01 Concrete PDF

BUILDING MATERIALS AND
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
CONCRETE
ar. rey m. evangelista

JPT REVIEW CENTER
BUILDING MATERIALS AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
1. CEMENTING MATERIALS
T 1.01 Lime
1.02 Gypsum
O 1.03 Cement
P 2. STORAGE OF CEMENT
3. CONCRETE
I 3.01 Definition 3.07 Transporting and
3.02 Qualities of Good Placing
C Concrete 3.08 Shrinkage
3.03 Materials of Concrete 3.09 Curing
S 3.04 Slump Test 3.10 Admixtures
3.05 Proportioning 3.11 Forms
3.06 Mixing
4. PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.01Types of Processed Concrete
4.02 Aggregates for Light-weight Conc.

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1. CEMENTING MATERIALS
1.01 LIME
oldest manufactured building material

used as mortar and plaster by all the
early civilizations:

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LIME
• Egyptians used lime plaster before

2600 B.C.
• Greeks used it extensively for
mortars and plasters
• Romans developed a mixture of
lime putty and volcanic ash for the
first real cement.

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LIME
Manufactured by the
calcination of limestone
(carbonates of calcium
and magnesium).

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LIME
The carbonates
decompose into
carbon dioxide,
which is expelled,
and calcium oxide
(CaO) called Quicklime
quicklime.

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LIME
Before quicklime can be

used, it must first be mixed
with water in the process
called slaking or
hydration.
The lime has now become

calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2), known as
slaked lime or hydrated
lime.

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LIME
Hydrated lime + water = lime putty

Uses:
ingredient of hard-finish coat for
two- and three-coat Portland cement
plasters
for mixing with cement mortar or
concrete

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LIME
Purposes: A type of lime which will set

• increase its under water is hydraulic lime,
workability used only where slow
• decrease its underwater setting is required.
permeability to
water
• reduce cracking
due to shrinkage

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1.02 GYPSUM
Gypsum was used as a plaster by the
Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.
“Plaster” from the Greek

word for both the raw
material and calcined
product.

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GYPSUM
In architectural
terminology the words
“Plaster” and
“gypsum” are often
used interchangeably.

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GYPSUM
Gypsum rock is ground fine
and heated (calcined) (163 °F. to
171 °F.)
= 75% less water content
Plaster of Paris =
pure gypsum

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GYPSUM
Hardwall Plaster if 39.5 %

impurities are present or
added
- Admixture used to retard

the set and improve the
setting qualities.
- Harder than lime plaster,

sets more quickly and
thoroughly.

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GYPSUM
Gypsum plaster is rendered more plastic by
the addition of hydrated lime.
Fiber or hair is also sometimes added for
greater cohesiveness. The fiber may be hemp,
sisal or jute; the hair is generally cleaned goat
or cattle hair.

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GYPSUM
Gypsum plaster +
hydrated lime =more
plastic
Fiber or hair is also
sometimes added for
greater cohesiveness.
FIBER : HAIR:
• Hemp • cleaned
• Sisal goat
• Jute • cattle hair

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CEMENTING MATERIALS
1.03 CEMENT
HISTORY
First developed by the Romans
 slaked lime + pozzolana (volcanic ash)
which hardened under water.
With the fall of the

Roman Empire the art of
cement-making was lost
and for several centuries.

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CEMENT
In 1756, John Smeaton,

an Englishman,
rediscovered hydraulic
cement
SMEATON

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CEMENT
1824 Joseph Aspdin, an

English bricklayer and
mason, invented and
patented Portland cement.
Today, the word “cement”

generally refers to
Portland cement which is
the principal type of
cement in use. JOSEPH ASPDIN

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CEMENT
PRODUCTION
Portland cement is
obtained by finely
pulverizing clinker
produced by calcining a
proportioned mixture of
argillaceous (silica,
alumina) and calcareous
(lime) materials with iron
oxide and small amounts
of other ingredients.
CLINKER – AN
INCOMBUSTIBLE
RESIDUE FROM BURNT
COAL OR LAVA

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CEMENT
PRODUCTION
Types of Portland cement:
• slow-setting cement
• quick-setting high early
strength cement
• sulfate-resisting cement
for applications where
alkaline water and soils
occur
• White cement (or
stainless cement )which
is free of iron impurities
Portland cement is sold in bags
of 40 kilos total weight.

