BEM 1202:FUNDAMENTALS OF PEDAGOGY

CAT1

Q1.Explain five ways that a teacher ensures students attention is sustained in class.

Once the lesson has begun, the teacher’s main task is to maintain students’ attention, interest and
involvement in the activities which are at the same time educationally effective. This is a real
challenge which makes lesson management skills so sophisticated Kyriacou, 1998). Being aware
that without the students’ involvement the effective learning is not possible, some teachers
concentrate so much on keeping students engaged that they forget about the quality of learning.

In order to understand how to engage students during the instruction it is helpful to analyze the
concepts for conducting interaction elaborated by Kounin2. He was one of the first classroom
management theorist convinced that discipline and instruction are not separate entities and that
organization and planning are the keys to engaging students. In the 60s and the 70s Kounin and
his colleagues(Kounin, 1970,; Kounin and Gump, 1974; Kounin and Obradovic, 1968, as
described in Burden, 2003) made a series of studies which led to the development of some new
ideas regarding management of group activities.

a)Keeping good activity flow

“Activity flow” is the main concept that emerged from the mentioned research. is called It is
understood as “the degree to which a lesson proceeds smoothly, without digressions, diversions
and interruptions”( Emmer et al., 1889, p.124). According to this approach, the lesson with a
good flow will sustain students’ attention and will not give them opportunities for deviance
because the cues for students will be directed towards appropriate behaviors. When the lesson is
jerky, with frequent interruptions, the pupils will be likely to “go off-task”, their attention caught
by external cues. According to Konini (as described in Burden, 2003), activity flow is
maintained through three classes of teacher’s behaviors: appropriate reaction to misbehavior,
movement management and group focus.

- b)Appropriate reaction to misbehaviour

Within this type of behavior two related concepts are relevant: whiteness and overlapping.
Wittiness is the teacher’s ability to notice what is happening in the classroom ( Burden, 2003).
Moreover, it is “the degree to which the teacher corrects misbehavior before it intensifies or
spreads”(as quoted by Emmer et al., 1989, p.124) This notion is closely related to effective
monitoring3. The teacher who is not very “with it” will fail to target the right student or
intervene on time, before the problem escalates. Overlapping is another important concept
related to reaction to misbehavior. This notion refers to the teacher’s ability to deal with more
than one thing at a time without spoiling the flow of the lesson. To sum up, adequate wittiness
and overlapping skills, the lesson is not likely to be interrupted by students’ misbehaviour or any
external factors, thus the flow of the lesson is correct and the pupils are involved in the task.

c)Movement management

Two concepts are related to movement management: momentum and smoothness.

Momentum refers to pacing of the lesson. If the pace of activities is too fast, students will get
tired or find that they are missing important ideas. On the other hand, if the pace is too slow,
students’ attention will wander, they can get bored what could lead to disruptive behaviour.
Therefore, teacher has to be able to recognize how long to dwell on each particular point in order
to maintain an adequate pace of the lesson

It ’ s important to be able to identify what causes delays and minimize them in order to keep the
lesson moving at a right pace.

d) Group focus

Group focus is also necessary to maintain the activity flow in classroom instruction. Teaching
groups requires skills to keep the whole class involved and attentive while individuals are
performing. Group alerting means ability to sustain attention of the whole class during the
performance of individuals. Students must know that they need to pay attention while an
individual is speaking. This can be reached by creating suspense. If the students know that they
might be called on next to comment on what their peer has said they will be likely to pay
attention. Moreover, it is possible to use a visual aid, display or an attention-getting strategy.
(Burden, 2003). Accountability is another technique to maintain group focus. It consists in letting
students know that their work will be observed and assessed. It does not have to be done by
grading. The teacher can simply ask the students who know the answer to raise a hand and then
call a few randomly. It is also possible to make the students show their work or write the
answers.

Higher participation formats is another concept which, contributes to maintain group focus. His
research proved that lessons in which pupils are expected to solve problems, write answers,
manipulate material or read instead of answering the teacher’s questions have a higher rate of
participation.5

e)Attention-getters.

