Unit 1

Fundamentals of Physics/Electricity
Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this unit the student
will be able to:
™ Recall the following fundamental
quantities and their SI units: mass (kg),
length (m), time (s), electric current (A),
temperature (K).
™ Recall derived quantities related to
electricity such as electric charge,
resistivity, frequency, etc. and their SI
units.
™ Express the magnitude of fundamental
and derived quantities in exponential
(scientific) notation.
™ Use the following prefixes and their
symbols to indicate decimal sub-
multiples and multiples of the SI units:
pico (p), nano (n), micro (µ), milli (m),
centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M).
™ Distinguish between conventional
current and electron flow.
™ State that current is a rate of flow of
charge and is measured in amperes
(A).
™ Recall and apply the relationship
charge (Q) = current (I) x time (t).
™ Distinguish between emf and potential
difference.
™ Recall and apply the relationship for
resistance R = 1/G and conductance
G = 1/R.
™ State Ohm's law and apply Ohm’s law
to determine current, voltage, and
resistance.
™ Sketch and interpret the graphical linear
relationship between current and
voltage in a purely resistive circuit.
™ Determine the total emf in a
series/parallel practical resistive circuit
with several sources.
™ Determine the total current in a
series/parallel practical resistive circuit.
™ Use electronics test equipment to
measure voltage, current and
resistance.
™ Distinguish between work and energy.
™ Describe the use of the heating effect of
electric current flowing through a
conductor.
™ Determine the efficiency of an electrical
device.
™ Recall the power equations P = VI,
P = I2R and P = V2/R and apply the
relationships P = VI and W = VIt to
solve problems.

This topic is an introduction to the principles

and techniques of physics utilized in the
analysis of electricity and electronics. Every
principle and technique is illustrated by an
example drawn from practical applications and
devices.

Unit 1 2
1.1 SI Units (fundamental and derived)

Fundamental Units
The SI (Système International) units are sometimes also known as MKS units,
where MKS stands for "meter, kilogram, and second." At the heart of the SI is
a short list of 7 fundamental units defined in an absolute way without referring
to any other units. Table 1.1.1 summarizes 5 of the 7 fundamental units.

Table 1.1.1 The 5 SI fundamental units

Derived Units
There are generally two classes of SI units, SI fundamental units and SI
derived units. SI derived units, are defined algebraically in terms of the SI
fundamental units. Examples of such SI derived units are given in Table 1.1.2.

Table 1.1.2 The SI derived units

Express Express
Derived quantity Name Symbol in terms of in terms of
other SI units SI base units
Frequency hertz Hz - s-1
Energy, work, quantity of
joule J N·m m2·kg·s-2
heat
Power watt W J/s m2·kg·s-3
Electric charge, quantity of
coulomb C - s·A
electricity
Electric potential difference,
volt V W/A m2·kg·s-3·A-1
electromotive force
Capacitance farad F C/V m-2·kg-1·s4·A2
Electric resistance ohm Ω V/A m2·kg·s-3·A-2
Electric conductance siemens S A/V m-2·kg-1·s3·A2
Magnetic flux weber Wb V·s m2·kg·s-2·A-1
Magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m2 kg·s-2·A-1
Inductance henry H Wb/A m2·kg·s-2·A-2
degree
Celsius temperature °C - K
Celsius
Unit 1 3
1.2 Standard Scientific Notation and Prefix Form

Exponential (scientific) Notation

Scientific notation also referred to as exponential notation is based on powers
of base number 10. The general format is given as:
N × 10x
where
N = number greater than 1 but less than 10 and
x = exponent or power of 10.

Placing numbers in exponential notation has the following advantages:

1. For very large numbers and extremely small ones, these numbers can be
placed in scientific notation in order to express them in a more concise
form.
2. Numbers placed in this notation can be used in computation with far
greater ease. This advantage was more obvious before the advent of
calculators.

Example 1.2.1
How do we place the number 12345 in standard scientific notation?

Solution:
1. Position the decimal point so that there is only one non-zero digit to its
left:
1.2345
2. Count the number of positions the decimal point was shifted to the left
and that will be x:
x=4
3. Multiply the results of steps 1 and 2 above for the standard form:
1.2345 × 104

For number less than one, we basically follow the same steps except in order
to position the decimal with only one non-zero decimal to its left, we will have
to move it to the RIGHT. The number of positions that we had moved it to the
right will be equal to -x. In other words we will end up with a negative
exponent.
Unit 1 4
Example 1.2.2
How do we place the number 0.000123 in standard scientific notation?