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CEMENT
2. STORAGE OF CEMENT
Cement should be protected at the building site from injury
through contact with dampness.
They should be stored in shed with a floor raised about

300mm (12”) from the ground.

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CEMENT
STORAGE OF CEMENT
Cement is soft and silky to the touch. If it has
lumps do not readily break, the cement has already
absorbed a damaging amount of moisture.
Cement should be used as soon as possible

after delivery.
Piles should be limited to twelve sacks in height.
Warehouse set - when the cement is stored in high piles

for long periods, there is a tendency for the lower layers to
harden caused by the pressure above.

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3.0 CONCRETE
3.01 DEFINITION
Concrete is:
• a proportioned mixture of cement + aggregates + water.
• a plastic mass which can be cast, molded or formed
into predetermined size or shape
• upon dehydration, becomes stone-like in strength,
hardness and durability. The hardening of concrete is
called setting.
• when mixed with water and a fine aggregate of less than
6mm (¼“) is known as mortar, stucco or cement plaster.

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CONCRETE
Concrete is:
• when mixed with water, fine aggregate

and a large aggregate of more than 6mm
(¼”) in size produces concrete.
• when strengthened by embedded steel,
is called reinforced concrete.
• when without reinforcement, is called
plain or mass concrete.

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CONCRETE
3.02 QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE
Concrete should be:
• Strong
• Durable
• of uniform quality, and
• thoroughly sound.

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CONCRETE
These are obtained through:
• careful selection of materials

• correct proportioning
• thorough mixing
• careful transporting and
placing
• proper curing or protection
of the concrete after it is
placed

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CONCRETE
3.03 MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
a. Cement
• in reinforced-concrete construction should be

high-grade Portland cement conforming to the
“Standard Specifications and Test for Portland
Cement” of the American Society for Testing
Materials (ASTM).
• The kind of tests usually made are:
 soundness, or constancy of volume
 time of setting
 fineness
 tensile strength
Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately

1 cu. ft. and weighs 40 kgs.

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CONCRETE
MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
inert mineral fillers used
b. Aggregates are: with cement and water
in making concrete,
should be particles that
are durable strong,
clean, hard and
uncoated, and which
are free from injurious
amount of dusts, lumps,
soft and flaky particles,
shale, alkali, organic
matter loam or other
deleterious substances.

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CONCRETE
MATERIALS OF CONCRETE
• Fine aggregates
(aggregates smaller than
6mm (¼”) in size) consist
of sand, stone screenings
or other inert materials of
similar characteristics.
Specs: 80 to 95% shall
pass a No. 4 wire cloth
sieve and not more than
30% nor less than 10%
shall pass a No. 50 sieve.
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CONCRETE
• Coarse aggregate (aggregate larger than

¼” in size) consists of crushed stones,
gravel or other inert materials of similar
characteristics.

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CONCRETE
Coarse aggregates should be
well graded
will readily pass between all
reinforcing bars and between
reinforcement and forms
but not exceed 25mm (1”) in size
for reinforced beams, floor slabs,
& thin walls.
 may range up to 50mm (2”) for
less highly reinforced parts of the
structures such as footings, thick
walls, and massive work.
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CONCRETE
• Special aggregates, such as cinders, blast
furnace slag, expanded shale or clay, perlite,
vermiculite, and sawdust, may produce:
- lightweight, nailable concrete
- thermal insulating concrete.
+ =

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CONCRETE
c. Water
- should be free from oil,
acid, alkali, vegetable
matter, or other deleterious
substances
- should be reasonably clear
and clean.
- The use of sea or brackish
water is not allowed.

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CONCRETE
- Water combines with the

cement to form a paste
which coats and surrounds
the inert particles of
aggregates.
- Upon hardening, it binds the
entire mass together.
- The strength of the mixture
therefore depends directly
upon the strength of the
paste. If there be an excess
of water the paste becomes
thin and weak and its holding
power is reduced.

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CONCRETE
- The water-cement ratio is the amount of water used

per bag of cement.
- This usually varies from 5 to 7 gallons, with 6.5
gallons as average for ordinary job conditions. The
less water used in mixing, the better the quality of
concrete.
- The ideal mix is one that is plastic and workable. It
should not be too dry that it becomes too difficult to
place in the forms, nor too wet that separation of
the ingredients result.

