International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340

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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Evaluation of a human skin surface temperature for the protective

clothing – Skin system based on the protective clothing–skin imitating
material results
Piotr Furmański ⇑, Piotr Łapka
Institute of Heat Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Nowowiejska St. 21/25, 00-665 Warsaw, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Experimental studies used for evaluation of quality of the fire-fighters protective clothing are based on
Received 14 December 2016 irradiation of the clothing sample by an external pulse of a given duration. The other side of the clothing
Received in revised form 6 May 2017 sample is in contact with a material imitating the human skin, which has properties different than these
Accepted 9 June 2017
of the skin. Therefore the problem considered in this paper was: what conditions should be satisfied to
convert the experimental results, carried out on the stand with a skin-imitating material, to the case
of the real human skin with different properties for which the experiments are not made? This will allow
Keywords:
for better evaluation of the clothing protecting properties and estimation of the possible burns. Due to
Heat transfer
Protective clothing
multilayer structure of the protective clothing and skin as well as complex phenomena involved in
Skin temperature energy transfer through them the problem is very complicated. Therefore at the first attempt to solve
Temperature conversion method the problem a simplified two-layer, clothing-skin system irradiated from external heat source was con-
sidered in the present paper. Temperature variation in the system was initially determined using the in-
house 1D numerical code accounting for heat conduction in the skin and clothing, non-grey thermal radi-
ation absorption, scattering and emission together with the water vapour diffusion and phase transfor-
mations of bound water to the gaseous phase in the protective clothing. Then the analytical model for
temperature variation in the considered system was proposed and solved using the Laplace transform
approach. In the latter model water vapour diffusion with its phase transformations were excluded
and radiation emission was neglected. The analytical model allowed for deriving a formula which can
be applied for converting the skin surface temperature obtained from the experiments carried out using
the skin-imitating material to the material having skin properties. In order to verify the range of validity
of the formula the analytical predictions were compared to the results of numerical simulations of tem-
perature in the protective clothing-skin system considering cases in which different phenomena were
included. For the majority of the cases studied good matching between analytical and numerical results
was obtained for time corresponding to the heating and cooling processes of the protective clothing-skin
system.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In many professions, e.g., firefighters, soldiers, petro-chemical
workers hazards caused by gas ignition, gas and steam explosions,
electric arc, etc. can occur. Thermal exposure related to these phe-
nomena have usually high intensity, of an order of 80 kW/m2, and
is characterized by short time of duration of an order of seconds.
During extinguishing of fires (including forest fires) the firefighters
are exposed to longer thermal loads, which may be both radiative
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: pfurm@itc.pw.edu.pl (P. Furmański), Piotr.Lapka@itc.pw.edu.pl
(P. Łapka).
and convective but of lower intensity. Contact with these hazards
may lead to a risk of serious thermal skin burns. Therefore, to pre-
vent thermal injuries the firefighters wear the special protective
clothing allowing them to safety escape to a secure location in case
of emergency situation. The typical protective clothing is made of
several layers of fabric material, e.g., outer shell, moisture barrier,
thermal insulation and inner layer separated by thin air gaps –
see Fig. 1. Performance of these clothing is directly related to com-
plex ways of heat and moisture transfer through such multilayer
garments as well as to heat transfer in the human skin.
Quality of the protective clothing is evaluated both by numeri-
cal simulations and experimental investigations. The simulations
are based on complex models accounting for different ways of heat

