About the Tutorial

Chemistry is one of the disciplines of science under which, we study about the various aspects
of the matters i.e. composition, properties, their reactions, and the use of such reactions to
form new substances. In its given premises, Chemistry includes a wide range of topics such
as organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, analytical chemistry,
biochemistry, etc.

Because of having wide range of topics, this tutorial is divided into two parts namely Chemistry
Part 1 and Chemistry Part 2. Further, these two parts are divided into different chapters for
an easy understanding.

Audience
This tutorial is designed exclusively for the students preparing for the different competitive
exams including civil services, banking, railway, eligibility test, and all other competitive
exams of such kind.

Prerequisites
This tutorial is partly based on NCERT Chemistry (class 8th to 10th) i.e. Part I and Part 2 is
prepared from the different reliable sources and represents largely the significant facts and
figures vital for the competitive exams.

This tutorial starts with the basic concepts of Chemistry; however, prior experience of reading
the NCERT science (Chemistry) books is recommended for the easy understanding.

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Table of Content
About the Tutorial.............................................................................................................................. 1

Audience ............................................................................................................................................ 1

Prerequisites ...................................................................................................................................... 1

Disclaimer & Copyright ...................................................................................................................... 1

Table of Content ................................................................................................................................ 2

CHEMISTRY – INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 9

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 9

BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY ............................................................................................ 12

RADIOACTIVITY ............................................................................................................. 15

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 15

Radioactive Rays .............................................................................................................................. 15

Alpha (α) Particles ............................................................................................................................ 16

Beta (β) Particles .............................................................................................................................. 17

Gamma (ү) Particles ......................................................................................................................... 17

Uses of Radioactive Elements .......................................................................................................... 17

NUCLEAR ENERGY ......................................................................................................... 18

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 18

Nuclear Fission ................................................................................................................................. 18

Types of Nuclear Fission ................................................................................................................... 19

Chain Reaction ................................................................................................................................. 19

Fission Reactions .............................................................................................................................. 20

Basic components of Nuclear Reactor .............................................................................................. 20

Nuclear Fusion ................................................................................................................................. 20

METALS ......................................................................................................................... 22

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 22

Features of Metals ........................................................................................................................... 22

Alloys ............................................................................................................................................... 23

Metal Terminologies ........................................................................................................................ 23

Application of Metals ....................................................................................................................... 24

METALLURGY ................................................................................................................ 25

SODIUM ........................................................................................................................ 28

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 28

Salient Features of Sodium............................................................................................................... 29

Sodium Compounds ......................................................................................................................... 29

Occurrence of Sodium ...................................................................................................................... 30

Uses of Sodium ................................................................................................................................ 30

CALCIUM....................................................................................................................... 32

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 32

Salient Features of Calcium .............................................................................................................. 33

Occurrence ....................................................................................................................................... 34

Compounds of Calcium .................................................................................................................... 34

Uses of Calcium ................................................................................................................................ 34

ALUMINUM................................................................................................................... 36

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 36

Salient Features of Aluminum .......................................................................................................... 36

Occurrence of Aluminum ................................................................................................................. 37

Compounds of Aluminum ................................................................................................................ 37

Usage of Aluminum .......................................................................................................................... 37

MAGNESIUM................................................................................................................. 39

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 39

Salient Features of Magnesium ........................................................................................................ 39

Occurrence of Magnesium ............................................................................................................... 40

Compounds of Magnesium .............................................................................................................. 41

Usages of Magnesium ...................................................................................................................... 41

MANGANESE................................................................................................................. 43

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 43

Features of Manganese .................................................................................................................... 44

Occurrence of Manganese................................................................................................................ 44

Compounds of Manganese ............................................................................................................... 44

Uses of Manganese .......................................................................................................................... 45

IRON ............................................................................................................................. 46

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 46

Salient Features of Iron .................................................................................................................... 46

Occurrence of Iron ........................................................................................................................... 47

Types of Iron .................................................................................................................................... 47

Compounds of Iron .......................................................................................................................... 47

Uses of Iron ...................................................................................................................................... 48

COPPER ......................................................................................................................... 49

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 49

Salient Features of Copper ............................................................................................................... 49

Occurrence of Copper ...................................................................................................................... 50

Alloys of Copper ............................................................................................................................... 50

Compounds of Copper...................................................................................................................... 51

Uses of Copper ................................................................................................................................. 51

SILVER ........................................................................................................................... 53

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 53

Salient Features of Silver .................................................................................................................. 53

Occurrence of Silver ......................................................................................................................... 54

Alloys of Silver ................................................................................................................................. 54

Compounds of Silver ........................................................................................................................ 54