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CONCRETE
WATER – CEMENT RATIO

Assumed 28-day Maximum water-
Compressive cement ratio Pounds of
strength U.S. gallons of water water per 100
(lbs. per sq. per sack Cement of lbs. of
inch) 40kgs cement
(psi)
2,000 7.00 62.0
2,500 6.50 57.5
3,000 5.75 51.0
3,750 5.00 44.5

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CONCRETE
3.04 SLUMP TEST
- used for measuring the consistency of a

concrete mix.
- Consistency may be defined as the “state
of fluidity of the mix”, and it includes the
entire range of fluidity from the wettest to
the driest possible mixtures.

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CONCRETE
In this test the tendency
of a mix to “slump”, or
reduce its height due to
gravity action, is
measured. The
apparatus consist of
metal cone:
 bottom opening
being 200mm (8”)
diameter,
 top opening being
100mm (4”),
 height exactly 300mm
(12”)
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CONCRETE
3.04 SLUMP TEST
In making the test, the slump tester is

placed on a flat, smooth surface and is
filled with newly mixed concrete from
mixer. In filling the mold with concrete, the
latter is tamped in with a 12mm (½”) rod
pointed at one end and the top of the
concrete is smoothed off exactly level. The
mold is then slowly raised vertically and the
height deducted from the original height of
300mm (12”) represents the slump.
No
SLUMP slump
Collapsed
slump
Bucket TOO WET SUITABLE TOO DRY

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CONCRETE
SLUMP TEST
A harsh mix is efficient for slabs, pavements, or mass concrete
where the lowest possible water-cement ratio is desirable.
The following table gives the permissible slump for various
types of concrete in relation to their uses:
CONSISTENCY (SLUMP)
TYPE / USE OF CONCRETE Maximum Minimum
Reinforced foundation walls and 125mm (5”) 50mm (2”)
footings
Plain footings, caissons, and 100mm (4”) 25mm (1”)
substructure walls
Slabs, beams, thin reinforced walls & 150mm (6”) 75mm (3”)
building columns
Pavements and floor laid on ground 75mm (3”) 25mm (1”)
Heavy mass construction 75mm (3”) 25mm (1”)

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CONCRETE
3.05 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
Briefly stated, the principles of proper proportioning are as

follows:
a. Use good quality materials: Portland cement, water, and aggregate.

b. Determine the strength of the concrete using the water-cement
ratio. (The strength increases as the water-cement ratio decreases).
c. Determine the consistency of the mix using the slump test using as
dry a mix as practicable.
d. Add correct proportions of aggregates to the cement and water as
will give a mix of the desired consistency.
e. Make a mix that’s workable, not harsh.

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CONCRETE
PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
The strength of a workable concrete mix depends upon the

water-cement ratio.
The economy of the mix depends upon the proper
proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregates.
There are several methods of proportioning concrete:
a. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions
b. Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test
c. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness

modulus

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CONCRETE
a. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

1 foot
Proportioning concrete by
the arbitrary selection of
the proportions is the
oldest, the most
commonly used, the most
convenient and the least
1 foot
scientific method.
In this method, the
aggregates are measured
by loose volume, that is, 1 foot
its volume as it is thrown

into a measuring box.
One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu. ft.

Enough water is used to give the desired consistency.

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CONCRETE
Common mixes expressed in proportions by volumes of cement
to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate are as follows:
CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
Class “AA” 1 : 1.5 : 3 For concrete under water, retaining walls
Class “A” 1: 2 :4 For suspended slabs, beams, columns, arches,

stairs, walls of 100mm (4”) thickness
Class “B” 1 : 2.5 : 5 For walls thicker than 100mm (4”), footings, steps,
reinforced concrete slabs on fill.
Class “C” 1: 3 :6 For concrete plant boxes, and any non-critical
concrete structures.
Class “D” 1 : 3.5 : 7 For mass concrete works.
The proportion is to be read:

Class A : 1 part cement is to 2 parts sand is to 4 parts gravel.
Each ‘part’ is equivalent to one cubic foot which is the measure of the box
constructed to be 1 foot (12 inches) on each of the three sides.
Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately one cubic foot.

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CONCRETE
There are two steps to be observed:

- Select the amount of water to be added
to the cement to give the desired strength
(see Table)
- Add just enough mixed aggregate to the
water and cement to give a concrete mix
the desired consistency.

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CONCRETE
It is customary to specify
- the cement in sacks
- the water in gallons per sack of cement
and
- the mixed aggregate in cu. ft. per sack of
cement.
Proportions of cement to fine aggregate to
coarse aggregate may be given if desired.