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.06.033
0017-9310/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1332 P. Furmański, P. Łapka / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340
Fig. 1. Schematic of the multilayer structure of the protective clothing and skin.
and moisture transfer in the clothing [1–11]. Moreover, they
require detailed knowledge of a variety of clothing properties as
well as the model of human skin in order to predict skin burns.
The experimental studies use either a mannequin placed in a
chamber with a flash fire generated or the specially designed lab-
oratory stands with samples of the protective clothing
investigated.
In the first case fire test system uses the life-sized mannequin
made from a flame-resistant polyester resin reinforced with fibre-
glass. The mannequin is instrumented with a large number of heat
flux sensors distributed over the surface of its body. The measure-
ments are carried out on a mannequin dressed with the test gar-
ment or protective clothing [12]. The heat coming from the flash
fire generated in the chamber is transferred through the protective
clothing and the air gap, located between the clothing and man-
nequin and finally to the heat flux sensors located on its surface.
Data from the sensors are collected by a computer and translated
into the surface heat flux history, then into the skin temperature
distribution history and finally are used for the skin burn damage
prediction [12].
In the case when the specially designed laboratory stands are
applied one side of the clothing sample is often irradiated by an
external heat pulse of a given duration. The opposite side of the
sample is in contact with a material imitating the human skin
(skin-simulant). Temperatures of the front and back sides of the
clothing sample are usually measured with thermocouples. Keltner
[13] measured clothing samples placed between a film heater and
a skin-simulant sensor. The other side of the sensor was exposed to
the ambient air. Temperature elevation of the skin-simulant sensor
was recorded, and then this information was input into a skin
model to predict the time to II degree burns [13,14]. Temperature
recorded at the back side of the sample clothing (opposite to the
irradiated one) was also used for prediction of the fabric behaviour
[2] in the case when the back side of the clothing was thermally
insulated with a calcium silicate board. Torvi and Todd [11] used
the lab-scale test, in which a copper calorimeter with a thermocou-
ple mounted was placed on the other side of thermally irradiated
sample of the protective clothing. The calorimeter was mounted
in an insulating block and recording of its temperature allowed
to find heat flux leaving the sample and to estimate time required
to II degree burns [11]. In the further development of the test
methods the skin-simulant was chosen to be a 12.8 mm thickness
glass ceramic block with the thermal conductivity of ksi = 1.46 W/
(m K) and thermal diffusivity of asi = 7.3
107 m2/s, which
resemble properties of the human skin [15]. The skin-simulant
was attached to a water-cooled plate, whose temperature was kept
at 37 °C with a thermocouple mounted on the surface of skin sim-
ulant [16]. Temperature reading from the thermocouple was used
together with a semi-infinite body model to evaluate heat flux
reaching the skin-simulant [15–17]. Extension of the proposed test
method, originally based on the plate geometry, to the cylindrical
one allowed to study influence of the protective clothing on human
limbs (e.g., human arm) [18,19]. The test apparatus used the quartz
tubes distributed circularly around the adiabatic sheath. The cloth-
ing sample together with skin-simulant (glass ceramic) were
attached to the inner water-cooled cylindrical column maintained
at 37 °C by a constant temperature bath [18,19].
As already mentioned in the lab-scale tests one side of the sam-
ple is often irradiated by an external heat pulse of a given duration.
The other side of the sample is in contact with a material imitating
the human skin or the copper calorimeter which generally has dif-
ferent properties than the skin. Moreover, neither generation of
metabolic heat nor heat transfer by the blood perfusion are
accounted for in the skin-simulant. The question is then raised if
and how temperature measurements carried out on the skin-
imitating material can be converted to the time-variation in the
human skin surface temperature. The same question is valid for
the case when the life-size mannequin are used built from materi-
als with different properties than the human body. The correct
answer will allow to evaluate the clothing protecting properties
and estimate of the possible burns. Therefore the main objective
of the paper was to find a formula which will allow for conver-
sion of the results obtained on the experimental stands using
skin-imitating material to these corresponding to the real skin
properties. The problem is complex due multilayer structure of
the human skin and the protective clothing, different heat transfer
modes involved (heat conduction and thermal radiation accompa-
nied by moisture transport) and presence of the heat generation,
absorption and phase change phenomena (metabolic heat, thermal
radiation absorption and moisture phase transformations) in the
protective clothing-skin system. Moreover, the thermal radiation
can be spectrally emitted, scattered and absorbed [20]. Thus in
general it seems extremely complicated and even not possible to
accurately predict the human skin surface temperature variation
Tbs(t) basing on temperature measurements carried out on the
skin-imitating material Tbsi(t) as heat transfer phenomena and
properties of both media are different and lead to different thermal
interaction with the protective clothing.
 P. Furmański, P. Łapka / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340
Therefore at the first attempt to solve the problem a simplified
two-layer, clothing-skin system irradiated from external heat
source was considered in the present paper. The effective proper-
ties of the protective clothing and skin layers were found by aver-
aging the respective properties of the clothing and skin layers.
Temperature variation in the two-layer system was initially deter-
mined using the in-house 1D numerical code accounting for heat
conduction in the skin and clothing, thermal radiation absorption,
scattering and emission together with the water vapour diffusion
and phase transformations of bound water to the gaseous phase
in the protective clothing. The main purpose of numerical simula-
tions was to find which phenomena, accompanying heat transfer
through the protective clothing, are the most influential on the
variation in the skin surface temperature Then the analytical solu-
tion for temperature variation in the considered system based on
the Laplace transform approach was proposed. In the latter solu-
tion only some phenomena were considered with the water vapour
diffusion and its phase transformations excluded and radiation
emission neglected. The analytical solution, together with the
order of magnitude evaluation of different terms, allowed for
deriving a simple formula which can be applied for converting
the skin surface temperature Tbsi(t) obtained from the experiments
carried out using the skin-imitating material to temperature Tbs(t)
matching the material having skin properties. Finally, in order to
verify the range of validity of the conversion method the analytical
predictions were subsequently compared to the results of numer-
ical simulations of the skin surface temperature in the protective
clothing-skin system.
2. Numerical model
The protective clothing is usually made of several layers of fab-
rics which may be separated by thin air gaps. Three or four layers
are often used, i.e., the outer shell, moisture barrier, thermal insu-
lation and lining – see Fig. 1. Each of these textile layers has differ-
ent thermophysical and optical properties and performs different
role. These layers are porous materials and made of hygroscopic
fibres. Therefore many complex transfer phenomena are involved
in energy transfer through the clothing such as heat conduction
by fibres and air in the pores, forced convection induced by body
motion or blast of the external air and thermal radiation coming
from external heat source and penetrating the semi-transparent
clothing with non-grey properties. Additionally, these processes
are accompanied by diffusion and convection of water vapour in
the garment as well as sorption and desorption phenomena in fab-
ric fibres. The surroundings and human body (perspiration) are
two main sources of the moisture in garments. Moreover, the
water content in the different layers of the protective clothing
affects energy transfer processes as well optical and thermo-
physical properties of the clothing. The clothing during emergency
situations is exposed to either high temperature or radiative heat
flux coming from hot objects. Besides, depending on the fuel burnt,
the fire may have different spectrum of radiation. The visible and
near infrared radiation in the wavelength range from about 0.6
to 1.4 lm is usually not transmitted through the optically thick
clothing materials. Furthermore, high temperature which may be
observed in the protective clothing leads to thermochemical reac-
tions and changes in the fabric structure as well as in optical and
thermo-physical properties.
Surface layers of the human body has also the complex struc-
ture (epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous, muscles). The heat is not
only conducted or exchanged by blood perfusion with the ambient
tissue but also generated due to metabolism. The perfusion and
metabolic heat generation are generally dependent on the tissue
temperature. Shivering of the tissue and performed work also
1333
exerts influence on the metabolic heat generated. The arterial
and venous blood temperatures are usually different with the
venous blood approaching temperature of ambient tissues, while
the arterial blood contributes to the body heating. Moreover, the
abrupt heating leads to thermal reaction of the human body which
manifests itself by intense perspiration, dehydration, vaso-
dilatation of the blood vessels, etc. All these coupled and non-
linear transport phenomena occurring both in the protective cloth-
ing and skin make the mathematical modelling and numerical sim-
ulations very difficult [3–8,21,22].
Therefore to reach the main goal of the study presented in the
introduction a simplified two layer system was considered – see
Fig. 2. The protective clothing layer has the thickness dc while
the skin layer the thickness ds. The assumed thermophysical prop-
erties of the skin layers are given in Table 1, while Tables 2 and 3
contain the thermophysical and optical properties of the protective
clothing, respectively. The properties have been averaged account-
ing for thickness of the respective layers.
The thickness averaged properties of the skin and protective
layer were calculated according to the following formulae:
d X
k¼P ; ðqcÞ ¼ di ðqcÞi =d;
i i =ki
d i
!, ,
Y X
K e ¼ ln e K e;i di
d and n ¼ di ni d ð1Þ
i i
where the thickness of the air gaps between fabric layers were
assumed to be 0.1 mm, while between the third layer and the skin
6.35 mm. Other properties (d, D, R, e and s) were assumed the same
as for the first fabric layer (Table 2). The effective thermo-physical
and optical properties were presented in Tables 4 and 5, respec-
tively. Moreover, in Table 4 the properties of the skin imitating
material (PET), which approached to the greatest extent the respec-
tive skin properties, were also inserted.
The right side of the considered protective clothing is irradiated
by the external heat flux qe(t) of the known variation in time, while
the left side of the skin is kept at constant temperature correspond-
ing to this existing in depth of the human body Tcr = const – see
Fig. 2. The model assumed one dimensional heat and moisture
transfer due to the small thickness of the considered system in
comparison to its lateral dimensions along the protective clothing
and assumed no variation of external thermal conditions in this
direction. All properties were treated as temperature independent.
2.1. Heat and moisture transfer in the protective clothing and skin
Convection in the hygroscopic porous fabric as well as presence of
free liquid water (only liquid water bounded by textile fibres
present) were neglected. Additionally, the clothes were assumed
semi-transparent and containing humid air with the dry air being sta-
tionary and the water vapour diffusing. Noting the assumption made
the energy equation for the protective clothing can be written as:
 
