers within the chain that products are
manufactured by halal production methods. Laboratory
analysis of specific haram ingredients and audits of halal
production can prove non-compliance and compliance
with halal requirements and can, therefore, be used for ver-
ification of certificates and halal assurance systems.
Verification is one of the principles of the HACCP approach
and ensures compliance with the HACCP plan (CAC, 2003).
Although HACCP is developed for food safety, it can also be ap-
plied for religious food safety (Riaz & Chaudry, 2004b). In this
case, verification activities aim at judging the halal assurance
system afterwards. In practice, general verification by compa-
nies is often not appropriately performed (Keener, 2007) due
to lack of technical resources (Panisello & Quantick, 2001)
and record keeping (Baş, Y€ uksel, & Çavuşoglu, 2007). Verifi-
cation is commonly perceived by companies as an important
but costly activity (Nguyen, Wilcock, & Aung, 2004;
Panisello & Quantick, 2001) and as double checking (Taylor,
2001), but it is of major importance to ensure that the system
complies with the requirements (Martins & Germano, 2008;
Swanson & Anderson, 2000; Tompkin, 1994).
This article discusses halal requirements divided in reli-
gious halal criteria and legislative requirements. Addition-
ally, applied standards and certification are analysed, and
their verification using audits and laboratory analysis is ex-
plored. Successive research will use the insights to achieve
appropriate assurance of halal food products and proper la-
belling for consumers and buyers.
Halal requirements
Halal requirements can be divided in the religious halal
criteria of food production according to the Quran, and the
legislative regulation of animal welfare and labelling.
Halal criteria
The Islamic population is divided in four main denomi-
nations, i.e. Sunni Islam, Shia Islam, Kharijite Islam, and
Sufism. Worldwide, most Muslims belong to the Sunni
and Shia Islam; 75% being Sunni and 10e20% being
Shia (CIA, 2010). The Sunni is represented by four recog-
nized Islamic Schools of Thought (i.e. Hanafi, Maliki, Sha-
fi’i, and Hanbali), the Shia by three main branches or sects
(i.e. Ismaili, Jafari, and Zaidi). The different groups of
Muslims require varying halal criteria on some ingredients
and the slaughter method and, therefore, the Fatwa Com-
mission needs to establish distinct halal requirements
(Fauzi & Mas’ud, 2009).
All foodstuffs produced for the needs of Islamic con-
sumers must comply with halal criteria. In practice, a halal
food product should comply with following requirements
(Cerani
c & Bozinovi
c, 2009):
1. does not contain elements not allowed according to Is-
lamic law;
2. has not been in contact with prohibited/not allowed
substances during production, transportation and
storage;
3. is not stored in facilities or premises or transported us-
ing transportation vehicles which are not allowed.
Basically, all food products are permitted except those
that are explicitly forbidden according to Islamic dietary
laws including alcohol, pork, blood, meat from cadavers,
and meat of animals that have not been slaughtered accord-
ing to Islamic rules (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008; Riaz &
Chaudry, 2004a).
Meat is the most strictly regulated food product of all
foods in Islam (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008). Animals have
to be treated mercifully and humanely during housing,
transport and slaughter. The animal trucks are not allowed
to be overloaded and young animals have to grow up
closely to the mother (Stichting-Dier&Recht, 2010).
Slaughtering can only be performed by a Muslim or “peo-
ple from the book”, preferably a Muslim who is mentally
competent and familiar with the Islamic procedure of ani-
mal slaughtering. Animals must be alive and a specific
phrase must be said during the actual slaughtering. Slaugh-
tering is done using a sharp knife in the neck region with
minimal hurting of the animal and bleeding out (CAC,
1997; Cerani
c & Bozinovi
c, 2009; Regenstein, Chaudry,
& Regenstein, 2003). Some of these criteria are differently
interpreted by the diverse groups of Muslims. The criteria
are binding and must be observed at all times.
Besides halal and haram food products, there are also
suspected (i.e. mashbooh) food products which are products
with unknown origin, or where uncertainty exists about its
permission or prohibition under the Islamic laws. In prac-
tice, a wide range of food products falls under this non-
defined area between halal and haram products. Moreover,
 M. van der Spiegel et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 27 (2012) 109e119
there are also discouraged (i.e. makrooh) food products,
which are disapproved and may be offensive to one’s psy-
che, or are otherwise harmful for human health (e.g. smok-
ing) (Chaudry & Regenstein, 1994).
