Lectures 18-19 Study Guide – Cell Communication

1) What organism acts as a “model system” for cell signaling? (Pg. 211, paragraph 3)

See below

2) A. In Figure 11.2 of your text, which of the yeast cells shown is an inducer, a, , or both? SLIDES (3)
B. Is the yeast cell of mating type a competent to respond to signals from yeast cell mating type a or ? (Slides
3 and 4)

SLIDES

3) A. List three examples of local cell-to-cell signaling. (Pg. 213, Figure 11.5 and Slides 7-8)
B. What is the signaling molecule used in long-distance signaling? Pg. 213, Fig. 11.5)

Endocrine (hormonal) signaling. Specialized endocrine cells

secrete hormones into body fluids, often blood. Hormones reach
most body cells, but are bound by and affect only some cells.
C. What is the primary difference between paracrine and hormonal signaling? (Pg. 213 Fig. 11.5 a and c)

Local = Paracrine signaling. A

signaling cell acts on nearby
target cells by secreting
molecules of a local regulator
(a growth factor, for example).
Long Distance = Endocrine (hormonal) signaling. Specialized endocrine cells
secrete hormones into body fluids, often blood. Hormones reach
most body cells, but are bound by and affect only some cells.
Local = Synaptic signaling. A nerve
cell releases neurotransmitter
molecules into a synapse, stimulating
the target cell, such as
a muscle or another nerve cell.

4) What are the three stages of cell signaling? (Pg. 213 Figure 11.6)

1- Reception. Reception is the target cell’s detection of

a signaling molecule coming from outside the cell. A chemical
signal is “detected” when the signaling molecule binds
to a receptor protein located at the cell’s surface (or inside
the cell, to be discussed later).
2 - Transduction. The binding of the signaling molecule
changes the receptor protein in some way, initiating the
process of transduction. The transduction stage converts the
signal to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response.
In Sutherland’s system, the binding of epinephrine
to a receptor protein in a liver cell’s plasma membrane leads
to activation of glycogen phosphorylase in the cytosol.
Transduction sometimes occurs in a single step but more
often requires a sequence of changes in a series of different
molecules—a signal transduction pathway. The molecules
in the pathway are often called relay molecules; three
are shown as an example.
3 - Response. In the third stage of cell signaling, the transduced
signal finally triggers a specific cellular response. The
response may be almost any imaginable cellular activity—
such as catalysis by an enzyme (for example, glycogen phosphorylase),
rearrangement of the cytoskeleton, or activation
of specific genes in the nucleus. The cell-signaling process
helps ensure that crucial activities like these occur in the
right cells, at the right time, and in proper coordination
with the activities of other cells of the organism. We’ll now
explore the mechanisms of cell signaling in more detail,
including a discussion of regulation and termination of
the process.

5) What is a ligand and what is the effect of ligand binding on a receptor protein? (Pg. 214, second column,
paragraph 1, sentence 2)

A wireless router may broadcast its network signal indiscriminately,

but often it can be joined only by computers
with the correct password: Reception of the signal depends
on the receiver. Similarly, the signals emitted by an a mating
type yeast cell are “heard” only by its prospective mates, _
cells. In the case of the epinephrine circulating throughout
the bloodstream of the impala in Figure 11.1, the hormone
encounters many types of cells, but only certain target cells
detect and react to the epinephrine molecule. A receptor
protein on or in the target cell allows the cell to “hear” the
signal and respond to it. The signaling molecule is complementary
in shape to a specific site on the receptor and
attaches there, like a hand in a glove. The signaling molecule
acts as a ligand, the term for a molecule that specifically
binds to another (often larger) molecule. Ligand binding
generally causes a receptor protein to undergo a change in
shape. For many receptors, this shape change directly activates
the receptor, enabling it to interact with other cellular
molecules. For other kinds of receptors, the immediate effect
of ligand binding is to cause the aggregation of two or more
receptor proteins, which leads to further molecular events
inside the cell. Most signal receptors are plasma membrane
proteins, but others are located inside the cell. We discuss
both of these types next.