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CONCRETE
c. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and
fineness modulus
This method is the same as the second except
that the proportions of the fine and coarse
aggregate are determined by the fineness
modulus method.
For economy, proportion the fine & coarse
aggregates so that the largest quantity of
mixed aggregate may be used with a given
amount of cement and water to produce a mix
of the desired consistency of slump.

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CONCRETE
c. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and
fineness modulus
Comparatively, the coarse aggregate has a
lesser total surface to be covered with
cement paste and, therefore, is more
economical.
However, there must be enough fine aggregate
present to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate, or
extra cement paste will be needed for this purpose. A
well-graded aggregate contains all sizes of fine and
coarse particles in such proportions that the voids in
the combined aggregate will be a minimum.

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CONCRETE
3.06 MIXING OF CONCRETE
• Reinforced-concrete work
should be mixed by machine
• Machine-mixed concrete is
usually or more uniform quality
than that mixed by hand and is
generally less expensive when
in large volume.
• The strength of concrete is
very largely dependent upon
the thoroughness of mixing.

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CONCRETE
MIXING OF CONCRETE
a. MACHINE MIXING
 In machine-mixing, the mixing of each batch

should continue not less than one minute after
all the materials are in the mixer and whenever
practicable,
 the length of the mixing time should be increased
to 1.5 or 2 minutes.
 The entire contents of the drum should be
discharged before recharging the mixer.
 The mixer should be cleaned at frequent intervals
while in use.

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CONCRETE
MIXING OF CONCRETE
Concrete mixers may be divided into two general classes:
Batch mixers -
into which
sufficient materials
are placed at one
time to make a
convenient size
batch of concrete,
the whole amount
being discharged in
one mass after it is
mixed.
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CONCRETE
3.06 MIXING OF CONCRETE
a. MACHINE MIXING
Continuous mixers -
into which the materials are
fed constantly and from which
the concrete is discharged in a
steady stream.
Concrete mixers may also be classified as:
- drum mixers
- trough mixers
- gravity mixers, and
- pneumatic mixers.
The drum mixers are the most common type.
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CONCRETE
b. HAND MIXING
- hand-mixing must be done on a

water-tight platform.
- cement and fine aggregate
shall first be mixed dry until the
whole is a uniform color.
- water and coarse aggregate
shall then be added and
- the entire mass turned at least

three times, or until a
homogeneous mixture of the
required consistency is obtained.
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CONCRETE
b. HAND MIXING
- since initial set of concrete takes place 1

to 3 hours after mixing, a batch may be
used anytime before initial set takes place,
provided that the mix is plastic.
- Regaging or retempering of concrete that

has been allowed to stand more than ½
hour is not to be permitted.

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CONCRETE
3.07 TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE
• Fresh concrete should

be transported from the
mixer as rapidly as
practicable by methods
that will permit the
placing of the concrete
in the forms before
initial set occurs and
without loss or
separation of materials.

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CONCRETE
• The delivery of the

concrete from the mixer
to the forms should be
fairly continuous and
uninterrupted.
• The time of
transportation should
not exceed 30 minutes.

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CONCRETE
•The concrete may be

transported by means
of barrows, buggies,
buckets, cableways,
hoists, chutes, belts
and pipes.

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CONCRETE
• When chutes are used,

the slope should not be
more than 1 vertical to 2
horizontal or less than 1
vertical to 3 horizontal.
The delivery end of the
chutes shall be as close
as possible to the point
of deposit.

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CONCRETE
• Before placing concrete, the forms shall be

cleaned and inspected, surfaces wetted or
oiled, and reinforcement properly secured.

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CONCRETE
• Concrete should be deposited in

approximately horizontal layers in
wall, column and footing forms.
They should not be piled up in the
forms which may result in the
separation of the cement mortar
from the coarse aggregate.
• Concrete should never be allowed
to drop freely over 5 ft. for
unexposed work and over 3 ft. for
exposed work.
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CONCRETE
3.08 SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE & TEMPERATURE CHANGES
• Shrinkage of concrete due to hardening and

contraction from temperature changes,
causes cracks the size of which depends on
the extent of the mass. They cannot be
counteracted successfully but they can be
minimized by placing reinforcement so that
large cracks can be broken up to some
extent to smaller ones.

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CONCRETE
SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE & TEMPERATURE CHANGES
• In long continuous length of concrete, it is

better to place shrinkage or contraction joints.
Shrinkage cracks are likely to occur at joints
where fresh concrete is joined to concrete
which has already set, and hence in placing
the concrete, construction joints should be
made on horizontal and vertical lines.