New food products have to be considered by the Fatwa
Commission. For instance, there is no consensus about
the acceptance of genetically modified products
(Omobowale, Singer, & Daar, 2009).
Legislation
Worldwide there is no national public law stipulating
that a product must be halal (Yahya-Ishmael, 2003). The
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) describes general
guidelines for use of the term halal (CAC/GL 24-1997)
(CAC, 1997). CAC accepts that there may be minor differ-
ences in opinion in the interpretation of lawful and unlaw-
ful animals and in the slaughter act, according to the
different Islamic Schools of Thought. As such, these gen-
eral guidelines are subjected to differences in interpretation
by the appropriate authorities. In principle, certificates
granted by the religious authorities of an exporting country
should be accepted by the importing country, except when
the latter requires justification for additional specific
requirements.
Legislation on animal slaughter for halal production
varies among countries around the world (Kijlstra &
Lambooij, 2008). Malaysia, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, and
Egypt have no specific legislation on animal slaughter. In
Malaysia, stunning before slaughtering is allowed (CNB,
2003; JAKIM, 2001). However, in New-Zealand slaughter-
ing without stunning is forbidden. Specific techniques used
for stunning before slaughtering have been accepted by Is-
lamic importers (Pleiter, 2005). The United Arab Emirates
(UAE) apply rules concerning slaughtering and accredita-
tion of Islamic associations. The GSM Decree No. 5/1985
describes hygiene requirements and slaughtering proce-
dures for livestock and poultry. In the United States of
America the Humane Slaughter Act defines ritual slaughter
as a humane slaughter method. However, in the European
Union (EU), Council Directive 93/119/EC allows that, in
the case of animals subject to ritual slaughter methods, re-
quirements of stunning ‘may’ not apply. This has resulted
in a wide variety of different attitudes towards ritual slaugh-
tering across Europe (Bergeaud-Blackler, 2007). In several
European member states, ritual slaughtering without stun-
ning is allowed, such as in Belgium, France, the Nether-
lands, Greece, Italy, and Portugal. In Austria, Denmark
and Finland, stunning has to be performed directly after
slaughtering (CNB, 2003). Croatia and Germany only allow
slaughtering without stunning of certain animal species for
the domestic market (Veerman, 2006). Sweden and Estonia
are member states that ban ritual slaughter. Besides, Swit-
zerland, Norway, and Iceland are European countries out-
side the EU that do not allow ritual slaughter (CNB,
2003; Luy, 2005). In the Netherlands, national legislation
(Decision on ritual slaughter, November 1996) describes
111
how ritual slaughter has to be performed. These procedures
are supervised by officials of the Dutch Food and Consumer
Product Safety Authority. The application of stunning is
still discussed about among several actors (e.g. government,
Islamic organizations, and slaughter organizations). A new
Council Regulation (EC) No. 1099/2009 has been pub-
lished aiming to replace the Council Directive 93/119/EC.
In this new regulation the possibility of ritual slaughter is
maintained.
Labelling legislation protects halal trademarks in case
a producer uses a halal logo for non-halal products. In Ma-
laysia, the Trade Descriptions Act 1972 and Food Act 1983
mainly protect halal labelling by explaining the definition
of ‘halal’, preparation of halal food, and the offence of fal-
sifying raw materials and halal documents (JAKIM, 2011).
In Indonesia, several food regulations are related to halal
certification and labelling such as Act of Consumer Protec-
tion No. 8/1999 and Government Regulation No. 69/1999
on Food Labelling and Advertisement (Fauzi & Mas’ud,
2009). The Act of Consumer Protection No. 8/1999 de-
scribes that producers or traders must not produce or trade
items that do not comply with the halal requirements for
production of items as stated in the halal label. The Indone-
sian Government Regulation No. 69/1999 states that it is
mandatory to declare that a product is not halal. If the prod-
uct contains pork or its components, it shall declare this by
a statement with a picture of a pig on the food label.
In European member states, Council Directive 2000/13/
EC describes that labelling must not mislead the consumer.
Recently, the European Parliament decided to oblige label-
ling of meat derived from non-stunned, religiously slaugh-
tered animals. Consequently, halal meat will have to be
labelled under the new EU legislation (DIALREL, 2010;
Hickman, 2010).