Solution:
1. Position the decimal point so that there is only one non-zero digit to its
left:
1.23
2. Count the number of positions the decimal point was shifted to the right
and that will be -x:
x = -4
3. Multiply the results of steps 1 and 2 above for the standard form:
1.23 × 10-4

SI Prefixes
The 20 SI prefixes used to form decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units
are given in Table 1.2.1.

Table 1.2.1 The 20 SI prefixes

Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d
1021 zetta Z 10 -2
centi c
1018 exa E 10 -3
milli m
1015 peta P 10 -6
micro µ
1012 tera T 10 -9
nano n
109 giga G 10 -12
pico p
106 mega M 10 -15
femto f
103 kilo k 10 -18
atto a
102 hecto h 10 -21
zepto z
101 deka da 10 -24
yocto y

Unit 1 5
Example 1.2.3
Express the following values in prefix forms:
a) 0.0024 A = ? mA
b) 0.0000000062 C = ? µC
c) 1 000 000 Ω = ? MΩ
d) 15 kHz = ? MHz
e) 0.03 ms = ? µs

Solution:
a) 0.0024 A = 2.4 mA
b) 0.0000000062 C = 0.0062 µC
c) 1 000 000 Ω = 1 MΩ
d) 15 kHz = 0.015 MHz
e) 0.03 ms = 30 µs

Example 1.2.4
Express 0.0034 A in standard scientific notation and then into prefix form.

Solution:
In scientific notation:
0.0034 A = 3.4 × 10-3 A
In prefix form:
3.4 × 10-3 A = 3.4 mA

Unit 1 6
1.3 Conventional Current and Electron Flow

Conventional current or sometime known as the flow of positive charge

assumes that current flows out of the positive terminal, through the circuit and
into the negative terminal of the DC voltage source as shown in Figure 1.3.1.

II
Ω
1kkΩ
1

E 5 VV 1k1ΩkΩ

II
Figure 1.3.1 Conventional current flow in a series circuit

In metallic conductors like copper wires, the positive charge carriers are non-
mobile, and only the negatively charged electrons flow. Because the electron
carries negative charge, the electron flows in the direction opposite to that of
the conventional current. Therefore, electron flow is what actually happens
inside a circuit and electrons flow out of the negative terminal, through the
circuit and into the positive terminal of the DC voltage source as shown in
Figure 1.3.2.

Throughout this course, conventional current is used. Therefore always

assume current flows out of the positive terminal of the DC voltage source.

e-
1k Ω
1 kΩ

E 55V V 1k1ΩkΩ

e-
Figure 1.3.2 Electron flow in a series circuit

Unit 1 7
1.4 Charge, EMF and Potential Difference

Charge
Electric current is the flow (movement) of electric charge. The SI unit of
electric current is the ampere (A), which is equal to a flow of one coulomb of
charge per second. The amount of electric current (measured in amperes)
through some surface, example, a section of a copper conductor, is defined
as the amount of electric charge (measured in coulombs) flowing through that
surface over time.

If Q is the amount of charge that passed through the surface in the time t,
then the average current I is:

Q
I=
t
where
Q is the electric charge in coulombs (or ampere-seconds)
t is the time in seconds
It follows that:
Q
Q = It and t=
I

1 coulomb (or 6.24 x 1018 electrons) is defined as the charge that passes a
point if 1 ampere flows for 1 second.

Example 1.4.1
A current of 1 ampere flows through a lamp for 1 minute. How much charge
passes through the lamp?

Solution:
Given: t = 1 min = 1 x 60 = 60 s
Formula: Q = It
= 1 x 60 = 60 C (60 coulombs)

An electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb, so a current of 1A means

that 6.24 x 1018 electrons pass each point in each second! This is only a small
fraction of electrons in the wire!

Unit 1 8
EMF and Potential Difference
Maintaining a steady current in an electrical circuit requires a source of
electrical energy, such as an alkaline battery or electric generator. Chemical
energy in the battery, or mechanical energy in the case of the generator, is
converted into electrical energy by doing work on the charge passing through.