@T c @ @T c @q @q
ðqcÞc ¼ kc þDv a;c v cv T c þ m
_ v bw ðDhv ap þ Dhads Þ r
@t @x @x @x @x
ð2Þ
The first term on the right hand side accounted for heat conduc-
tion in the fabrics or air gaps, the second one for heat transfer asso-
ciated with the water vapour diffusion in the fabric, the third one
for heat absorbed (released) during transition of the water vapour
into liquid water bounded in fibres in fabrics, while the fourth one
for thermal radiation in the protective clothing.
The continuity equation for bounded water in fibres (describing
sorption and desorption phenomenon) was expressed as:
1334 P. Furmański, P. Łapka / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340

Fig. 2. Schematic of the corresponding, simplified two-layer model of the protective clothing-skin system.

Table 1
Thermo-physical properties and thickness of skin layers [3] (k – thermal conductivity, Heat transfer in the skin may be using different models
q – density, cp – specific heat and d – thickness). [6–8,21,22] but in the present study model the most simple form
of the energy equation for the skin layer was assumed, which fol-
Symbol [unit] Epidermis Dermis Subcutaneous
lowed the Pennes model and which can be presented in the form
ki [W/(m K)] 0.255 0.523 0.167
[8]:
qi [kg/m3] 1200 1200 1000
cpi [kJ/(kg K)] 3.6 3.4 3.06  
@T s @ @T s
di [mm] 0.08 2 10 ðqcÞs ¼ ks þ ðqcÞb xb ðT cr  T s Þ þ qm ð5Þ
@t @x @x
The respective symbols in Eqs. (2)–(5) denote: (qc) – volumetric
specific heat at constant pressure, Dv-a – water vapour diffusion
@
_ v bw
ðq ebw Þ ¼ m ð3Þ coefficient, k – thermal conductivity, m _ v bw – mass rate of transi-
@t w
tion of moisture from bounded to gaseous state, qr – radiative heat
Diffusion of the water vapour through pores of the protective flux, T – temperature, Dhabs – latent heat of desorption, Dhvap –
clothing and its phase transition to or from bounded state was latent heat of vaporization, xb – blood perfusion rate, e – volume
modelled by following equation: fraction, q – density. The sum of volume fractions satisfied the fol-
  lowing constraint: ebw + ef + eg = 1 in the fabric. In the equations
@ @ @q
ðqv eg Þ ¼ Dv a;c v  m_ v bw ð4Þ above the subscripts: a, b, bw, c, cr, f, g, s and v correspond to:
@t @x @x
dry air, blood, bound water, clothing, body interior, dry fabric,

Table 2
Thermo-physical properties and thickness of protective clothing layers [4] (d – average fibre diameter, D – effective diffusivity of bound water in the solid phase (fibres), R – fibre
regain, e – volume fraction of fibre, s – the tortuosity factor).