Halal standards and certification
Worldwide, several standardization and certification or-
ganizations have been established to control and assure
the production of halal food products, resulting in diverse
certificates and labels (Anir, Nizam, & Masliyana, 2008;
Ziegler, 2007). Today, authorized Muslim certification or-
ganizations have been set up in many countries to monitor
and inspect the abattoirs, manufacturers and distribution
outlets in their handling of the animals and halal products,
and to issue halal certificates (Lam & Alhashmi, 2008).
Halal standards
Halal standards are used to make halal production more
unambiguous. The standard certificates should support cus-
tomers and consumers in choosing products that comply
with halal requirements.
Worldwide, certification organizations are trying to estab-
lish a single voice, with a global umbrella institution that will
supervise all halal certifiers (see Table 1). Currently, the larg-
est of such an institution is the World Halal Council (WHC),
established in Thailand, which oversees about 41 halal
112 M. van der Spiegel et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 27 (2012) 109e119
Table 1. Examples of halal standards and guidelines worldwide.
Level Country
Global All countries
All countries
57 countries
All countries
Asia 10 South East Asian countries
Thailand
Malaysia
Indonesia
Persian Gulf countries 7 Persian Gulf countries
United Arab Emirates
Europe European countries
Austria
certification agencies from various countries (Hava, 2009).
WHC is establishing a unified halal food standard worldwide.
The Organization for Islamic Conference (OIC) also devel-
oped general guidelines on halal food for its 57 member
states spread over four continents. International collabora-
tion has been initiated between Malaysia, Indonesia, and
Thailand governmental agencies; IMT-GT (Indonesia Ma-
laysia Thailand Growth Triangle) with many activities to de-
velop capacity building in halalness (HSC, 2009).
Recently, a Global Halal Management System (GHMS)
has been developed, which addresses products, processes
and systems with a detailed framework to meet current in-
dustry demands. Specifically, the GHMS covers five major
elements: Halal Fundamental Requirements, Quality Man-
agement Systems, Food Safety Assurance Plans, Corporate
Social Responsibility and Environmental Management and
Sustainability (Intertek, 2010). This system is based on the
Thai halal standard THS24000:2552 developed by the Cen-
tral Islamic Committee of Thailand (CICOT). CICOT has
initiated to prescribe their halal standard as a global stan-
dard to obtain Thai halal products being acceptable globally
and to promote these products for expansion of the market
in the future (CICOT, 2009). In Thailand, besides the Thai
halal standard, a traceability system is available (i.e. Halal
Superhighway) (Tieman, 2011). This system combines the
halal standard and food safety system to link the halal infor-
mation in the whole supply chain (Saifah, 2010) and to as-
sure consumers that food products are religiously safe.
Besides Thailand, several countries such as Malaysia,
Indonesia, UAE, Persian Gulf countries, and Austria, have
already adopted their own halal standards (see Table 1).
Malaysia has a very good reputation of their halal stan-
dards that are certificated by JAKIM (Department of Is-
lamic Development Malaysia). JAKIM has developed
Organization Standard/guidelines
CAC CAC/GL 24-1997
WHC Unified halal food
standard worldwide
(in preparation)
OIC ICRIC-MHS-0110
CICOT GHMS
ASEAN ASEAN General guidelines
on the preparation
and handling of halal food
CICOT THS24000:2552
JAKIM MS1500:2004
LPPOM MUI Guidelines of Halal
Assurance System
GCC GSO993:1998; GSO1931/2009
UAE993:1998
CEN Guidelines on halal definition
(in preparation)
ASI ONR14200:2009
a traceability system through which details of halal prod-
ucts can be verified by consumers (Anir et al., 2008;
Junaini & Abdullah, 2008; Nasir, Norman, Fauzi, &
Azmi, 2011). Moreover, Malaysia has set quality standards
that involve the processing of halal food. At present, the
Malaysian government is using the global halal market as
an opportunity to establish the country as a halal hub for
halal products in this region. To achieve this goal, the gov-
ernment has set some international quality standards and
the Malaysian standard MS1500:2004 to be complied
with Malaysian food manufacturers in the production of
food (Noordin, Noor, Hashim, & Samicho, 2009; Talib &
Ali, 2009). The Malaysian standard prescribes practical
guidelines for the food industry on the preparation and han-
dling of halal food (including nutrient supplements) and
serves as a basic requirement for food products and food
trade or business in Malaysia (DSM, 2004).