Figure 1.4.1 A zinc-carbon cell

Figure 1.4.2 A standby electric generator

Unit 1 9
The “electromotive force” (referred to typically as “EMF”) is the work done per
unit charge by the battery or generator to move charge from lower to higher
potential. The unit of emf is volt (V). For a battery, the emf is also equal to the
voltage across the battery terminals when nothing is connected across them.

In an electrical circuit, the battery creates a potential difference in the circuit

due to its emf. Charge or current flows in an electrical circuit when there is a
potential difference. Remember current flows from high potential to low
potential.

The positive terminal of the battery has a higher potential than its negative
terminal. This difference in potential causes the current to flow in a circuit.

Figure 1.4.3 Digital voltmeter measuring the emf of a car battery

Unit 1 10
1.5 Resistance and Conductance

Resistance (R) is the retarding force in a material that impedes the flow of
current. Resistors are load elements that dissipate heat when currents flow
into them. They are used in circuits to adjust voltages or limit currents.

All matters that allow the flow of electric current through them are called
conductors. Metals are known to be good conductors, with copper and silver
among the best. The conductivity of a particular material depends on the
number of free electrons present in it. So, a greater conductivity or
conductance implies lesser resistance and a lesser conductivity implies
greater resistance.

Conductance (G) is expressed in siemens (S) and resistance (R) is expressed

in ohms (Ω). They are said to be reciprocal, or inverse of each other, i.e.

1 1
G= or R=
R G
Example 1.5.1

Rtotal R1 11
k kΩ R2 2.2
2.2k kΩ R3 44.7
.7k kΩ

Find the total circuit resistance Rtotal.

Solution:
1 1 1 1
= + + =G
R R R R total
total 1 2 3
1 1 1
G =G +G +G = + +
total 1 2 3 1k 2.2k 4.7k

= 1× 10 −3 + 4.55 × 10 −4 + 2.13 × 10 −4

= 1.67 × 10 − 3 S

1 1
R = =
total G
total 1.67 × 10 − 3
= 598.8 Ω
Unit 1 11
1.6 Ohm’s Law

George Simon Ohm was a German physicist born in Erlangen,

Bavaria, on March 16, 1787. He discovered one of the most
fundamental laws of electricity, that is, Ohm's law.

Ohm's law states that, in an electrical circuit, the current passing through a
conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential
difference (i.e. voltage drop or voltage) across the two points, and inversely
proportional to the resistance between them. This only holds true for an ohmic
material. Non-ohmic materials do not display a direct relationship.

voltage E
current = or I=
resistance R

Where
I is the current in amperes
E is the voltage in volts
R is the resistance in ohms

Whenever two of the three quantities are known, the third quantity can always
be determined.

There is an easy way to remember how to solve for any one quantity, given
the other two using Triangle method. First, arrange the letters E, I, and R in a
triangle like this:

Unit 1 12
If you know E and I, and wish to determine R, just cross out R from the
triangle and see what's left:

If you know E and R, and wish to determine I, cross out I and see what's left:

Lastly, if you know I and R, and wish to determine E, cross out E and see
what's left:

Example 1.6.1

I I==22AA

E = 12 V Bulb

R=?Ω

What is the bulb resistance?

Solution:

E 12
R= = = 6Ω
I 2

Unit 1 13
Example 1.6.2

I1 = 2 A I2 = 1.5 A I3 = 1 A I4 = 0.5 A

E = 12
?V Bulb 1 Bulb 2 Bulb 3 Bulb 4

R1 = 6 Ω R2 = ? Ω R3 = ? Ω R4 = ? Ω

Given the current in each parallel branch and bulb 1 resistance, determine the
emf E and bulbs’ resistances R2, R3 and R4?

Solution:
Note that voltages across the parallel branches are the same.

E = I 1 × R 1 = 2 × 6 = 12 V

E 12
R2 = = =8Ω
I 2 1.5
E 12
R3 = = = 12 Ω
I3 1
E 12
R4 = = = 24 Ω
I 4 0.5

Unit 1 14
1.7 DC Current and Voltage Measurements

Current and Voltage Relationship in a Purely Resistive Circuit

Graphical analysis provides convenient and rapid way to observe the behavior
of a circuit or the characteristics of an electronic device.