Symbol [unit] First layer (Kombat 7.5 oz/yd2) Second layer (ComfortZoneTM) Third layer (AraliteTM)
ki [W/(m K)] 0.179 0.144 0.130
qi [kg/m3] 1384 1295 1380
cpi [kJ/(kg K)] 1.42 1.325 1.2
di [mm] 0.56 0.73 1.66
ei [–] 0.334 0.186 0.115
Ri,/=0.65 [–] 0.084 0.038 0.045
si [–] 1.5 1.25 1.0
Di [m2/s] 6.0
1014 6.0
1014 6.0
1014
di [m] 1.6
105 1.6
105 1.6
105

Table 3
Optical properties of the fabrics [4] (Ke – extinction coefficient, n – refractive index, k – wavelength, x – albedo).

k [lm] First layer Second layer Third layer

Ke,i [1/m] ni [–] xi [–] Ke,i [1/m] ni [–] xi [–] Ke,i [1/m] ni [–] xi [–]
0 0.4 Opaque 1.1937 0.5 Opaque 1.1079 0.5 Opaque 1.0667 0.5
0.4 0.7 396.2 178.1 138.3
0.7 2.5 933.7 590.4 319.7
2.5 5.0 2719.4 1960.3 922.1
5.0 1 Opaque Opaque Opaque
 P. Furmański, P. Łapka / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340 1335

Table 4
The layers-averaged properties of skin, skin imitation protective clothing as well as some selected blood properties (a – thermal diffusivity, b – thermal effusivity, Fo – Fourier
number, xb – blood perfusion rate, (qc) – volumetric specific heat).

Layer/property Skin Skin simulant Protective clothing Blood

k [W/(m K)] 0.1887 0.2 0.0346 –
(qc) [kg/m3] 323.72
104 154.0
104 53.79
104 399.62
104
d [mm] 12.08 18 9.5 –
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b ¼ kðqcÞ [Ws1/2/(m2 K)] 781.58 554.98 136.42 –
a [m2/s] 5.829
108 12.99
108 6.432
108 –
Fo = as/d 4.993
103 11.28
103 8.724
103 –
xb [m3/(s m3)] – – – 1.25
103
e [–] – – 0.334 –
R/=0.65 [–] – – 0.084 –
s [–] – – 1.5 –
D [m2/s] – – 6.0
1014 –
d [m] – – 1.6
105 –

Table 5
The layers-averaged radiative properties of non-grey fabric.
r;k;e ¼ eh;k Eb;k ðT h Þ ¼ qe;k ðtÞ
qin ð11Þ
k [lm] Ke [1/m] n [–] x [–]
0 0.4 Opaque 1.031 0.5 where the subscripts amb, ce, e, f, h, in and k denote the ambient,
0.4 0.7 61.2 clothing surface, external, fabric layer, hot, incident and wave-
0.7 2.5 156.3 length, respectively. The symbol Eb,k is the spectral blackbody emis-
2.5 5.0 472.1
sive power [23], hamb and hm – convective heat and mass transfer
5.0 1 Opaque _
coefficients, respectively, r – surface hemispherical reflectivity
[23,25], Tamb and Th – temperatures of the ambient air and hot gases,
moist air, skin and water vapour, respectively. For more details respectively. Finally the symbols eh,k is the hot gases monochro-
regarding mathematical modeling of the protective clothing-skin matic emissivity while qe,k is the external radiative heat flux that
system see Łapka et al. [3–8]. is varied in time.
The density of water vapour at the external surface of the pro-
2.2. Radiative heat transfer tective clothing satisfies the equation:

The clothing was assumed semi-transparent and non-grey. @ qv 
Dv a;c ¼ hm;amb ðqv ;amb  qv ;ce Þ ð12Þ
Therefore, distribution of spectral radiative intensity was given @x ce
by the following Radiative Transfer Equation [4,23–26]:
Z At the interface between the protective clothing and skin (sur-
dIk K s;k 0 0 face of the protective clothing – see Fig. 1) the temperature obeys
¼ ðK a;k þ K s;k ÞIk þ K a;k Ib;k þ Uk Ik ðs ÞdX ð6Þ
ds 4p 4p the equations:
where I is radiation intensity, Ib – the blackbody intensity [23], Ka Z 
@T c @T s 1 
kc  ks þ fqin 
r;k;f  es;k Eb;k ðT bs Þ  ð1  es;k Þqr;k;f gdk ¼ 0
in
and Ks – linear absorption and scattering coefficients, respectively
(they are calculated from known Ke = Ka + Ks and x = Ks/Ke), s –
@x @x 0 bs

direction vector, k – wavelength, U – scattering phase function ð13Þ

and X – solid angle. The isotropic scattering in the clothing was

assumed, i.e., Uk = 1. @ qv 
Dv a;c ¼0 ð14Þ
The radiative heat flux was calculated from the formula: @x bs
Z 1 Z
qr ¼ Ik s dX dk ð7Þ where at this interface the radiation intensity emitted by the skin is
0 4p
given by the formula:

2.3. Boundary and initial conditions Eb;k ðT bs Þ qin

r;k;f
Ik jbs ¼ es;k þ ð1  es;k Þ ð15Þ
p p
The right, external surface of the clothing was considered trans-
parent, e.g., diffusively reflecting and transmitting the incident On the left hand side of the system (see Fig. 1) temperature of
thermal radiation. On the right hand side (surface of the protective the skin is assumed to be equal to inner body temperature, i.e.:
clothing) (see Fig. 2) the temperature obeys the equation:

T s j0 ¼ T cr ¼ const ð16Þ
kc @T Dv a;c @@x
qv
cp;v T c þqamb þ 
@x
c

n
R 1 in o  ¼0 In the above equations qin
r;k;f is the radiative heat flux incident on
_ _ _ _ 
þ 0 qr;k;f  r k;f qin ð1 r Þqin
þq in
 r q in
ð1 r Þq in
dk 
r;k;f k;f r;k;e r;k;e k;f r;k;e k;f r;k;f
ce the skin surface and es;k the skin emissivity. The subscript bs
ð8Þ denotes the skin surface which was assumed opaque to radiation.
The unknown clothing surface Tce and skin Tbs temperatures as well
where the radiation intensity, the external heat and incident radia-
as water vapour densities qv,ce and qv,bs were calculated from Eqs.
tive heat fluxes were given by the following expressions:
(8), (13), (12) and (14), respectively. Eq. (9) assumed diffusive
_ qin  _
 qin reflection and transmission of incident radiation intensity, while
r;k;f r;k;e
Ik jce ¼ r k;f þ 1  r k;f ð9Þ Eq. (15) emission and diffusive reflection of incident radiation
p p
intensity on the skin surface. For more details see [23–26]. Initial
qamb ¼ hamb ðT amb  T ce Þ þ hm;amb ðqv ;e  qv ;ce Þcp;v T ce ð10Þ conditions for Eqs. (2)–(5) corresponded to the steady state distri-
butions of temperature, volume fraction of bound water and water
1336 P. Furmański, P. Łapka / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340
vapour density in the whole system which was in contact only
with surroundings at Tamb and relative humidity /amb. For details
see Łapka et al. [4].
All equations describing heat and moisture transfer were cou-
pled and highly non-linear, therefore for the solution of the system
of equations the special in-house iterative algorithm was devel-
oped and implemented in C. All the governing equations with
boundary conditions were discretized applying the Finite Volume
Method (FVM). The Newton-Raphson method was used to find
unknown temperatures from non-linear balance conditions at the
internal or external interfaces. The outline of this algorithm was
presented in [3–5].
2.4. Influence of different phenomena on the skin surface temperature
As it was mentioned in the introduction that many phenomena
affect temperature distribution in the protective clothing-skin sys-
tem but due the goal of the present study the skin surface temper-
ature is the most important as it determines the possible degree of
burns [3–5]. Therefore it was interesting to find which from the
phenomena modelled in the previous subsections exert the
greatest influence on the skin surface temperature. For that reason
the following cases were considered during the numerical
simulations:
Case 1: Heat conduction in both layers of the system with no
convective cooling on the external surface of the protective
clothing, no blood perfusion and metabolic heat present in the
skin and no radiation in the clothing, uniform initial tempera-
ture distribution corresponding to the inner body temperature
Tcr;
Case 2: Heat conduction in both layers of the system but with
convective cooling on the external surface of the protective
clothing, no blood perfusion and metabolic heat present in the
skin and no radiation in the clothing, uniform initial tempera-
ture distribution corresponding to the inner body temperature
Tcr;
Case 3: Heat conduction in both layers of the system but with
convective cooling on the external surface of the protective
clothing, no blood perfusion and metabolic heat present in the
skin and no radiation in the clothing, non-uniform initial tem-
perature corresponding to the stationary state with the inner
body temperature Tcr and ambient air temperature Tamb;
Case 4: Heat conduction in both layers of the system but with
no convective cooling, no blood perfusion and metabolic heat
present in the skin, the external radiation being absorbed and
scattered inside the protective clothing with no emission
Fig. 3. Temperature distribution across the skin-protective clothing system for (A) case 1–3 and (B) case 4–7 for t = se (just after the exposition ends).
present, uniform initial temperature distribution corresponding
to the inner body temperature Tcr;
Case 5: Heat conduction in both layers of the system but with
no convective cooling, no blood perfusion and metabolic heat
present in the skin, the external radiation being absorbed and
scattered in the protective clothing with emission of radiation
accounted for, uniform initial temperature distribution corre-
sponding to the inner body temperature Tcr;
Case 6: Complex heat and moisture transfer in the system
including heat conduction in both layers and with convective
cooling, absorption, scattering and emission of radiation inside
the protective clothing, water vapour diffusion, phase transfor-
mations of bound water to the gaseous phase, no blood perfu-
sion and metabolic heat present in the skin, uniform initial
temperature distribution corresponding to the inner body tem-
perature Tcr;
Case 7: Heat conduction in both layers of the system but with
no convective cooling, blood perfusion and metabolic heat pre-
sent in the skin and the external radiation being absorbed and
scattered inside the protective clothing with no emission of
radiation present, non-uniform initial temperature correspond-
ing to the stationary state with the inner body temperature Tcr
and ambient air temperature Tamb;
In the calculations the skin surface was treated as having black-
body properties (ek,s = 1) while fabric as non-grey with the wavelength
dependence of the absorption and scattering coefficients presented in
Table 4. The ambient air was assumed at Tamb = 32 °C while the exter-
nal convective heat and mass transfer coefficients had the values
hamb = 10 W/(m2 K) and hm,amb = 0.021 m/s, respectively. The relative
humidity of the ambient air was chosen to be /amb = 68%. The inner
body temperature was kept at Tcr = 37 °C while the metabolic heat
at qm = 384.11 W/m3. The thermophysical properties of the skin, skin
imitation (simulant), protective clothing and blood were taken from
Table 4. The radiative heat flux incident on the external surface of
the protective clothing, see Eq. (11), was assumed wavelength inde-
pendent and in a form of a rectangular pulse:
qe;k ðtÞ ¼ qe;max ½HðtÞ  Hðt þ sÞ ð17Þ
where H is the Heaviside step function. The duration of the pulse
and its maximum value were assumed as se = 12.5 s and
qe,max = 20 kW/m2, respectively. The other parameters not
mentioned were assumed the same as in [4].
Temperature distribution in the two-layer system for t = se (just
after the exposition ends) was presented in Fig. 3. High tempera-
ture drop was observed in the protective clothing with only a
reasonable increase of the skin temperature.
 P. Furmański, P. Łapka / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340 1337

