Classical Conditioning (also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning through association and was

discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce
a new learned response in a person or animal.

Everything from speech to emotional responses was simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson
denied completely the existence of the mind or consciousness. Watson believed that all individual
differences in behavior were due to different experiences of learning. He famously said:

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -
doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1924, p. 104).

Three levels of conditioning

Stage 1: Before Conditioning:

In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an
organism.

For example, , a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire (UCR).

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

During this stage a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the
unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).

For example, a perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS).

Stage 3: After Conditioning:

Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create
a new conditioned response (CR).

For example, a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume (UCS) is now found attractive
(CR).

Watson and Rayner had shown that classical conditioning could be used to create a phobia. A phobia is
an irrational fear, i.e., a fear that is out of proportion to the danger.

Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school, then this can obviously have bad
results, such as creating a school phobia.

Critical evaluation. It underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their
own destiny.
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for
behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular
behavior and a consequence.

Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study
observable behavior rather than internal mental events.

He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its
consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1898)
law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to
be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced
tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be
extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability
of a behavior being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds

rewarding.

Negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the
animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an
unpleasant experience.

• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer
present.

Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment
only tells you what not to do.

Educational Applications

In the conventional learning situation, operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and student
management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance.

A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g., compliments,
approval, encouragement, and affirmation.
Critical conditioning. Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans
as their anatomy and physiology is different from humans, and they cannot think about their
experiences and invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.