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CONCRETE
3.09 CURING OF CONCRETE
• Concrete must be allowed to “cure” or harden
after it is placed.
• Hardening is a rather slow process in which the
cement and water unite to form compounds that
give strength and durability to the concrete. It
continues as long as the temperatures are
favorable and moisture is present.
main factors that affect hardening:
- age or time
- temperature
- moisture.

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CONCRETE
• In order that the hardening may proceed favorably, the
fresh concrete, for about 7 days after placing, should
be protected from, excessive vibration, loads,
extreme heat or cold, too rapid drying, and contact
with impurities which may interfere with the chemical
action.
• The strength of the

concrete increases with
age when the curing
conditions remains
favorable.

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CONCRETE
CURING OF CONCRETE
• The increase in strength is rapid during the early ages
and continues more slowly as time goes on. The
compressive strength reaches about 60% of its own
maximum value at an age of 28 days and about 80% at
an age of 3 months.

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CONCRETE
Curing consists primarily in keeping the concrete

from drying out too rapidly. This may be done by:
a. Covering the
concrete. Floors
shall be covered with
paper sacking wetted
down at the edges or
with burlap, sand or
earth that is kept
moist, after the
concrete is hard
enough to walk on.
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CONCRETE
b. Removal of forms at prescribed time.

Forms shall not be removed until after the
time specified.
c. Sprinkling with water. Beams, columns
and walls are sprinkled or sprayed with
water as soon as the forms are removed.
d. Using curing compounds (discussions in
ADMIXTURES).

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CURING OF CONCRETE CONCRETE
Parts of Structure CURING PERIOD or TIME REQUIRED
FOR THE REMOVAL OF FORMS
FOOTINGS a. Massive footings a. 1 day (24 hours)
b. Cantilever footings b. 5 days (120 hours)
c. Slab footings c. 5 days (120 hours)
WALLS AND a. Massive walls, 30 a. Up to 2 M. high: 1 day (24 hours). Add 1 day
PLASTERS cms. thick or more (24 hours) for every additional meter or fraction
thereof.
b. Thin walls less than b. Up to 2 M. high: 2 days (48 hours. Add 1-1/2
30 cms. Thick days (36 hours) for every additional meter or
fraction thereof
c. Cantilever walls, c. Without loads, same as (b).

buttresses, counter
forts, diaphragms.
COLUMNS a. Ratio of height to a. 2 days (48 hours)
least diameter up to
4
b. Add to the above number 1 day (24 hours) for
b. Ratio of height to every additional meter or height or fraction
least diameter from there of but not more than 28 days (672 hours).
4 to 15.

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CURING OF CONCRETE CONCRETE
Parts of Structure CURING PERIOD or TIME REQUIRED
FOR THE REMOVAL OF FORMS
SLABS a. 3 to 7 ft. spans a. 3 ft. span, 5 days (120 hours). Add ½ day (12
hours) for every additional 1 ft. span or
fraction thereof.
b. Over 7 ft. span b. 7 ft. span, 7 days (168 hours). Add 1 day (24
hours) for every additional 1 ft. span or
fraction thereof but not more than 28 days
(672 hours).
BEAMS a. Sides a. 3 days
AND b. Bottoms b. Up to 14 ft., 14 days (336 hours). Add 1 day
GIRDERS for every 1 ft. additional span or fraction
thereof but not more than 28 days (672
hours).
ARCHES a. Spandrel walls a. 7 days (168 hours).
b. Spandrel arches b. 14 days (336 hours)
c. Main arches c. 21 days (504 hours)
BALUSTRADES, a. Steel & side forms a. 1 day (24 hours)
COPINGS,ETC.
R.C. PILES and a. Sides. a. 3 days (72 hours)
R.C. POSTS b. Bottom b. 14 days (336 hours)

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CONCRETE
3.10 ADMIXTURES
Substances added to cements, mortars, and
concrete for the purpose of improving or imparting
particular properties, such as:
• To improve workability of concrete, e.g. hydrated lime
• To improve durability by entertainment of air
• To accelerate setting or hardening (accelerators) e.g.
calcium chloride
• To retard setting (retarders).
• To improve wear resistance
• To impart water-repellant or waterproofing qualities, e.g.,
hydrated lime, waterproofing compounds, KAOLINE,
CELITE.
• To impart color, MINERAL OXIDES, COLORCON,
METALICHROME.
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CONCRETE
ADMIXTURES
Admixtures may be grouped into three categories:
• those for mixing into concrete

• those for mixing into mortar
• those for surface application or finish.
Admixtures come in powder, paste, and liquid

form, and are usually patented and sold under
trademark names.