6) There are two primary types of signal-transduction membrane receptors, G-protein-linked receptors and
Receptor tyrosine kinases.

Cell-surface transmembrane receptors play crucial roles in the

biological systems of animals. The largest family of human cellsurface
receptors is the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).
There are more than 800 GPCRs; an example is shown in
Figure 11.7. Another example is the co-receptor hijacked
by HIV to enter immune cells (see Figure 7.8); this GPCR is the
target of the drug maraviroc, which has shown some success at
treating AIDS.
Most water-soluble signaling molecules bind to specific
sites on transmembrane receptor proteins that transmit information
from the extracellular environment to the inside of
the cell. We can see how cell-surface transmembrane receptors
work by looking at three major types: G protein-coupled
receptors (GPCRs), receptor tyrosine kinases, and ion channel
receptors. These receptors are discussed and illustrated in
Figure 11.8; study this figure before going on.
A. How do G-protein-linked receptors function? (4 steps, Pg. 215, Fig. 11.8)
B. Where do many G-protein-coupled receptors function in humans? (Pg. 215, paragraph 2)
C. How do receptor tyrosine kinases function? (Pg. 216, Fig. 11.8, steps 1-4)
D. Describe an important difference between many G-protein-coupled receptors and receptor-tyrosine kinases.
(Pg. 212, paragraph 2, sentence 3) (This does not include Ras.)
7) A. Describe the mechanism of a ligand-gated ion channel. (Pg. 217, Steps 1-3)
B. Describe the relationship of a neurotransmitter to a ligand-gated ion channel of nerve cells. (Pg. 217, column
1, final paragraph)

8) Describe a typical hormone signaling pathway. (Pg. 218, Fig. 11.9)

B. Why are many hormone receptors located in the cytoplasm? (Pg. 217, column 2, paragraph 4)

9) What are the roles of each of the following factors in a phosphorylation cascade? (Pg. 219, Fig. 11.10)
A. Protein kinase (Pg. 219, paragraph 2, sentence 4)
B. Relay protein (Pg. 219, paragraph 3, sentence 1)
C. Protein phosphatase (Pg. 220, paragraph 3, sentences 1-3)
10) What are second messengers in signal transduction pathways? (Pg. 220, paragraph 4, sentences 2, 4, 6-8)
11) A. How does cAMP function as a second messenger with G-protein-linked receptors? (Pg. 221 Fig. 11.12)
B. What is the function of protein kinase A? (Pg. 221 paragraph 2, sentences 3-4)

12) A. What signaling pathways use calcium ions (Ca +2) as a second messenger? (Pg. 221, paragraph 6)
B. How are calcium ion concentrations maintained in the cell? (Pg. 222, Figure legend 11.13)
13) C. What happens when the intracellular concentration of Ca+2 stays above 100 nanomolar? (Lecture notes)

14) How do calcium and inositol triphosphate (IP3) function with a G-protein-linked receptor in signal
transduction? (Pg. 222, Fig. 11.14, 6 steps)

15) How does a growth factor use a signaling transduction pathway to activate gene expression? (Pg. 223, Fig.
legend 11.15, sentences 2, 4-6)
16) In a signaling pathway, the first signal involves receptor binding by a single ligand. How is this signal
amplified through the cell? (Pg. 224, paragraph 1, sentences 2 and 4, and Fig. 11.16)
17) Different types of cells can respond differently to the same signal. What is the basis of a cell’s specific
response to a signaling molecule? (Pg. 224, paragraph 3, and Fig. 11.17)
18) What is the role of scaffolding proteins in signal transduction? (Pg. 225, paragraph 4, sentences 1 and 3-4,
and Fig. 11.18)
19) What is apoptosis? (Pg. 227, second column, paragraph 3, sentences 3-6)