hammer, 63.

5kg
ACEG434 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
drop height 760mm
In-situ and laboratory measurements

Objective
borehole
In this lecture we will learn about the tests we carry out on soils to determine their
parameters for foundation design. rods

Introduction sampler

As discussed in the previous lecture, we can measure soil parameters either in-situ bottom of borehole
(in the ground where the soil is found) or in the laboratory on samples of soil brought
to the surface. There are advantages and disadvantages of each technique, as we Figure 1: Standard penetration test (SPT) equipment
have learned before. We will discuss both techniques separately in this lecture.
So that all SPT results from around the world have the same meaning, they are
In-situ measurements corrected to a standard energy ratio of 60%. The SPT N value is then given as N60.
For example, if using British SPT equipment, the N value measured on site is
There are many methods of carrying out in-situ tests on soils. Most of them involve recorded as normal on the borehole log. The Engineer later corrects the N value to
digging a borehole first, and then the test instrument is lowered into the bottom of its N60 value by multiplying by 60/70.
the borehole and the test carried out on the soil at the bottom of the borehole. After
the test, the borehole is dug deeper and another in-situ test carried out as specified. Correlation of SPT results with shear strength of clays
The effective stress friction angle ϕ′ of clay cannot be measured with the SPT
The most common in-situ testing method is the standard penetration test (SPT)
because it needs a long-term shear failure and the SPT is a quick dynamic test.
and we shall look at this method in some detail.
Therefore, we can only measure the short-term undrained shear strength cu of clays
which, in foundation design, is the more critical strength. The SPT is particularly well-
Standard penetration test (SPT)
suited to the measurement of cu.
During an SPT, a sampler is driven into the soil at the base of a borehole. The
sampler is like a half-tube, 50mm diameter, which collects a disturbed sample of soil
For most clays the correlation with N60 shown in Figure 2, which varies depending on
during the test. This is very useful as it allows you to look at the soil that has been
the plasticity of the clay, will give a reasonable estimate of the undrained shear
tested and you can carry out some further tests at the laboratory.
strength cu in kPa.
The sampler is driven into the soil by dropping a 63.5kg hammer through 760mm
onto the top of the instrument (see Figure 1). The hammer is dropped repeatedly until
the sampler is driven 450mm into the soil. The number of hammer drops required to
drive the sampler the last 300mm into the soil is counted and is called the standard
penetration number N. The stronger and stiffer the soil, the higher the N value
needed to drive the sampler into the soil. Later, the Engineer uses correlations to
estimate soil strength and stiffness parameters from the N value.

Not all the energy from the falling hammer is used in driving the sampler into the
ground. A lot of energy is lost through inefficiencies of the hammer, bending of the
rods and in pushing the sampler into the ground. This would not be a problem if the
SPT equipment used around the world were all the same. But most countries have
small differences in their equipment which means energy losses vary between
countries and different equipment.
Figure 2: Correlation between N60 value and cu (Stroud, 1974)
The proportion of energy from the hammer that reaches the soil is called the energy
ratio. For example, in the U.S. there are two hammer types which each have energy
ratios of 60% and 45%. In the U.K. there is one hammer type which has an energy Since the SPT is a quick and inexpensive test, estimates of undrained shear strength
ratio of about 70%. can be made at many depths and locations under a site. This allows a profile of
undrained shear strength cu to be drawn against depth, similar to the typical example

1 2
shown in Figure 3. Generally, the cu value will increase with depth because of the
bigger in-situ effective stress with depth, although near the surface there will often be
a harder layer of drier clay. If the foundation is supported on a hard surface layer
over a weaker layer, it is safer to assume the foundation pressure is distributed down
to the top of the weaker layer and the foundation design is continued with the
foundation level at the top of the weaker layer.

Estimates of undrained shear strength cu from SPT results should always be checked
with some laboratory tests on clay samples to check that the correlation is
appropriate.

Undrained shear
strength cu (kPa)
0 50 q1
0
strong soil or 1
q2
dry crust layer 2 d
dry crust
Depth below ground level (m)

2
2 If foundation is supported by a
/3B foundation strong layer over a weak layer,
4 width B assume the foundation
pressure is distributed down to
6 the top of the weak layer over a Figure 4: Estimation of friction angle ϕ′ from N60 values (Mitchell et al., 1978)
conservative 1:2 slope.
Correlation of SPT results with soil stiffness
8 Then calculate average cu
For bearing resistance value in weaker layer as The settlement of clays depends largely on the long-term drained stiffness of the clay
calculation, use the average cu before. E′0 and this cannot be measured with a short-term dynamic test such as the SPT. It
value through this depth 2/3B is better to take measurements of clay stiffness in the laboratory or conservative
10
estimates of stiffness can be made from correlations with cu values (e.g. Eu/cu ≈ 500
12 for low plasticity clays, Eu/cu ≈ 250 for high plasticity clays).

Figure 3: Typical undrained shear strength cu profile for soft to firm clay and
determination of cu values for foundation design
Correlation of SPT results with shear strength of sands and gravels
The SPT is also well-suited to the estimation of shear strength (friction angle ϕ′) of
sands and gravels. Since the vertical effective stress in a soil increases with depth,
more hammer drops (higher N value) will be required as each test becomes deeper
even though the friction angle ϕ′ may stay the same.
Therefore, the SPT N60 value must also be corrected for the vertical effective stress
to obtain an estimate of the friction angle ϕ′. The graph in Figure 4 carries out this
correction and allows you to estimate friction angle ϕ′ from N60 values.
Estimating the stiffness of sands and gravels from SPT results is also difficult. The
stiffness of a sand or gravel under a static load is difficult to estimate from a dynamic
test. There are other in-situ testing methods which are better suited to estimating
stiffness but some correlations do exist between sand or gravel stiffness and SPT N60
value. One of these is shown in Figure 5, and it shows the high dependence of
stiffness on stress level and stress history.
Other in-situ test methods
There are many other methods of in-situ testing available including shear wave
velocity, cone penetration test, pressuremeter and plate load test. More information
about these can be found in the recommended textbooks and on the internet.

3 4
 Figure 5: Correlation between SPT N value and stiffness of sands and gravels
(Stroud, 1989)

Laboratory measurements

Apart from in-situ testing, the other option for obtaining soil parameters is by taking
samples of soil from the borehole and bringing them to the laboratory for testing. In
the laboratory, test conditions can be controlled more easily and more precise
measurements are possible.

Undisturbed samples of sand and gravel are difficult to obtain. We can build our own
sample of sand or gravel for testing if we know the particle size distribution and
density of the sand or gravel under the site. However, strength and stiffness data are
normally obtained from in-situ tests. Disturbed samples of sand and gravel are used
for general classification tests such as particle size distribution and specific gravity.

Cheaper disturbed samples of silt and clay can be used for classification tests such
as particle size distribution , specific gravity and the Atterberg limits (important for the
next lecture on expansive soils).

Strength and stiffness of clays and silts is measured on undisturbed samples. As you
learned in the Soil Mechanics subjects, stiffness can be measured in the oedometer
and both strength and stiffness can be measured in a triaxial cell.