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CONCRETE
ADMIXTURES
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES INCLUDE:

a. Accelerators - to speed up setting time, to develop
earlier strength, and to reduce length of time for
protection. Principal ingredients are calcium
chloride. Maximum amount added is 2 lbs. per bag
of cement.
Disadvantages: they increase the expansion and
contraction of concrete, reduce resistance to sulfate
attack, and increases efflorescence and corrosion
of high tension steels.

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CONCRETE
ADMIXTURES
b. Retarders - to slow down the hydration of

the cement during very hot weather.
Principal ingredients include zinc oxide,
calcium lignosulfonate, derivatives of
adipic acid.
Disadvantages: may cause some loss of early
strength and will therefore require careful control
and more frequent slump tests, also reduces the
expansion and contraction of concrete.

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ADMIXTURES CONCRETE
c. Air-entraining agents - introduce minute air
bubbles to greatly increase the resistance of
concrete to freezing and thawing, increase
plasticity and reduce bleeding. Addition of air-
entraining admixtures is usually in the
proportion of 3 to 6% of the volume of concrete.
They are manufactured from such ingredients
as rosin, beef tallow, stereates, foaming agents
(soap).
Disadvantages: These require careful control and more
frequent slump tests. They may also cause some loss
of strength.
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ADMIXTURES CONCRETE
d. Inert, finely divided powders such as

powdered glass , silica sand, stone dust,
hydrated lime
- are added to improve workability, used as per

manufacturer’s directions. Hydrated lime is
usually in the proportion of 10 to 15% of the
cement by volume.

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ADMIXTURES
CONCRETE
e. Waterproofing (permeability-reducing)
compounds - reduce the capillary attraction of
the voids in the concrete or mortar, but while it
may decrease water absorption of the concrete
or mortar, it does not render concrete
waterproof.
They are manufactured from stearic acid or its
compounds, mainly calcium steareate, and include
asphalt emulsions. They are introduced usually in
the amounts of 0.1 to 4.0% of the weight of
cement.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
ADMIXTURES CONCRETE
f. Colored pigments are mainly to used
to give color to concrete floors. There
are two types:
• Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for surface
coloring. They are dusted on, usually in two coats,
after all surface water has disappeared. The surface
is then finished with a steel trowel .
• Integral colors, for body coloring. Integral color
pigments are incorporated in the mortar topping.
They are mixed dry with the cement and aggregate
before water is added. Amount of color pigment
required is not more than 10% of the cement by
weight, generally 3 to 6 lbs. per bag of cement .
JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
ADMIXTURES
Admixtures for mixing into mortar include:

• Accelerators
• plasticizing agents (correctly called water-
reducing agents) to lower water cement ratio
and make the mix more workable
• waterproofing agents, and
• color pigments

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
ADMIXTURES
Surface application finishes for concrete consist of:

• hardeners
• color pigments
• special aggregates
• sealers
• abrasive materials
• waterproofing agents, and
• fillers and patchers.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
3.11 FORMS
a. LUMBER FORMS
Lumber used in form construction

should only be partially seasoned.
Kiln-dried lumber has a tendency
to swell when soaked by the
concrete, and this swelling causes
bulging and distortion of the
forms.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
LUMBER FORMS
Green lumber, on the other hand, dries out and

shrinks if allowed to stand too long before
the concrete is placed. This tendency of green
lumber to check and warp may, however, be
prevented to some extent by keeping the boards
thoroughly saturated with water.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
LUMBER FORMS
When using natural, well

seasoned lumber, care should
be taken not to drive the work
up too close, since forms
should always be left in a
position to experience some
slight swelling without any
undesirable results.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
LUMBER FORMS
• Sheathing lumber dressed at least one side and
both edges even are used where the removal and
cleaning of the forms are necessary for re-use .
• Sheathing lumber dressed on all four sides shall be
used in face work, where smooth and true surface is
important.
• Tongue-and-groove lumber will achieve tight joints
between boards in floor and wall panel construction.
• Simply dressing the lumber true to edge form square
of butt joints in the forms for columns, beams, and
girders.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
LUMBER FORMS
Sizes of lumber frequently used :
• 2-inch thick for columns, beams and

girder bottoms
• 1-inch thick for floor panels and beam
and girder sides
• 2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and
uprights
• 1 or 2-inch thick for cleats