In Indonesia, halal certification is based on general
guidelines of a halal assurance system and is conducted
by LPPOM MUI (The Assessment Institute for Foods,
Drugs, and Cosmetics, Indonesian Council of Ulama) in or-
der to ensure that the entire production process complies
with Islamic laws. However, the approval letter of halal
logo and/or halal statement on the label is issued by
NADFC (National Agency for Drug and Food Control).
Besides the Asian standards on country level, the Asso-
ciation of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) established
the “ASEAN general guidelines on the preparation and han-
dling of halal food” to be applied in 10 South East Asian
countries to the use of the term “halal” on the label, and
to specify slaughtering requirements.
For the Persian Gulf countries the Gulf Cooperation
Council Standardization Organisation established the
GSO993/1998 and GSO1931/2009 to govern conditions
 M. van der Spiegel et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 27 (2012) 109e119
for animal slaughter according to the rules of Islamic law.
UAE993:2000 is a standard concerning animal slaughtering
requirements according to Islamic law in the UAE.
In Europe the Austrian Standards Institute (ASI) has
published its national halal standard ONR14200:2009 to
define halal food chain requirements for compliance of
foodstuffs to Islamic law. However, several organizations
criticize this standard since it is considered to be based
on the Shia Islam. A European standard will be developed
(CEN, 2010) that is based on the demands of the involved
European stakeholders including Sunni Muslims. The halal
definition in this standard will be different from the Malay-
sian standard. Recently, meetings have been organized in
the Netherlands to inventory Dutch stakeholder opinions
and to determine the need to participate in the development
of a European standard.
Halal certification
In most European countries several private and indepen-
dent certification organizations are active. These include
Muslim Food Board and Halal Food Authority (UK), and
Halal Food Council of Europe (Belgium), amongst many
others. It remains unclear though whether all Islamic re-
quirements, from breeding to retailing, are inspected and
included in the different certification processes. Since sev-
eral principles of halal food have not been formalized yet,
they can obviously not be controlled (Bonne & Verbeke,
2008). In order to fight the increase of incorrectly labelled
products, the European Association of Halal Certifiers
(AHC-Europe) was founded in Brussels in February 2010.
In the Netherlands an official quality mark does not ex-
ist, but several logos are used. Meat with a halal quality
mark is hardly available in Dutch supermarkets. Other
food products like cheese can also be halal, but often no ha-
lal logo is used on the package. Examples of Dutch quality
marks for halal food products are Halal Tayyib by Halal
Feed and Food Inspection Authority (HFFIA), Halal Cor-
rect and Halal Plus by Foundation Halal Correct Certifica-
tion (TQ HCC), COHS and HQC certificates by Office of
Halal Slaughtering (COHS) and Office for Halal Quality
Control (HQC), and HIC certificate by Halal International
Control (HIC). For export of halal food products from the
Netherlands other certification organizations, like Qibla
Food Control from Germany, are sometimes used to fulfil
customer requirements. Certification organizations have to
be evaluated by international recognized and independent
Islamic organizations like the Fatwa Commission, LPPOM
MUI, and JAKIM. However, the halal certification organi-
zations are not accredited by the Dutch Accreditation
Council. The certification organizations use a variety of ha-
lal requirements and assurance systems, from well de-
scribed Malaysian standards to inspection criteria based
on trust, which makes it difficult to judge the halal certifi-
cates. Obtaining trust in halal products requires distinctness
in certificates, which can be achieved by generally accepted
standards and halal assurance systems.
113
Verification
To ensure that the food industry has met the require-
ments in producing halal foods, the halal production has
to be verified. Certificates and labelling are needed to
show consumers and buyers that products are manufactured
according to halal production methods. However, the lack
of a trustworthy halal logo drive consumers to seek addi-
tional assurance (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008). Islamic
butchers are highly trusted, since the butcher and his con-
sumers usually know each other well (Becker, Benner, &
Glitsch, 2000; Bonne & Verbeke, 2008). Also the butcher,
being a Muslim, is considered to be responsible for his
acts towards Allah (Benkheira, 2002; Bonne & Verbeke,
2008). However, supermarkets are perceived as being suspi-
cious or haram since consumers lack both information on
the supply chain and guarantees that cross-contamination
has not occurred (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008). Besides con-
sumers, importing buyers of halal food products require ap-
proval of appropriate production methods and raw
materials.
