THE PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS

Thales Thales is usually considered to be the first

Milesian philosopher as well as ‘the father of science’ as
school he was the first to try to explain things in nature
(c.624-546 without relying on mythology. He was the first of
BCE) three major figures in the Milesian school, all of
whom felt that one single substance was the
source of all things. According to Thales, that
one subtance was water.

Anaximander Anaximander was a student of Thales and the

Milesian second major figure in the Milesian school. He
school believed that the single substance that was the
(c.610-546 source of all things was an endless, unlimited
BCE) substance called apeiron.

Anaximenes Anaximenes was a student of Anaximander and

Milesian the third major figure in the Milesian school. He
school believed that airwas the single substance that
(c.585-528 was the source of all things
BCE)

Pythagoras Although little is known of the historical figure,

Pythagorianism Pythagoras is considered to be the founder of the
(570-495 BCE) mystical/religious movement that bears his name.
He made important contributions to the field of
mathematics, the most famous of which is
the Pythagorean theorem. He also believed in
reincarnation.

Parmenides The founder of the Eleatic school, Parmenides

Eleatic school believed that all is one, that everything that
(c. early 500’s exists has always existed, and that nothing ever
BCE) really changes. He felt that this conclusion, based
on reason alone, was correct and that our senses,
which tell us otherwise, are ultimately unre liable.

Heraclitus Unlike Parmenides, Heraclitus believed that

Ephesian everything is in a constant state of change and
school that are sense are generally reliable. A
(c.535-475 melancholy and obscure man, he is often
BCE) portrayed as the “weeping philosopher”.
 Zeno of Elea A student of Parmenides, Zeno is most famous
Eleatic school for his paradoxes, the most famous of which is
(c.490-430 known as Achilles and the tortoise.
BCE)

Empedocles Empedocles introduced the concept of four

Pluralist fundamental elements (fire, air, earth & water),
school instead of just one — an idea that persisted until
(c.490-430 modern times.
BCE)

Anaxagoras Anaxagoras, a member of the pluralist school,

Pluralist was the first to bring philosophy to Athens,
school where it later flourished in the hands of Socrates,
(c.500-428 Plato and Aristotle.
BCE)

Protagoras Protagoras was one of the first sophists —

Sophist ‘practical’ philosophers who taught the wealthy
(c.490-420 for money. He is most famous for his saying,
BCE) “Man is the measure of all things“.

Democritus Democritus, together with his teacher Leucippus,

Atomist school is usually credited with developing atomism —
(c.460-370 the idea that everything in nature is made up of
BCE) indivisible elements called atoms. This theory
reconciled Parmenides’ concept of nothing
changing (because the atoms themselves don’t
change) with Heraclitus’ idea of constant change
(because it is the way in which the atoms are
arranged that changes). He is often referred to as
the laughing philosopher.

THE THREE GREATEST GREEK PHILOSOPHERS

Socrates Socrates is remembered more for how he taught

Athens than for what he taught. He liked to appear
(c.469-399 ignorant and ask a lot of questions, thus helping
BCE) people to find answers on their own — a
technique that became known as the Socratic
Method. He is also remembered for his death.
 Accused of corrupting youth and disbelieving in
the gods, he was sentenced to commit suicide by
drinking poison. Socrates left behi nd no writings
and everything we know about him is based on
what Plato and his other students wrote.
Socrates: A Very Short Introduction

Plato A student of Socrates, Plato founded The

Athens Academy in Athens and became one of the
(428-327 BCE) greatest figures in the entire history of
philosophy. He believed in the existence of ideal
forms, residing beyond the physical world and
known by reason alone, upon which our world of
senses is based. He expressed this theory most
clearly in his famous piece “The Myth of the
Cave“.
Plato: A Very Short Introduction

Aristotle A student of Plato, Aristotle is perhaps the most

Athens influential of all the ancient Greek philosophers.
(c.384-322 He is famous for his empirical approach to
BCE2) studying nature, his theory of Four
Causes (material, formal, efficient and fin al),
and his development of formal logic. He was also
a tutor for Alexander the Great.
Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction

THE POST-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS

Aristippus Aristippus was the founder of Cyrenaicism, an

Cyrenaicism ultra-hedonist philosophy that encouraged people
(c.435-356 to get as much pleasure as possible out of life.
BCE)

Diogenes Diogenes was one of the founders of Cynicism, a

Cynicism philosophy that, in opposition to Cyrenaicism ,
(c.412-323 rejected the desire for wealth and luxury and
BCE) encouraged a simple life, free from possessions,
instead. Diogenes is remembered for his theatrics
such as walking around with a lamp during the
day proclaiming that he was looking for an
honest man and for responding to Alexander the
Great’s question, “What can I do for you?” with
 “Move, because you’re blocking my sun.”

Pyrrho Pyrrho was an ultimate skeptic in that he

Skepticism believed it was impossible to actually know
(c.360-270 anything for certain. He therefore recommended
BCE) that people suspend judgment on philosophical
matters and simply focus on more practical
matters instead.

Epicurus Influenced by Cyrenaicism, Epicurus saw

Epicureanism pleasure and pain as the measures of goo d and
(c.341-270 evil. Epicureans therefore tried their best to enjoy
BCE) life by aiming for as much happiness and as little
suffering as possible.

Zeno of Zeno was the founder of Stoicism, a philosophy

Citium that developed out of Cynicism and encourages
Stoicism people to use their free will to repress emotions
(c.334-262 and simply be at peace with whatever nature
BCE) throws their way.