Physical attention getters are stimulus that attracts our senses, e.g. pictures, music,

Videos. Provocative attention-getters involve element of surprise, being unpredictable or playing

the devil’s advocate while emotional ones involve the learners emotionally. There are also
emphatic attention-getters, which cue students to a particular issue, e.g. by saying: You should
pay careful attention now. The next fragment is very important”.
f)Adequate classroom arrangement.

The students should be seated facing the speaker (the teacher, a student or a guest). Moreover, a
seating arrangement should not discriminate against any students. It is recommendable to move
around the room, change seating arrangement frequently and let high and low-achieving students
sit together to enhance on-task behaviour of all the class.

g)Variety of instructional media and methods.

In order to avoid dull routine, the teacher should use different instructional approaches, materials
and resources.

h)Encouragingness

Encouragingness is a term introduced by Kyriacou (1997), which embraces the following three
aspects:

- Providing enjoyment and stimulation. It is recommendable to use authentic materials which

“are likely to be more interesting and intellectually more stimulating than many past offerings”(
Wringe, 1995, p.18) . Thus, they will be receive d by students with interest and pleasure.
Moreover, the lesson should be suited to student’s abilities, in other words, it should follow the
rule of cognitive matching (Kyriacou, 1998).

i)Reinforcing students’ effort.

According to professor Paul Burden (Burden, 2003), encouraging statements contribute to create
a positive learning environment and consequently, improve students’ motivation and
engagement.

j)Using questions effectively.

Don’t call on students in prearranged format, instead, use unpredictability and variety6

k)Using active listening skills.

It is necessary to use nonverbal skills to make the students feel that you are really interested in
what they are saying.
Q2.Explain the criteria that a teacher can use when choosing instructional materials

Criteria

Each school should develop its own criteria for selecting materials for effective teaching programs, but
virtually all criteria relate to two general requirements for selections: materials must (1) have a clear
connection to established educational objectives and (2) address the needs of the students for whom
they are intended.

The following are some criteria of selecting instructional material to be used in teaching .

(i)Connection to Educational Objectives

Instructional materials in the English language arts program should align with the general philosophy of
the school or district, the curriculum goals and objectives of the English language arts program, and the
learning outcomes of the particular course or grade level. For instance, some materials may be included
because they reflect the school’s philosophy of encouraging critical thinking in relation to controversial
situations and points of view. Or materials may be included because they meet the curriculum objective
of presenting articulate voices from different eras or diverse cultures.

Materials must be selected with an eye toward coordinating instruction within and between grade

Teacher expertise is clearly privileged within the criteria to make text complexity determinations using
qualitative and reader/task considerations and requires the careful deliberation of those selecting
materials.

(ii)Relevance to Student Needs

Materials should be examined for level of difficulty. They must be readable if they are to be truly
accessible to students. Because readability formulas tend to be simplistic measures, such formulas
should be used cautiously, if at all. Teachers’ judgments about the difficulty of a work are more soundly
based on complexity of plot, organization, abstractness of the language, familiarity of vocabulary, and
clarity of syntax. Also, because the average classroom includes students reading at several levels of
proficiency, materials judged as inappropriate for whole-class instruction might be suitable for small-
group use or for independent reading by more capable readers.

Reading materials which draw upon students’ backgrounds are desirable. Both comprehension and
engagement are enhanced when students can activate relevant background knowledge as they read,
connecting their personal experiences with vicarious experiences. This does not deny the value of
reading about the unfamiliar and even the fantastic. But the relevance of a work to students’ daily lives
or to the lives of their imaginations is worthy of consideration in the selection process.
(iii)Procedures for Selection of Instructional Materials

Good schools, recognizing the importance of support from parents and the community, operate within a
framework for democratic decision making. Materials selection and challenged materials policies are
important parts of that framework. Well-established procedures for selecting instructional material
ensure public involvement and professional guidance. Therefore, it is essential that materials selection
policies clearly describe the steps involved in the selection process and the personnel responsible for
each step.

(iv)Responsibility for Selection

Selecting materials requires in-depth knowledge: not just of students’ backgrounds and learning
experiences, but also of their abilities and interests; not just of educational objectives, but of the best
practices and range and quality of materials for meeting them; not just of the particular work being
considered, but of its place within the medium, genre, epoch, etc., it represents. In short, responsible
selection demands not only the experience and education needed to make sound choices but also the
ability to defend the choices made.