The first step to construct a graph is to obtain a table of data. The information
in the table can be obtained practically by taking measurements on the circuit
under examination, or can be obtained theoretically through computations.

To construct any graph of electrical quantities, it is standard practice to vary

one quantity in a specified way and note the changes that occur in a second
quantity. The quantity that is intentionally varied is called the independent
variable and is plotted on the horizontal or x-axis. The second quantity, which
varies as a result of changes in the first quantity, is called the dependent
variable and is plotted on the vertical or y-axis. Any other quantities involved
are held constant.

In the circuit shown in Figure 1.7.1, the resistance is held at 1 kΩ and the
voltage is varied, the resulting changes in the current are then plotted. The
resistance is the constant, the voltage is the independent variable, and the
current is the dependent variable.

II

E R 1 kΩ

Figure 1.7.1 E, I and R in a basic circuit

Unit 1 15
Table 1.7.1 shows Resistor R is held constant at 1 kΩ as voltage source E is
varied from 0 to 30 volts in steps of 5 volts. Through measurements make on
the circuit or the use of Ohm's law, you can find the value of current for each
value of voltage shown in the table.

Table 1.7.1
E (Volt) I (Ampere)
0 0.000
5 0.005
10 0.010
15 0.015
20 0.020
25 0.025
30 0.030

The information in the table is used to construct the graph shown in Figure
1.7.2. For example, when the voltage of 5 volts is applied across the 1 kΩ
resistor, the current is 5 mA. These values of current and voltage determine a
point on the graph. When all 6 points have been plotted, a straight line is
drawn through these points.

Volt-ampere characteristic

0.035

0.030

0.025
I in amperes

0.020
R = 1 kΩ
0.015

0.010

0.005

0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
E in volts

Figure 1.7.2 Graph of volt-ampere characteristic

Unit 1 16
Using the graph in Figure 1.7.2, the value of current through the resistor can
be quickly determined for any value of voltage between 0 and 30 volts. Since
the graph is a straight line, it shows that equal changes of voltage across the
resistor produce equal changes in current through the resistor. This fact
illustrates an important characteristic of the Ohm’s law - the current varies
directly with the applied voltage when the resistance is held constant.

Resistors in Series
R1
2.2k

1.5
E R2
2.2k

R3
2.2k

Figure 1.7.3 Resistors in series

Series circuit is sometimes known as cascade-coupled or daisy chain-coupled

circuit as shown in Figure 1.7.3. The current that flows in a series circuit has
to flow through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all components in a
series connection carry the same current.

The total resistance of all the resistors is obtained by adding the individual
resistance of each resistor.

R T = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + K + R N

Unit 1 17
Resistors in Parallel
IT

I1 I2 I3 I4

1.5
E 2.2k
R1 2.2k
R2 2.2k
R3 2.2k
R4

Figure 1.7.4 Four branches parallel circuit

Each current path in Figure 1.7.4 is called a branch. A parallel circuit is one
that has more than one branch. The voltage across any given branch of a
parallel circuit is equal to the voltage across each of the other branches in
parallel. The total resistance of the resistors connected in parallel is always
less than the value of the smallest resistor in the circuit.

The formula for total parallel resistance is:

1
RT =
1 1 1 1
+ + +K+
R1 R 2 R 3 RN
IT A

I1 I2

E
1.5 2.2k
R1 2.2k
R2

B
Figure 1.7.5 Two resistors connected in parallel

For two resistors connected in parallel in Figure 1.7.5, the total resistance is
equal to the product of the two resistors divided by the sum of the two
resistors.
R1 × R 2
RT =
R1 + R 2

The notation used to indicate two or four resistors connected in parallel is

R1//R2 or R1//R2//R3//R4 respectively.
Unit 1 18
Total EMF and Current in a Series/Parallel Resistive Circuit

Example 1.7.1

E3 =1.5
E3= 1.5VV

EE2= V
2 = 55V

R1 1
1kkΩ

R2 2.2k
2.2 kΩ

EE1=
1 = 12
12VV

IT

Determine the total emf ET, circuit current IT and its direction.

Solution:
E T = E1 + E2 - E3 = 12 + 5 − 1.5 = 15.5 V

ET 15.5 15.5
IT = = = = 4.84 mA
R 1 + R 2 1 k + 2.2 k 3.2 k

IT flows in the clockwise direction, that is, it takes the direction of E1 and E2
polarities.