However, meeting all prescribed religious criteria is very
complex (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008). Therefore, a combina-
tion of audits and laboratory tests is required for verifica-
tion (Fauzi & Mas’ud, 2009). For example, the
application of a ritual slaughter method can be evaluated
by audits, and the use of halal ingredients by laboratory
analyses. Results of laboratory tests can confirm absence
of haram contaminants, but they cannot be used as a single
information source to guarantee the product is halal (Fauzi
& Mas’ud, 2009). However, laboratory analysis is required
if there is no clear information of halal ingredients on doc-
uments to decide upon approval.
Audits
Major aspects of halal production have been described in
standards and guidelines, like MS1500:2004 (DSM, 2004),
ONR142000:2009 (ASI, 2009), and CAC/GL 24-1997.
Moreover, certification organizations use their own halal
assurance systems. Certificates show compliance of food
production with these halal standards and systems to cus-
tomers and consumers.
Major aspects of halal auditing have been described in
standards and guidelines, like the Malaysian standard
ACB-Halal Product. Certification organizations have also
developed their own audit schemes. There is a difference
in strictness of auditing. Some state that audits have to be
conducted by at least two auditors who certify only the
batch they have evaluated during production, and cleaning
and disinfection. Other certification organizations have
only one auditor available or certify all product batches
produced according to the procedures of their halal assur-
ance system. Companies using more informal regulations
require Muslim employees to work at the production site
or auditors to check the site regularly. However, for others,
one or two annual checks or checking only if production
process changes are regarded sufficient. Another strictness
114 M. van der Spiegel et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 27 (2012) 109e119

issue in auditing is the question how far backwards into the

supply chain the auditor should go before declaring a prod-
uct halal; this differs from the acceptance of basic ingredi-
ents to a check of each ingredient at any time (Van Waarden
& Van Dalen, 2011). When food products are labelled with
a halal logo, food processing companies require the ap-
proval from an officially recognized certifying organization
to verify the halal production. This certifying organization
will audit and certify products, raw materials, additives,
production facilities, administration and management
(Apriyantono, 2001; Halalpreneur, 2001a).
Most authors only focus on evaluation of the slaughtering
process (Ziegler, 2007). However, haram contamination can
occur in the whole halal food supply chain, e.g. from breeder
to livestock farmer, distributor, slaughterhouse, meat proces-
sor, retailer, and consumer (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008; Snijders
& Van Knapen, 2002; Zadernowski, Verbeke, Verhe, &
Babuchowski, 2001). Riaz and Chaudry (2004b) have de-
fined the following halal critical control points (HCCPs) in
the halal meat supply chain (Riaz & Chaudry, 2004b): halal
animal, animal welfare, stunning, knife, slaughter person,
slaughter method, invocation, packaging and labelling, and
halal meat outlet (see Fig. 1). Apriyantono (2001) describes
that the most critical point to prevent use of haram materials
in production is the purchase of raw materials and ingredients
(Apriyantono, 2001). Moreover, receipt control and storage
are critical due to the potential risk of using haram ingredi-
ents and cross-contamination. Halal and haram food should
be separated at all stages of the halal food supply chain. Fur-
thermore, all halal products that are stored, displayed, sold or Fig. 1. The halal meat chain and identification of halal critical control points
served should be categorized and should be labelled as halal (HCCP) (based on: Apriyantono, 2001; Riaz & Chaudry, 2004a, 2004b).
at every stage of the process to prevent them from being
mixed or contaminated with haram items (Apriyantono,
2001; Halalpreneur, 2001b). All HCCPs in the halal food Since foods containing pork are prohibited for Muslims,
supply chain have to be controlled and verified. Audits ensure food control laboratories need to be able to carry out spe-
that these HCCPs are performed without contamination. cies differentiation of raw materials used for industrial
food preparation and the detection of animal species in
Laboratory analysis food products.
Monitoring of specific haram ingredients in raw mate- Determination of animal species in meat (chops, steaks,
rials, half fabricates, and final food products can prove etc.) is relatively straight-forward. However, identification
compliance with several halal requirements. of meat in complex and/or highly processed foods is
Laboratory analysis is not often used to prove the ab- more challenging. At the far end of the challenge scale
sence of haram ingredients. In Thailand, CICOT and Inter- are meat-derived protein ingredients, a group of high-
tek are developing a laboratory to conduct product testing protein ingredients primarily derived from animal by-
for halal standards and relevant regulatory requirements products (Tart
e, 2009).