Uses of Silver .................................................................................................................................... 55

GOLD ............................................................................................................................ 56

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 56

Salient Features of Gold ................................................................................................................... 56

Occurrence of Gold .......................................................................................................................... 57

Alloys of Gold ................................................................................................................................... 57

Compounds of Gold ......................................................................................................................... 57

Uses of Gold ..................................................................................................................................... 58

PLATINUM .................................................................................................................... 59

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 59

Salient Features of Platinum ............................................................................................................ 59

Occurrence of Platinum .................................................................................................................... 60

Alloys of Platinum ............................................................................................................................ 61

Compounds of Platinum ................................................................................................................... 61

Uses of Platinum .............................................................................................................................. 61

ZINC .............................................................................................................................. 63

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 63

Salient Features of Zinc .................................................................................................................... 63

Occurrence of Zinc ........................................................................................................................... 64

Alloys of Zinc .................................................................................................................................... 64

Compounds of Zinc........................................................................................................................... 64

Uses of Zinc ...................................................................................................................................... 65

MERCURY...................................................................................................................... 67

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 67

Salient Features of Mercury ............................................................................................................. 67

Occurrence of Mercury .................................................................................................................... 68

Alloys of Mercury ............................................................................................................................. 68

Compounds of Mercury.................................................................................................................... 68

Uses of Mercury ............................................................................................................................... 69

PLUTONIUM.................................................................................................................. 70

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 70

Salient Features of Plutonium .......................................................................................................... 70

Occurrence of Plutonium ................................................................................................................. 71

Alloys of Plutonium .......................................................................................................................... 71

Compounds of Plutonium ................................................................................................................ 72

Uses of Plutonium ............................................................................................................................ 72

URANIUM ..................................................................................................................... 73

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 73

Salient Features of Uranium ............................................................................................................. 73

Occurrence of Uranium .................................................................................................................... 74

Alloys of Uranium ............................................................................................................................ 74

Compounds of Uranium ................................................................................................................... 74

Uses of Uranium .............................................................................................................................. 75

LEAD ............................................................................................................................. 76

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 76

Salient Features of Lead ................................................................................................................... 76

Occurrence of Lead .......................................................................................................................... 77

Alloys of Lead ................................................................................................................................... 77

Compounds of Lead ......................................................................................................................... 77

Uses of Lead ..................................................................................................................................... 78

Pre-caution: ..................................................................................................................................... 78

THORIUM ...................................................................................................................... 79

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 79

Salient Features of Thorium ............................................................................................................. 79

Occurrence of Thorium .................................................................................................................... 80

Alloys of Thorium ............................................................................................................................. 80

Compounds of Thorium.................................................................................................................... 80

Uses of Thorium ............................................................................................................................... 81

HYDROGEN ................................................................................................................... 82

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 82

Salient Features of Hydrogen ........................................................................................................... 82

Occurrence of Hydrogen .................................................................................................................. 83

Compounds of Hydrogen.................................................................................................................. 83

Uses of Hydrogen ............................................................................................................................. 84

HELIUM ......................................................................................................................... 86

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 86

Salient Features of Helium ............................................................................................................... 86

Occurrence of Helium....................................................................................................................... 87

Compounds of Helium ...................................................................................................................... 87

Isotopes of Helium ........................................................................................................................... 87

Uses of Helium ................................................................................................................................. 87

OXYGEN ........................................................................................................................ 89

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 89

Salient Features of Oxygen ............................................................................................................... 89

Occurrence of Oxygen ...................................................................................................................... 90

Compounds of Oxygen ..................................................................................................................... 90

Uses of Oxygen ................................................................................................................................ 91

CARBON ........................................................................................................................ 93

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 93

Salient Features of Carbon ............................................................................................................... 93

Occurrence of Carbon ...................................................................................................................... 94

Compounds of Carbon...................................................................................................................... 94

Uses of Carbon ................................................................................................................................. 95

NITROGEN..................................................................................................................... 96

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 96

Salient Features of Nitrogen ............................................................................................................. 97

Occurrence of Nitrogen .................................................................................................................... 97

Compounds of Nitrogen ................................................................................................................... 97

Uses of Nitrogen .............................................................................................................................. 98

CHEMICAL LAWS ........................................................................................................... 99

DISCOVERY OF ELEMENTS........................................................................................... 102

Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 102

ELEMENTS WITH THEIR VALENCE ............................................................................... 106

ELEMENTS WITH THEIR ATOMIC NUMBER.................................................................. 111

NOBEL PRIZE IN CHEMISTRY........................................................................................ 117

 CHEMISTRY – INTRODUCTION

Introduction
 Chemistry is a branch of Natural Science that studies about the structure, composition,
and changing properties of matters.