Unit 1 19
Example 1.7.2

I1 R2

3.3 kΩ
IT R1

1.2 kΩ I2 R3

6.8 kΩ

5V

Determine the total current IT and branch current I1 and I2 of the series-
parallel circuit.

Solution:
Equivalent resistance of the parallel resistors:
R 2 × R 3 3.3 k × 6.8 k 22.44 M
R 2 //R 3 = = = = 2.22 kΩ
R 2 + R 3 3.3 k + 6.8 k 10.1 k
Total resistance of the circuit:
R T = R 1 + (R 2 //R 3 ) = 1.2 k + 2.22 k = 3.42 kΩ
Total circuit current:
E 5
IT = = = 1.46 mA
R T 3.42 k

Voltage across R1:

V1 = I T R 1 = 1.46 × 10 −3 × 1.2 k = 1.75 V
Current I1:
E - V1 5 - 1.75
I1 = = = 0.98 mA
R2 3.3 k
Current I2:
E - V1 5 - 1.75
I2 = = = 0.48 mA
R3 6.8 k
or
I 2 = I T − I 1 = 1.46 mA − 0.98 mA = 0.48 mA

Unit 1 20
Electronics Test Equipment to Measure Voltage, Current, and Resistance

Digital Multimeter (DMM)

A DMM is an electrical instrument capable of measuring voltage, current, and
resistance. It has a numerical LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) display for
indicating the quantity of voltage, current, or resistance.

Figure 1.7.6 A Fluke digital multimeter

In making measurements, always remember the following rules:

1. To measure resistance, the resistor should be disconnected from the
circuit and placed between the probes of the DMM.
2. To measure the voltage across a circuit element, the DMM must be
connected across (in parallel with) that circuit element.
3. To measure current through a circuit element, the DMM must be
connected in series with that circuit element.
4. If the resistance, voltage, or current being measured by the DMM exceeds
the maximum value of the range selected, an over-flow indication "O.L" will
be displayed. You should then select a higher range.
5. In general, you should start on the highest range possible if you have no
idea of the value of the variable you are measuring.

Resistance Measurement
Use the resistance mode of the DMM to measure resistance. The DMM has
its own internal voltage source (a battery), so no external power supply is
needed when making resistance measurement.

Unit 1 21
 A DMM in resistance mode must not be used to measure resistance in-circuit
or with a circuit connected to a power supply. If you want to measure the
resistance of a particular component, you must take it out of the circuit
altogether and test it separately as shown in Figure 1.7.7 and Figure 1.7.8.

I1

R1 0 10 kΩ R10 10 kΩ

E10 E10

+ 6.81 kΩ
R2 0 6.8 kΩ Ω R2 0 6.8 kΩ

Figure 1.7.7 Schematic showing resistance measurement

Figure 1.7.8 Practical measurement of resistance

DMM measuring resistance works by passing a small current through the

component and measuring the voltage produced. If you try this with the
component connected in-circuit or with power supply, the most likely result is
that the meter reading will be erroneous or the meter will damage.

Unit 1 22
Current Measurement
When making current measurement the flow of current is monitored. The only
way to do this is to put the DMM in series with the circuit as shown in Figure
1.7.9 and 1.7.10. In fact as the same current is flowing at every point in this
circuit, it can be inserted at any convenient point.

The DMM should be set to ammeter mode. If the meter does not possess
auto ranging then the current range must be set in excess of the expected
value. The DMM probes should be inserted in the correct sockets and
connected with the correct polarity into the circuit. The positive lead should be
connected to the more positive side of the circuit. With the DMM connected,
power can be applied to the circuit.
8.39 mA
+
A

R1 220 Ω

E1

LED

Figure 1.7.9 Schematic showing LED current measurement

Figure 1.7.10 Practical measurement of LED current

Unit 1 23
Never leave a DMM set to ammeter mode except when actually taking a
reading. The greatest risk of damage to the DMM is on the ammeter mode
because ammeter has a very low resistance.