heat conduction cause the greatest increase in the skin surface

temperature, i.e., evaluation of the protective clothing quality
should be based on these heat transfer modes. Therefore influence
of moisture transport and accumulation of energy associated with
phase transition of the moisture in the protective clothing were
excluded in the analytical treatment.
In the analytical model it is assumed that radiation transmitted
through the clothing is partly absorbed and scattered in the spec-
tral way. Due to low temperature of the clothing close to the skin-
protective clothing interface in comparison to high temperature of
the external heat source and outer part of the clothing (see Fig. 3
for distribution of temperature) no emission of radiation was
assumed in the fabric layer. The skin surface was treated as opa-
que, diffusively emitting and reflecting (with the absorption coeffi-
cient ak,s = 1–ek,s). It was also assumed that the external surface of
the clothing is convectively cooled by the ambient air at tempera-
ture Tamb with the convective heat transfer coefficient hamb. In the
skin layer heat, besides conduction, can be transferred by the blood
Fig. 4. Temperature of the skin surface versus time for different heat transfer
perfusion and generated due to metabolism.
modes – cases 1–3.
Similarly to the numerical model all properties are constant
within each layer, while the radiative properties are wavelength
dependent. The initial temperature in the system corresponded
to a steady state for which the inner body temperature is Tcr, the
ambient air is at Tamb and no external heat load is applied to the
system and therefore no the radiation in the clothing layer appears.
The Radiative Transfer Equation in the protective clothing Eq.
(6) was solved using the two-flux method [23,27] and allowed to
express the radiation energy absorbed in the clothing, Eq. (2), by
the formula:
Z 1
@qr ðtÞ
 ¼ F k ðxÞqe;k ðtÞdk ð18Þ
@x 0

where
ð2K a;k  r k Þr k expðr k xÞ  G2;k ð2K a;k þ r k Þr k expðrk xÞ
F k ðxÞ ¼
G1;k
ð19Þ
and

Fig. 5. Temperature of the skin surface versus time for different heat transfer G1;k ¼ ð2K a;k þ K s;k  r k Þ expðr k dc Þ  G2;k ð2K a;k þ K s;k þ r k Þ
modes – cases 4–7.  expðr k dc Þ ð20Þ

Figs. 4 and 5 show variation of the skin and its imitation (sim- K s;k  ð1  es;k Þð2K a;k þ K s;k  r k Þ
ulant) surface temperatures with time for each of the cases listed G2;k ¼  ð21Þ
K s;k  ð1  es;k Þð2K a;k þ K s;k þ r k Þ
above. The horizontal dash line corresponds to the minimum value
of temperature taken for evaluation of the burn degree [4]. qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Numerical analysis of the heat transfer across the protective rk ¼ 2 K a;k ðK a;k þ K s;k Þ ð22Þ
clothing-skin system indicates that variation of the surface tem-
After introducing a definition of the excess temperature:
perature of the skin or skin-simulant with time are similar in shape
for the same case of heat transfer conditions studied. The surface #ðx; tÞ ¼ Tðx; tÞ  T cr ð23Þ
temperature of the skin-simulant, with its properties presented
where
in Table 4, always leads to higher values of temperature than for
the human skin. Intensive cooling of the external surface of the qm
T cr ¼ T cr þ ð24Þ
protective clothing (the cases 2, 3 and 6) causes a shift of the max- ðqcÞb xb
imum skin temperature to shorter times. The highest values of the
and basing on the assumption made the energy Eqs. (2) and (5), for
skin temperature are obtained for only two modes of heat transfer,
the skin and protective clothing, can be cast in the form:
i.e., heat conduction an thermal radiation present in the protective
clothing with no convective cooling of the external surface of the @ 2 #s @#s
as  G#s ¼ ð25Þ
protective clothing (the cases 1, 4 and 5). The blood perfusion even @x2 @t
when the metabolic heat is accounted for decreases the skin sur-
Z 1
face temperature. @ 2 #c Fk @#c
ac þ q ðtÞdk ¼ ð26Þ
@x2 0 ðqcÞc e;k @t
3. Analytical model where
ðqcÞb
Results of the numerical simulation presented above as well as G¼ xb ð27Þ
ðqcÞs
in previous literature [1,3–8,10] suggest that thermal radiation and
1338 P. Furmański, P. Łapka / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340

while ac = kc/(qc)c and as = ks/(qc)s denote the thermal diffusivity of kc m  hamb 2mdc
D10  e D20
the clothing and skin, respectively.The energy equations were com- kc m þ hamb

Z 1 
pleted with the following boundary conditions: 1 1 dF k ðx ¼ dc Þ
¼ kc
#s ðx ¼ ds ; tÞ ¼ #sm ð28Þ kc m þ hamb 0 s  a r
c k
2 dx