 Chemistry studies the smallest part of a matter i.e. atom (along with its all properties) to
the large materials (e.g. gold, silver, iron, etc.) and their properties.

 Chemistry also studies the intermolecular forces (that provide matter the general
properties) and the interactions between substances through the chemical reactions.

 In 1998, Professor Raymond Chang defined Chemistry as –

"Chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.

 It is believed that the study of chemistry started with the theory of four elements
propounded by Aristotle.

 The four theory of elements states that “fire, air, earth, and water were the fundamental
elements from which everything is formed as combination.”
 Because of his classical work namely “The Sceptical Chymist,” Robert Boyle, is known
as the founding father of chemistry.

 Boyle formulated a law, became popular as ‘Boyle’s Law.’

 Boyle’s law is an experimental gas law that analyzes the relationship between the pressure
of a gas and volume of the respective container.

 By advocating his law, Boyle rejected the classical ‘four elements’ theory.

 The American scientists Linus Pauling and Gilbert N. Lewis collectively propounded the
electronic theory of chemical bonds and molecular orbitals.

 The United Nations declared 2011 as the ‘International Year of Chemistry.’

 The matter is defined in chemistry as anything that has rest mass and volume and also
takes space.

 The matter is made up of particles.

 The atom is the fundamental unit of chemistry.

 The atom consists of a dense core known as the atomic nucleus and it is surrounded by
a space known as the electron cloud.

 The nucleus (of an atom) is composed of protons (+ve charged particles) and
neutrons (neutral or uncharged particles); collectively, these two are known as
nucleons (as shown in the image given below).

 A chemical element is a pure form of a substance; it consists of single type of atom.

 The periodic table is the standardized representation of all the available chemical
elements.

 A compound is a pure form of a substance; it composed of more than one elements.

A molecule is the smallest indivisible part of a pure chemical substance; molecule has
distinctive set of chemical properties (see the image given below).
 BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY

 The following table illustrates the branches of chemistry:

Branch Sub-branch Definition

Physical Chemistry Study of the physical properties of molecules

Chemical Kinetics Study of the rates of chemical reactions

Study of the interaction of atoms, molecules,

ions, and electric current (i.e. electron transfer
Electrochemistry
between the electrode and the electrolyte or
species)

study of chemical reactions at surfaces (of

Surface chemistry
substances)
Physical
Chemistry
Study the relation between the chemical action
Thermochemistry
and the amount of heat absorbed

Quantum Study of application of quantum mechanics in

Chemistry physical models

Spectroscopy Study of spectra of light or radiation

Photochemistry study of the chemical effects caused by light

Study of structure, properties, and preparation of

Organic Chemistry the chemical (carbon) compounds (e.g. fuels,
plastics, food additives, and drugs)

Organic Study of the relative spatial arrangement of

Stereochemistry
Chemistry atoms (in molecules)

Physical organic study of structure and reactivity

chemistry (interrelationship) in organic molecules
 Study of polymer molecules (composition and
Polymer Chemistry
creation)

Organometallic Study of chemicals that contain bonds (especially

Chemistry between a carbon and a metal)

Medicinal Study of designing, developing, and synthesizing

chemistry the drugs & medicines

Study of all materials that are not organic (such

Inorganic
as minerals, metals, catalysts, crystal structures,
chemistry
etc.)

Organometallic Study of chemical compounds containing bonds

Chemistry (especially between carbon and metal)

Solid-state Study of chemical compounds that contains

Chemistry bonds between carbon and metal

Inorganic
Nuclear Chemistry Study of radioactive substances
chemistry

Study of chemical composition the earth (e.g.

Geochemistry
rocks, minerals & atmosphere)

Bioinorganic Study of interactions between metal ions and

Chemistry living tissue

Coordination
Chemistry

Study of chemical reaction (and changes) in

Biochemistry
living beings

Molecular
Study of Biomolecules along with their functions
Biochemistry
Biochemistry
Clinical Study of chemical changes in living beings,
Biochemistry caused by caused by different diseases

Study of the different types of DNA, RNA, and

Molecular Biology
protein biosynthesis (and their relationships)
 Agricultural
Study of chemistry of fauna (i.e. plants)
biochemistry

Study of standardized experimental methods in

Analytical
chemistry (i.e. quantitative determination of
Chemistry
chemical properties of a substance)

Study of the reactions of chemical elements and

Astrochemistry
molecules found in the universe

Study of the chemical composition of the matters

Cosmochemistry
found in the universe

Environmental Study of chemical and biochemical phenomena

chemistry that occur in the environment
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