Voltage Measurement
When making voltage measurement, the first step is to set the DMM to
voltmeter mode. If the DMM does not possess auto ranging then the voltage
range must be set in excess of the expected value. This is to make sure there
is no chance of the meter being overloaded and damaged. In addition to this,
check that the test leads are plugged into the correct sockets. Many DMMs
have different sockets for different types of measurement so check that the
test leads are plugged into the correct sockets. Usually a DMM will be
provided with two leads, one black, and the other red. The black one
represents the negative, and it is connected to the negative or "common"
socket on the meter. The red one is connected to the positive socket.

When making the measurement, the positive lead should be connected to

terminal which is expected to have the more positive voltage. If the leads are
connected the wrong way round a negative voltage will be displayed. This is
acceptable for a DMM because it will just display a negative sign. However for
an analogue multimeter, the meter needle will move backwards and hit a stop.
If at all possible it is best not to allow this to happen. With the DMM
connected, power can be applied to the circuit as shown in Figure 1.7.11 and
Figure 1.7.12.
I1

R10 10 kΩ

E10

+
R2 0 12 kΩ
V 2.73 V

Figure 1.7.11 Schematic showing voltage measurement

Unit 1 24
 Figure 1.7.12 Practical measurement of voltage

Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope shown in Figure 1.7.13 is the most useful instrument for
testing circuits because it allows you to see the signals at different points in
the circuit. It is widely used for measurement of time-varying signals.

The best way to investigate an electronic system is to observe the signals at

the input and output of each system block, checking that each block is
operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next block.

Figure 1.7.13 An Oscilloscope measuring a sinusoidal signal from a signal generator

Unit 1 25
1.8 Electrical Power and Energy

Work and Energy in Electricity

The concept of Work is closely related to that of energy. In fact, the formal
definition of energy is "the capacity to perform work".

When electric current flows in a circuit with resistance, it does work. Devices
convert this work into many useful forms, such as heat (electric heaters), light
(light bulbs), motion (electric motors) and sound (loudspeaker).

Everything we do is connected to energy in one form or another. In an electric

circuit, power is the rate at which energy is used. The derived unit for power is
the watt.

1 watt = 1 joule/second

Power means strength, or force or energy. Power is the rate at which work is
done or energy is used. Electric power is a measure of the rate at which
electricity does work or provides energy.

Example 1.8.1
A resistor has a potential difference of 50 V across its terminals and 120 C of
charge per minute passes a fixed point. Under these condition at what rate is
electric energy converted to heat?

Solution:
Since V.A = (J/C) × (C/s) = J/s = W
I = Q/t = 120 C / 1 min = 120 C / 60 s = 2 A
P = VI = 50 x 2 = 100 W

Since 1 W = 1 J/s, the rate of energy conversion is 100 J/s

Unit 1 26
Heating Effect of Electric Current and its Applications

Electricity is the most useful and indispensable form of energy. It is the only
form that can be conveniently converted into any other form of energy to suit
our various needs. All electrical devices depend upon one or more effects of
electric current. They are chemical effect, heating effect, lighting effect,
magnetic effect and mechanical effect.

The heating effect of electric current is used in some heating appliances, such
as a soldering iron, electric iron, toaster, oven, room heater, immersion heater
and so on as shown in Figure 1.8.1. These appliances have coils of nichrome
wire (an alloy of nickel and chromium), which are heated when current passes
through it.

The reasons for using nichrome wire in a heating coil are:

• High melting point

• Nichrome wire can remain red-hot for a long time

• High resistance

Soldering iron Immersion heater Bread toaster

Electric iron Portable oven Room heater

Figure 1.8.1 Various domestic heating appliances

Unit 1 27
Whenever electricity is used for heating water or other liquids, the heating
element is safely insulated and enclosed in a tube. It prevents the liquids from
becoming live and therefore dangerous. In an electric iron, the heating
element is sandwiched between two thin sheets of mica, which is highly
insulating and can withstand high temperature.

Table 1.8.1 shows some heating appliances used in our daily life. Try filling up
the column on energy change.

Table 1.8.1

Appliances Energy change

Electric Iron Electrical energy is converted to heat energy

Electric fan Electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy

Electric heater

Loudspeaker

Hair dryer

Electric bulb

Joule’s Law
James Prescot Joule conducted a quantitative study of the
heating effect of electric current and formulated a law
known as Joule's Law.

The quantity of heat developed in a current carrying conductor is equal to the

product of the square of the electric current, the resistance of the conductor
and the time of flow of current through the conductor.