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
LUMBER FORMS
Use nails sparingly in the
construction of forms
because unnecessary
nailing not only adds to
the labor of wrecking but
also renders the lumber
unfit for continued use.
Where nails must be used,
leave the head protruding
so that they may be
withdrawn without injury to
the lumber.
JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
LUMBER FORMS
All forms for concrete require a coating of some

lubricant to prevent concrete from adhering to the
wood and thus make a rough, unpleasant
appearance. Crude oil and petroline preserve the
forms against damage by alternate wetting and
drying.
Oil should not be used, however, on forms against

surfaces which are to be plastered, as oil prevents
adhesion of the plaster. In such cases, wetting
with water will be sufficient.
JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
LUMBER FORMS
The forms should be durable and rigid, and

should be well braced so that bulging or
twisting cannot occur. The joints should be
made tight enough to prevent leakage of the
mortar.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
FORMS
CONCRETE
b. PLYWOOD FORMS
Works best where a smooth surface is required. The
plywood should be waterproof, Grade “A” and at
least 12mm (½”) thick.
c. STEEL FORMS d. PLASTIC FORMS
Steel forms may be in the Polystyrene forms are now
form of pans for concrete available for concrete work.
joist construction or steel
decking or corrugated
steel for concrete slabs
and slab-and-joist
construction. .
JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
4. PROCESSED CONCRETE
4.01 TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE
a. “AEROCRETE”
• light–weight, expanded structural concrete
• produced by adding a small amount of metallic aluminum
powder to the mixture of Portland cement and sand of
cinders.
• On the addition of water, a gas is generated which
expands the wet mix and forms small air cells throughout
the material.
• used for structural floor and roof slabs, partition blocks
for sound proofing, wall insulation, in rooms of
refrigerator plants, lightweight fill on top of structural floor
and roof slabs.
• has excellent fire-resistive qualities.
JPT REVIEW CENTER
TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE CONCRETE
b. “GUNITE”
This is the mixture of sand and cement deposited under high
pneumatic pressure with a machine manufactured under the
trade name CEMENT GUN, to which the required supply of
water is added just before the dry constituents emerge from
nozzle.
GUNITE is used for encasing structural steel, when reinforced,
for floor and roof slabs and curtain walls. Ideal for swimming
pool construction.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE
CONCRETE
c. “PORETE”
A Portland cement concrete to which a chemical
foam is added to generate gases in the process
of deposition, resulting in light weight precast or
shop-made unit in both hollow and solid forms.
It is manufactured in solid slabs for short span
roofs and siding of industrial buildings.
d. “HAYDITE”
This is processed concrete added with lightweight
aggregate .

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
4.02 AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Lightweight aggregates have the following
advantages:
• Reduction of dead loads saves structural steel, reduces
bearing on foundation and cuts cost of concrete forms
• High insulating value is provided by numerous dead air
spaces .
• Rough texture of surfaces have good acoustical properties
.
• Lightweight allows easier handling of precast slabs and

blocks
• Lightweight plaster has less tendency to crack and its heat
resistance makes it a good material for fireproofing
structural steel
JPT REVIEW CENTER
AGGREGATES FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
CONCRETE
The major disadvantages of lightweight

aggregates are a result paradoxically of the
physical qualities which make them weight
saving and good insulators :
• Porosity requires changes in the usual
formulas for water and slump, and closer
supervision of mixing. Very light aggregates
tend to float out of the mortar and some
coarse aggregate concrete mixtures require
the addition of a fine aggregate like sand to
prevent harsh working and serious bleeding.
JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
• As aggregates become lighter they

become structurally weaker so the
strength of the matrix must be
modified by adding more cement.
More cement is needed, also to “wet”
the greater aggregate surface area,
due to the irregularity of the particles .