(Intertek, 2010). Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand are Several analytical approaches have been developed to
also performing and developing product analyses in their identify animal species in food products (see Table 2).
Halal Science Centres, i.e. Halal Products Research Insti- These include analytical methods based on deoxyribonu-
tute (HPRI) at Universiti Putra Malaysia, the Indonesian cleic acid (DNA) techniques, and methods for detection
Halal Science Centre at Bogor Agricultural University, of the fat and protein composition, or volatile compounds.
and the Thai Halal Science Centre (HSC), the latter being DNA methods are very specific and sensitive and they
a network of laboratories of ten universities and institutions can be even used for highly processed materials, because
in Thailand. In the Netherlands, laboratory analysis for the DNA molecules are very stable. Polymerase chain reaction
verification of halal products is not commonly used; the ha- (PCR) methods are based on amplification of specific gene
lal assurance is to a large extent based on certificates that fragments. Methods for specific detection of pork DNA and
are verified by audits. some other animal species were described by Laube et al.
Table 2. Examples of haram ingredients that can be analysed by laboratory analysis methods.

M. van der Spiegel et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 27 (2012) 109e119
Haram ingredient Identification Examples of laboratory References
analysis methods
Animal speciesa Pork meat or pork DNA hybridization, DNA sequencing, PCR (Aida, Man, Raha, & Son, 2007; Aida, Man,
derivates, or meat Wong, Raha, & Son, 2005; Che Man, Aida,
from other animal Raha, & Son, 2007; Farouk et al., 2006; Farrokhi
species & Jafari Joozani, 2011; Kesmen, Sahin, & Yetim, 2007;
Laube et al., 2007; Tanabe et al., 2007)

Animal fat Fat composition: FTIR, NIRS, DSC, NMR, HPLC, LC-MS(/MS), (Che Man, Gan, NorAini, Nazimah, & Tan, 2005;
vegetable or GC, PTR-MS, electronic nose technology Fauzi & Mas’ud, 2009; Jee, 2002; Marikkar, Ghazali,
animal fat Long, & Lai, 2003; Marikkar, Lai, Ghazali, & Che Man, 2001;
Nurjuliana, Man, Mat Hashim, & Mohamed, 2011; Rohman &
Che Man, 2010; Syahariza, Man, Selamat, & Bakar, 2005;
Van Ruth, Rozijn, et al., 2010; Van Ruth, Villegas, et al., 2010)

Proteins, peptides Protein composition: SDS-PAGE, CE, FTIR, colorimetry, chromatography (Hashim et al., 2010; HSC, 2009; Venien & Levieux, 2005;
or amino acids collagen or gelatine (e.g. HPLC), immunoassays and immunoblotting (e.g. ELISA), Westermeier & Naven, 2002)
from pork origin from pork or other biosensors, NIRS, MS, 2D-PAGE coupled to mass spectrometric
animals techniques (MALDI-TOF)

Animal origin of Natural or synthetic SNIF-NMR, IRMS & SNIF-NMR, (Ebeler, 2007; Fauzi & Mas’ud, 2009)
ingredients origin, chemical or Isotope ratio-based finger prints, chiral GC analysis,
microbial conversion, C/N-ratio by CHN-analyser
bone or wooden origin

Alcohol Alcohol GC, electronic nose technology, (Anis Najiha, Tajul, Norziah, & Wan Nadiah, 2010; Boscaini,
PTR-MS Mikoviny, Wisthaler, Von Hartungen, & M€ark, 2004; Fauzi & Mas’ud, 2009)
a
Species may also be identified by compositional characteristics, e.g. fat and protein composition.

115
116 M. van der Spiegel et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 27 (2012) 109e119

(2007). A short fragment of the coding region of the cyclic
GMP phosphodiesterase gene was used to develop a pork
specific TaqManÒ real-time PCR. In this type of PCR
dual-labelled probes are used for real-time detection mak-
ing the test very specific. Because a very small, 108 base
pair, fragment of the gene is amplified the test also works
for processed food. The method is able to detect only five
genome copies of DNA and it is possible to analyse
many samples in one experiment (Laube et al., 2007).