W = I2Rt joule
Where
W = heat energy produced in joule (J)
I = current in ampere (A)
R = resistance of the conductor in ohm (Ω)
t = time in second (s)

Unit 1 28
Using Ohm’s law V = IR, the above equation becomes:
W = VIt
or
W = VQ

Can you suggest some more equations?

Show your working here:
Using Power equations:
P = VI or P = V2/R or P= I2R

Substituting the above equations:

W = Pt = V2/Rt = I2Rt

Example 1.8.2
An electric heater works in a 230 VDC and draws a current of 3 A for 5
minutes supply. Determine the heat energy produced in the heater. Also find
out the resistance of the coil in the heater.

Solution:
V = 230 V
I=3A
t = 5 minute = 5 x 60 = 300 s

Heat Energy W = VIt

= 230 x 3 x 300 = 207 000 J

The resistance of the coil

V 230
R= = = 76.67 Ω
I 3

Unit 1 29
Efficiency of Electrical Device
The efficiency of an entity (a device, component, or system) in electronics and
electrical engineering is defined as useful power output divided by the total
electrical power consumed (a fractional expression).

Useful power output

Efficiency =
Total power input

Efficiency should not be confused with effectiveness. A system that wastes

most of its input power but produces exactly what it is meant to is effective but
not efficient. The term "efficiency" only makes sense in reference to the
wanted effect.

A light bulb might have 2 % efficiency at emitting light yet still be 98 % efficient
at heating a room. In practice it is nearly 100 %
efficient at heating a room because the light
energy will also be converted to heat
eventually, apart from the small fraction that
leaves through the windows.

In electric kettle, the efficiency is over 90 % as comparatively little heat energy

is lost during the 3 to 5 minutes a kettle takes to boil water.

Unit 1 30
Example 1.8.3
What is the efficiency of an electronic amplifier that delivers 10 watts of power
to the loudspeaker while drawing 20 watts of power from the source?

Solution:

Output Power 10
Efficiency = × 100 % = × 100 % = 50 %
Input Power 20

Electrical devices having high efficiency are obviously desirable when we wish
to design portable systems that operate on batteries. Inefficiency comes with
a cost either paid to the power company or the cost of replacing the batteries.
Also, any difference in the input and output power probably produces heat
within the system and the heat must be removed from the system if it is to
remain within its operating temperature range.

Power Equations
The letter P in electrical equations represents electric power. The term
wattage is used informally to mean 'electric power in watts'.

In direct current resistive circuits, instantaneous electrical power is calculated

using Joule's Law, which is named after the British physicist James Prescott
Joule, who first showed that electrical and mechanical energies were
interchangeable.

The following relationships for power in an electric circuit can also be

developed:
P = VI
1 watt = 1 volt.ampere
= 1 (joule/coulomb)/(coulomb/second)
= 1 joule/second

Unit 1 31
Also from Ohm’s law V = IR
P = I 2R
1 watt = 1 ampere2.ohm

And I = V/R
P = V2/R
1 watt = 1 volt2/ohm

The power rating shown on electrical appliances gives a comparative

indication of the cost of operating those appliances (not taking efficiencies into
account).

The energy consumed by an electrical appliance depends on its power rating

and the length of time it is operating.
Energy = Power × time
W = Pt

W = VIt

The joule is too small to measure electrical energy consumption. More

common are the mega joule (MJ), or the kilowatt-hour (kWh).

1 MJ = 1× 10 6 J

1 MJ = 1× 10 6 W.s

1× 10 3
1 MJ = kWh
3600
3600
MJ = 1 kWh
1× 10 3

∴1 kWh = 3.6 MJ

Unit 1 32
Example 1.8.4
a) Determine the power consumption of the resistors R1 and R2 in watts (W).
b) Find the heat energies produced by resistors R1 and R2 if they are used in
10 second in joule (J).
R2

1.2kkΩ
1.2

R1

5.6k
5.6 kΩ

12 V

E5
Solution:

a) Power consumption of resistor R1

E 2 12 2
P = = = 0.026 W
1 R 5.6 k
1
Power consumption of resistor R2

E 2 12 2
P = = = 0.12 W
2 R 1.2 k
2
b) The heat energies are
W = P t = 0.026 × 10 = 0.26 J
1 1
W = P t = 0.12 × 10 = 1.2 J
2 2

Unit 1 33