þhamb F k ðx ¼ dc Þqe;k ðsc Þdk
#s ðx ¼ 0; tÞ ¼ #c ðx ¼ 0; tÞ ð29Þ  
1 d#cs ðx ¼ dc Þ
þ kc þ hamb ½#cs ðx ¼ dc Þ  #amb  emdc ð43Þ
Z 1 s dx
@#s ðx ¼ 0; tÞ @#c ðx ¼ 0; tÞ
ks ¼ kc þ es;k qinr;k ðx ¼ 0; tÞdk ð30Þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
@x @x 0 where the properties bs ¼ ks ðqcÞs and bc ¼ kc ðqcÞc are known as
thermal effusivities of the skin and protective clothing, respectively.
@#c ðx ¼ dc ; tÞ In order to estimate possible burns temperature of the skin sur-
kc ¼ hamb ½#c ðx ¼ dc ; tÞ  #amb  ð31Þ
@x face is required. The Laplace transform for the excess temperature
where corresponding to this surface follows from the Eq. (36):
#ss ðx ¼ 0Þ
r;k ðx ¼ 0Þ ¼ G3;k qe;k ðtÞ
qin ð32Þ #bs ðsÞ ¼ #s ðx ¼ 0; sÞ ¼ þ C 10 þ C 20 ð44Þ
s
and
where the constants C10 and C20 should be found from the set of Eqs.
½ð2K a;k þ K s;k  rk Þ  G2;k ð2K a;k þ K s;k þ r k Þ (40)–(43). Inspection of these equations leads to the conclusion that
G3;k ¼ ð33Þ
G1;k the temperature above depends on the following factors:
 a;k ; K
#bs ¼ #bs ðss;#sm ;#amb ;G;qe;max ;Rc ;bs ;bc ;Rs ;Rc ; es;k ; K  s;k ;Fos ;Foc ;Bic Þ
qm
#sm ¼ ð34Þ ð45Þ
ðqcÞb xb
where the respective Fourier and Biot similarity numbers, thermal
#amb ¼ T amb  T cr ð35Þ resistances for the skin and protective clothing and dimensionless
In order to solve the problem described by the formulae (25)– linear absorption and scattering coefficients are defined by the
(31), the Laplace transform was applied. The solution of Eqs. (26) formulae:
and (26) in the transform domain took in the form: as s ac s hamb dc ds
Fos ¼ ; Foc ¼ ; Bic ¼ ; Rs ¼ ;
#ss ðxÞ d2s d2c kc ks
#s ðx; sÞ ¼ þ C 10 elx þ C 20 elx ð36Þ
s dc  a;k ¼ K a;k dc  s;k ¼ K s;k dc
Rc ¼ ; K and K ð46Þ
Z 1 kc
#cs ðxÞ F k ðxÞ
#c ðx; sÞ ¼ þ e;k ðsÞdk þ D10 emx þ D20 emx
q ð37Þ The thermal properties of the skin, skin imitation and the pro-
s 0 s  ac K 2ak
tective clothing together with, the respective Fourier numbers
where evaluated using the thickness of each layer are shown in Table 4.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffi Analysis of the Fourier similarity numbers present in this table
Gþs s leads to the conclusion that their values are of a very small order of
l¼ and m ¼ ð38Þ
as ac magnitude for the given duration of the heat pulse and therefore
the products lds and mdc appearing in Eqs. (40) and (43) assume
and according to Eq. (17) the Laplace transform of radiative flux
high values. This allows for some simplifications in these equations
incident on the external surface of the protective clothing is
which allow the Laplace transform for temperature of the skin sur-
expressed as:
face, Eq. (44) to be cast it in the final form:
qe;max Z
e;k ðsÞ ¼
q ½1  expðsÞ ð39Þ #ss ðx ¼ 0Þ 1
qe;max
s #bs ðsÞ ¼ þ Y c;k ðssÞdk ½1  expðsÞ ð47Þ
s 0 sAðssÞ
After substituting of expressions for the predicted solution, Eqs.
(36) and (37), to the boundary conditions the following set of the where
algebraic equations for the unknown constants C10 and C20 as well pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
bs Gs þ ss
as D10 and D20 were obtained: AðssÞ ¼ 1 þ pffiffiffiffiffi ð48Þ
bc ss
½#sm þ #ss ðx ¼ ds Þ lds  c;k ðssÞ depends, besides time, only on the selected
e2lds C 10 þ C 20 ¼  e ð40Þ and the function Y
s
properties of protective clothing, thermal pulse duration and ambi-
Z 1 ent interaction:
F k ðx ¼ 0Þ
C 10 þ C 20 ¼ D10 þ D20 þ e;k ðsÞdk
q   pffiffiffiffiffi 
s  ac r 2k 2Fo dF k ðx ¼ dc Þ ss
Y c;k ðssÞ ¼
0
hqffiffiffiffiffi c i þ Bic F k ðx ¼ dc Þ exp  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
#cs ðx ¼ 0Þ  #ss ðx ¼ 0Þ Rc B Foc þ Bic
ss dx Fo
þ ð41Þ c
s 
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Rc Foc F k ðx ¼ 0Þ 1 Foc F k ðx ¼ 0c Þ
þ þ pffiffiffiffiffi þ G3
bs G þ s 1 B b c ss B
pffiffi ½C 10  C 20  ¼ D10  D20 þ pffiffi
bc s bc s ð49Þ
Z 1
kc dF k ðx ¼ 0Þ
 þ G 3;k qe;k ðsÞdk where Bk ¼ ss  Foc r 2k .
0 s  ac r 2k dx
The respective expression for the Laplace transform for the skin
ðx¼0Þ ðx¼0Þ
kc d#csdx  ks d#ssdx simulant can be written as:
þ pffiffi Z
bc s s #ss;i ðx ¼ 0Þ 1
qe;max
ð42Þ #bsi ðsÞ ¼ þ Y c;k ðssÞdk ½1  expðsÞ ð50Þ
s 0 sAi
 P. Furmański, P. Łapka / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340 1339

where from Eq. (48):

bsi
Ai ¼ 1 þ ð51Þ
bc
as no blood perfusion is present in the skin simulant (imitation), i.e.,
G = 0.
R1
The function 0 Y  c;k ðssÞdk qe;max ½1  expðsÞ can be eliminated
s
between Eqs. (47) and (50) to give the following formula relating
surface temperatures of the skin and skin simulant:

T bs ðsÞ  T bs ð0Þ=s Ai
 ¼ ð52Þ
T bsi ðsÞ  T bsi ð0Þ=s AðssÞ

where T bs ðsÞ and T bsi ðsÞ are temperatures of the human skin and
skin-simulant surface while the symbols T bs ð0Þ and T bsi ð0Þ corre-
spond to their initial values.
Validity of the relation Eq. (52), due to earlier assumptions
made, should be checked against numerical solution accounting
for phenomena which are not considered in the simplified analyt-
ical solution. This is carried out in the next section. Fig. 7. Ratio of temperature of skin surface for the skin and skin simulant for
different heat transfer modes – cases 4–6.