This level of expertise can be found in the English language arts professional. Therefore, although
administrators and school boards are often legally charged with the responsibility of selecting
instructional materials, this responsibility should be delegated to English language arts professionals.

(v)Selection Procedures

Selection procedures may vary in terms of the size of the group, nonteacher participants, and schedules,
but certain elements are important. In general, selection is most appropriately done by the English
language arts teachers who are closest to the students–that is, by teachers at the building level. The
group’s charge must be clearly specified and understood by all. The process should be part of the
school’s annual schedule, and adequate time must be set aside for the work at hand.

(v)Opportunity for Informal Selection

Creative teachers take advantage of opportunities to use materials which do not lend themselves to the
formal selection process e.g., current online newscasts, websites, videos, blogs, e-books, articles,
student writing samples, or materials for short-term projects. Such supplemental materials may be
selected by the appropriate instructor; but again they must meet the general selection criteria of
educational relevance and ability to meet student needs.

Q3.Explain the implications of Maslow’s theory of teaching and learning.

Learners in courses or training can be preoccupied—they worry about other courses, their home life,
friends, extracurricular activities, physiological needs like food and sleep, and the list goes on. When
learners are preoccupied with these concerns, learning and achievement are regularly put on the back
burner. Why? According to one human psychologist, it’s because current concerns are driving the
learner’s behavior. When learners are concerned about certain needs, their behavior is centered on
meeting those needs. Other concerns will then take precedence over learning and achievement. So how
do we get our learners to focus on learning? Instructors can help learners satisfy needs, so the focus can
be on content, learning, and achievement.

Applying Maslow’s Hierarchy

Now that we understand the basic tenets of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, it is important to understand
how this knowledge can be applied to learning and achievement.

First, we must realize that unfortunately we cannot meet the physiological needs of all of our
learners. There is no possible way that a teacher or group leader can provide food, clothing, shelter, and
adequate sleep for each learner. Fortunately, free and reduced lunch programs have helped combat the
effects of hunger in schools. However, ensuring that learners have clothing, healthy personal hygiene
habits, and adequate sleep is still a concern. Furthermore, based on this model, we know that when
these basic needs are not met, learners will not be able to focus on learning. Unfortu

-nately, we must deem this need as one that we cannot meet as teachers, but we can do our best to
provide learners with access to programs within our school that address these needs.

In terms of safety needs, there are several factors that teachers and group leaders can consider to
help make learners feel safe. As discussed earlier, a feeling of safety can be derived from a routine or a
predictable world. As teachers or group leaders, it is important to establish a routine in your learning
environment. Clearly define procedures and rules for your learners. Provide an agenda for the day so
learners know what to expect. Learners will feel they have more control over the learning environment
by simply being aware of what to expect during instruction.

In addition, learners should feel psychologically and emotionally safe within your learning
environment. As the teacher, you should provide an environment where learners feel at ease to take
risks—answering questions, asking questions, or sharing their thoughts, without fear of ridicule from
other learners. Learners will also want to establish trust with the teacher.In order to help satisfy love
and belongingness needs, as well as self-esteem needs, a learner will want to feel loved and cared
about. They often seek this fulfillment from teachers or other personnel. As teachers or group leaders,
we must ensure that our learners know they are valued as individuals. Teachers must take advantage of
every opportunity to reinforce positive learner behavior and self-esteem. Let learners know that you
appreciate the effort they are making during your time together in your learning environment. This
reinforcement will aid in a learner’s development of a favorable self-image.

Conclusion

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Its Relation to Learning and Achievementeachers and group leaders
mainly deal with the four

deprivation needs (physiological, safety, love and belong

-ing, and self-esteem). Any efforts that you can make to contribute to these needs will greatly improve a
learner’s ability to learn and achieve in your learning environment.

Make sure that you take time to get to know your learners and understand their knowledge level and
level on Maslow’s

Hierarchy. By doing this, you will be in a better position to help learners move up the hierarchy. Often
we must seek outside or governmental resources (for lower need-level learners) in order to help
prepare learners for a learning situation. However, the more you understand the basic needs of each
student, the more likely you are to help remove obstacles from learning so that learning can be