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
• The cost of raw aggregates is higher than for gravel, rock,

and sand because of small production facilities and the
additional processing that is sometimes necessary .
• Concrete using lightweight aggregate should not
weigh more than 75% of ordinary concrete. Since the
aggregates compromise about 50 percent of the usual
mixes, its weight should not be more than 50 percent of
that of rock or gravel aggregates for the same volume.
Grade rock, gravel aggregates weigh a little less than 100
lbs. per cu. ft. thus a good lightweight aggregate should
weigh less than 50 lbs. per cubic foot.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
Lightweight aggregates can be divided into four
general classifications :
a. Aggregates of volcanic origin
• Pumice, weighing from 25 to 60 lbs.per

cu. ft. is well qualified as a lightweight
aggregate when dry and well graded. It is
hard to be handled and mixed without
excessive breakdown.
Undesirable feature, however, is its water
absorption. This can be mitigated by
wetting the aggregate before it is mixed
with cement .
JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
a. Aggregates of volcanic origin
• Perlite is composed of stable silicates, and is inert and

thus durable for use as a lightweight aggregate or for
insulation. Its disadvantages are its friability, small
particle size, and extreme lightness. The small particle
size requires more cement, while its lightness, from 8 to
16 lbs. per cu. ft. increases the tendency to float out of
the mortar.
Perlite is useful where
maximum strength is not
required, as in precast slabs
and blocks and in floor fill,
fireproofing and plaster .
JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
b. Micaceous minerals
• Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral which expands on

application of heat to as much as 30 times its original
volume.
Dried ground ore is subjected to about 1,800 degrees
heat for 4 to 8 seconds, after which it weighs only 6 to
12 lbs. per cubic ft.
It is used as an aggregate
in concrete fireproofing steel,
for floor and roof fill, and for
acoustic and fireproof plaster.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
c. Expanded shales and clays
• Lightweight aggregates from shales and clays require
heating the material in a kiln to a temperature near
its fusion point. The material softens and coalesces to
a sticky mass; escaping gases are trapped, forming
cellular structures and expanding the volume of the
material about 50%.
The crushing and firing operations are varied with
different processes. In some, the material is fired to a
clinker, then crushed and sized; the process is often
reversed with crushing operation first.
Examples of clay, shale aggregates are “AIROX”,
“ROCKLITE”, Diatomite, “HAYDITE”. .
JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
d. By-product Aggregates
• Expanded Slag or “foamed” slags are made

by treating molten blast furnace slag with controlled
quantities of water or steam. Some slags are
expanded are expanded in pits in the ground; others
are made in machines. Close control of steam is very
important because too much granulates the slag,
yielding soft, friable particles; too little gives a heavy
aggregate.
• Foamed slag has been used for precast blocks,
cast-in-place walls of houses and for panel filling of
steel-framed buildings.
JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
d. By-product Aggregates
• Cinders are composed of the ash components

of the coal along with the various quantities of
unburned or partially burned combustible matter.
Cinders containing a minimum amount of
combustible material are satisfactory for use in
concrete but are not particularly weight saving.
Lightweight cinders often have unsound physical
and chemical properties.

JPT REVIEW CENTER
CONCRETE
WEIGHT OF AGGREGATE AND CONCRETE BY
TYPE OF AGGREGATE
Aggregate Weight per Cubic

Weight per Foot of Concrete
TYPE OF AGGREGATE Cubic Foot Using Aggregate
(Lbs.) (Lbs.)
Gravel 120 150
Sand 90-100 150
Crushed Stone 100 145
Crushed Bank Slag 80 110-130
Haydite (Expanded Clay, shale) 40-60 100-120
Foamed Slag 40-60 90-100
Cinders 40-50 110-115
Pumice 30-60 60-90
Diatomite 28-40 55-70
Perlite 6-16 40-65
Vermiculite 6-10 25-50

JPT REVIEW CENTER
End
CONCRETE

JPT REVIEW CENTER

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BUILDING MATERIALS AND

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oldest manufactured building material

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• Egyptians used lime plaster before

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Before quicklime can be

The lime has now become

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Hydrated lime + water = lime putty

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Purposes: A type of lime which will set

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“Plaster” from the Greek

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Hardwall Plaster if 39.5 %

- Admixture used to retard

- Harder than lime plaster,

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With the fall of the

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In 1756, John Smeaton,

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1824 Joseph Aspdin, an

Today, the word “cement”

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Types of Portland cement:

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They should be stored in shed with a floor raised about

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Cement should be used as soon as possible

Piles should be limited to twelve sacks in height.

Warehouse set - when the cement is stored in high piles

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• when mixed with water, fine aggregate

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3.02 QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE

Concrete should be:

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These are obtained through:

• careful selection of materials

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• in reinforced-concrete construction should be

Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately

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• Coarse aggregate (aggregate larger than

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- Water combines with the

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- The water-cement ratio is the amount of water used

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