4. Checking the validity of the skin-skin simulant relation

ratio of the surface temperatures of the skin and skin-simulant var-
The formula Eq. (52) can be inverted to give: ies only to a small extent with time and within the 1–2% accuracy
 is practically constant as required by Eq. (54) for a period embrac-
L1 T bsi ðsÞT bsi ð0Þ=s
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ing the maximum temperatures attained by the skin surface for the
T bs ðtÞ  T bs ð0Þ bc þ bsi bc þbs ðGþsÞ=s
¼  ð53Þ cases 1–5. The greatest difference is observed for the case when
T bsi ðtÞ  T bsi ð0Þ bc þ bs
L1 T bsi ðsÞT bsi ð0Þ=s
bc þbs
processes including the heat and moisture transfer are accounted
for – case 6. However as mentioned in Section 2.4 in this case
where the symbol L1 denotes the inverse Laplace transform. More- the skin temperature is decreased in comparison to the most sev-
over, if no perfusion in the skin is also assumed, i.e., G = 0, then the ere case when only heat conduction and thermal radiation occur in
expression above can be further simplified to: the protective clothing. For the case 7, when both generation of
metabolic heat and blood perfusion is assumed and which is not
T bs ðtÞ  T bs ð0Þ bc þ bsi shown in Fig. 6, the left-hand side of Eq. (54) cannot be treated
¼ ð54Þ
T bsi ðtÞ  T bsi ð0Þ bc þ bs as constant even in the limited period of time and requires formula
of Eq. (53) to be used.
The left hand side of the formula above was numerically deter-
mined and compared with the right-hand side using values of ther-
mal effusivity shown in Table 4. 5. Conclusions
Figs. 6 and 7 present variation of the left-hand side of Eq. (54)
with the dimensionless time t/se for different phenomena and The problem of converting temperature measurements carried
external conditions corresponding to different cases listed in Sec- out on the skin-imitating material to the time-variation in the
tion 2 and obtained from the numerical simulations. The horizontal human skin surface temperature was considered in the paper.
dash line here corresponds to the right-hand side of Eq. (54). The The answer to this problem is necessary for evaluation of the pro-
tective clothing quality and estimation of the possible burns for
persons which in their profession activities are exposed to high
thermal loads of short duration.
This complex problem was simplified by considering two-layer
system instead of multilayer structure of the human skin and pro-
tective clothing. At first the numerical simulation were performed
using a model, which accounted for the majority of phenomena
occurring in the skin and clothing. Variation of the skin surface
temperature in time depends on many factors including many
physical properties of the protective clothing, skin or the skin-
imitating material, metabolic heat generation rate, intensity of
heat transfer by the blood perfusion and the magnitude and dura-
tion of the heat load applied to the external surface of the clothing.
Some similarities were observed for variation in the skin surface
temperature with time irrespective whether it is the human skin
or the skin-simulant. Moreover, influence of different phenomena
on the skin surface temperature were investigated. It was found
that accounting only for heat conduction and thermal radiation
in the protective clothing with no convective cooling leads to the
greatest increase in the skin temperature. So this case was consid-
Fig. 6. Ratio of temperature of skin surface for the skin and skin simulant for ered as the most important for evaluation of the protective cloth-
different heat transfer modes – cases 1–3. ing quality. Noting the complex phenomena involved in heat and
1340 P. Furmański, P. Łapka / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 1331–1340
moisture transfer across the protective clothing-skin system and
objective of the study, a simplified analytical model of heat transfer
in the skin-protective clothing was further proposed. The simpli-
fied model accounted for heat conduction, thermal radiation
(including absorption and scattering but with no emission), meta-
bolic heat generation and blood perfusion in the protective cloth-
ing and the skin. This model allowed to find a formula which can
be used to convert of the skin surface temperature measured on
the experimental stands using the skin-imitating material to this
corresponding to the human skin. The derived formula, relating
the surface temperature of the human skin and the skin simulant,
is dependent only on thermal effusivities of the human skin, skin
simulant and protective clothing, blood perfusion rate and meta-
bolic heat generated and is generally varying in time. For no blood
perfusion the formula shows that the ratio of the surface temper-
ature of the skin and skin simulant is constant for the assumptions
made. Validity of the formula was subsequently verified by com-
parison its predictions with the results obtained from numerical
simulations accounting for different heat and moisture transfer
phenomena in the protective clothing. The comparison between
analytical and numerical results showed that the relation is valid
for a certain time of the process duration and is not significantly
affected by emission of radiation inside the protective clothing.
Moreover, it only varies by a few percent from the constant value
in this period of time even when complex heat and moisture trans-
fer modes are accounted for with no blood perfusion present. These
observations indicate that it seems possible with a certain accuracy
to predict the surface temperature of the skin and therefore the
danger of burns from measurements carried on the lab-scale
experimental stands using the skin-simulants with different prop-
erties than the human skin. The measured surface temperatures of
the skin simulant should be transformed according to relation
given by Eq. (54) to obtain the surface temperature of human skin
for the same intensity of thermal pulse and its duration. Moreover,
to get the most congruent results it is desirable to use for the skin
simulants materials, which have the thermal effusivity of the same
order of magnitude as the thermal effusivity of the human skin.
Choice of the thickness of skin simulant layer should insure small
values of the corresponding Fourier similarity number.
The results of the analysis presented should be treated as the
preliminary ones. Further numerical verification of Eq. (53) is
required by carrying out proper simulations accounting for blood
perfusion and metabolic heat generation. The extension of the
model to the multi-layer system should also be considered.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the National Centre for Research and
Development (Poland) under Grant No. O ROB/0011/03/001.
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