Besides the measurement of pork DNA, other indicators
for animal substances can be determined by compositional
characteristics of fat, like fatty acid, triacylglycerol, sterol,
phenol, lignans, secoiridoids, flavonoids, and hydrocarbon
compositions (e.g. to identify the type of fat used in bread),
and proteins, peptides or amino acids (e.g. to identify the
origin of collagen or gelatine), or volatile compounds. Ex-
amples of analytical methods used for fat/lipid-based au-
thentication and detection methods for proteins are
presented in Table 2.
The two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
(2D-PAGE) coupled to mass spectrometric (MS) techniques,
mainly matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-
flight (MALDI-TOF) is rather important in proteomics.
The 2D-PAGE has the ability to resolve a complex mixture
of hundred proteins, while MS identifies them. High Perfor-
mance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is most efficient for
low-molecular weight (MW) peptides, and 2D-PAGE is at its
best for high-MW compounds. Capillary electrophoresis
(CE) allows the simultaneous analysis of nitrogen compo-
nents of any size although at a lower sensitivity.
Another haram food substance that could be analysed is
alcohol. Furthermore, differences between artificial and
natural compounds can demonstrate if a product is permit-
ted, e.g. the origin of flavour such as linalool by chiral gas
chromatography (GC) analysis (Ebeler, 2007) or a combina-
tion of Isotopic Ratios Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) and Spe-
cific Natural Isotope Fraction e Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (SNIF-NMR) (Fauzi & Mas’ud, 2009).
Laboratory tests can also be used to reduce the number
of mashbooh products, to measure the origin of the product,
or to investigate the compliance of products to Islamic law.
For these purposes, the various halal requirements among
different Muslim groups should be taken into account. Sci-
entific justification and results of laboratory analyses can
provide additional information for the Fatwa Commission
to evaluate the halal status of the products (Fauzi &
Mas’ud, 2009).
Fauzi and Mas’ud (2009) mention potential analytical
techniques for haram authentication. One of these in-
cludes isotope ratio-based finger prints to measure the or-
igin of materials (natural or synthetic, chemical or
microbial conversion) and the animal species considered
as haram. Another potential measurement is the Carbon
to Nitrogen ratio (C/N) which identifies if the origin is
vegetable or animal; activated carbon shows a bone or
wooden origin.
The selection of the most suitable technique depends on
the aimed type of haram compound(s), the composition of
the food product, the expected levels of haram constituents,
whether screening or confirmatory analysis is required, and
the measurement uncertainty allowed. The specificity and
sensitivity of detection methods determine the extent to
which the absence of haram ingredients can be demon-
strated. More sensitive, cheap and simple detection
methods for haram ingredients are needed to support the
verification of the halal status of food products. These de-
tection methods are especially needed to measure low
pork (derivate) contamination levels in composite and pro-
cessed food products.
The laboratory results from the application of detection
methods can be used as a proof of correct labelling when
food products are delivered to consumers or buyers in the
chain, or as a check whether suppliers indeed deliver prod-
ucts without haram substances.
Conclusions
Verification of halal control and assurance is important
to guarantee reliable halal food for consumers and to create
trust for buyers at the domestic market and in importing
countries. On the basis of a comprehensive literature re-
search followed by eliciting expert opinion this study shows
that a variety of halal requirements and halal assurance ac-
tivities are applied worldwide. There is no international
consensus on the halal definition and its assurance, which
makes certified halal food production ambiguous. Besides,
different audit methods are used to inspect compliance to
prescriptions of halal rules. Laboratory analysis is not often
used to prove the absence of haram ingredients. Current au-
dits and monitoring may be improved in the whole halal
supply chain to control and assure all prescribed religious
criteria. Further research should focus on consensus on a ge-
neric halal definition and its assurance. The large number of
currently used halal labels can be reconsidered to be classi-
fied to one generic halal label representing widely accepted
halal criteria or to specific labels representing the halal cri-
teria of various Muslim groups. Moreover, audits and labo-
ratory tests in the whole supply chain can be combined to
verify appropriate performance at critical halal production
steps and to confirm the presence of haram contaminants.
Widely accepted audit methods should be established and
the obtained audit information should be transparent and
traceable for all actors. For this purpose, a halal traceability
system should be further developed. More sensitive, cheap
and simple detection methods should be developed to con-
firm absence of haram contaminants in case there is no
clear information on documents to decide upon halal
approval.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge all experts who con-
tributed to this study and RIKILT for financing.
 M. van der Spiegel et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 27 (2012) 109e119
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