Plotinus Plotinus is considered the founder

Neoplatonism of Neoplatonism, a pantheistic and mystical
(204-270 CE) philosophy that emphasizes how everything is
really part of “the One” and that there really is no
dualism (e.g. – darkness does not exist by itself;
it is simply the absence of light).

Thales of Miletus
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Thales of Miletus
Born c. 624 BC

Died c. 546 BC (aged c. 78)

Era Pre-Socratic philosophy

Region Western philosophy

 Ionian / Milesian
School
 Naturalism
Main interests  Ethics
 Metaphysics
 Mathematics
 Astronomy
Notable ideas  Water is the arche
 Thales' theorem
 Intercept theorem
Influences[show]
Influenced[show]
Thales of Miletus (/ˈθeɪliːz/; Greek: Θαλῆς (ὁ Μιλήσιος), Thalēs; c. 624 – c. 546 BC) was a pre-
Socratic Greek philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer from Miletus in Asia
Minor (present-day Milet in Turkey). He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most
notably Aristotle, regarded him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition,[1][2] and he is
otherwise historically recognized as the first individual in Western civilization known to have
entertained and engaged in scientific philosophy.[3][4]
Thales is recognized for breaking from the use of mythology to explain the world and the
universe, and instead explaining natural objects and phenomena by theories and hypotheses, in a
precursor to modern science. Almost all the other Pre-Socratic philosophersfollowed him in
explaining nature as deriving from a unity of everything based on the existence of a single
ultimate substance, instead of using mythological explanations. Aristotle reported Thales'
hypothesis that the originating principle of nature and the nature of matterwas a single
material substance: water.
In mathematics, Thales used geometry to calculate the heights of pyramids and the distance of
ships from the shore. He is the first known individual to use deductive reasoning applied to
geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' theorem. He is the first known individual to
whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed.[5]

Anaximander
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This article is about the Pre-Socratic philosopher. For other uses, see Anaximander
(disambiguation).

Anaximander

Ancient Roman mosaic from Johannisstraße, Trier,

dating to the early third century AD, showing
 Anaximander holding a sundial[1]

Born c. 610 BC

Died c. 546 BC

Era Pre-Socratic philosophy

Region Western philosophy

 Ionian / Milesian
School
 Naturalism
Main Metaphysics, astronomy, geometry, geography
interests
Notable The apeiron is the arche
ideas
Evolutionary view of living things[2][3]
Earth floats unsupported
Mechanical model of the sky
Water of rain from evaporation
Influences[show]

Influenced[show]
Anaximander (/æˌnæksɪˈmændər/; Greek: Ἀναξίμανδρος Anaximandros; c. 610 –
c. 546 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopherwho lived in Miletus,[4] a city of Ionia (in
modern-day Turkey). He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his
master Thales. He succeeded Thales and became the second master of that school where he
counted Anaximenes and, arguably, Pythagoras amongst his pupils.[5]
Little of his life and work is known today. According to available historical documents, he is the
first philosopher known to have written down his studies,[6] although only one fragment of his
work remains. Fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of
the man.
He was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the
universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like
human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long.[7] Like many
thinkers of his time, Anaximander's philosophy included contributions to many disciplines.
In astronomy, he attempted to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth.
In physics, his postulation that the indefinite (or apeiron) was the source of all things led Greek
philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction. His knowledge of geometry allowed him to
introduce the gnomon in Greece. He created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the
advancement of geography. He was also involved in the politics of Miletus and was sent as a
leader to one of its colonies.

Anaximenes of Miletus
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Anaximenes of Miletus

Anaximenes of Miletus

Born c. 585 BC

Died c. 528 BC

Era Pre-Socratic philosophy

Region Western philosophy

 Ionian / Milesian
School
 Naturalism
Main interests Metaphysics
 Notable ideas Air is the arche

Influences[show]

Anaximenes of Miletus (/ˌænækˈsɪməˌniːz/; Ancient Greek: Ἀναξιμένης ὁ

Μιλήσιος, translit. Anaximenēs ho Milēsios; c. 585 – c. 528 BC) was an Ancient GreekPre-
Socratic philosopher active in the latter half of the 6th century BC.[1][2] One of the
three Milesian philosophers, he is identified as a younger friend or student
of Anaximander.[3][4] Anaximenes, like others in his school of thought, practiced material
monism.[5][4] This tendency to identify one specific underlying reality made up of a material
thing is what Anaximenes is principally known for today.

Contents

 1Anaximenes and the Arche

 2The origin of the Cosmos
 3Other phenomena
 4Legacy
 5References
 6Further reading
 7External links

Anaximenes and the Arche[edit]

While his predecessors Thales and Anaximander proposed that the archai (singular: arche,
meaning the underlying material of the world) were water and the ambiguous substance apeiron,
respectively, Anaximenes asserted that air was this primary substance of which all other things
are made. The choice of air may seem arbitrary, but Anaximenes based his conclusion on
naturally observable phenomena in the processes of rarefaction and condensation.[6] When air
condenses it becomes visible, as mist and then rain and other forms of precipitation. As the
condensed air cools Anaximenes supposed that it went on to form earth and ultimately stones. In
contrast, water evaporates into air, which ignites and produces flame when further
rarefied.[7] While other philosophers also recognized such transitions in states of matter,
Anaximenes was the first to associate the quality pairs hot/dry and cold/wet with the density of a
single material and add a quantitative dimension to the Milesian monistic system.[7][8]

Pythagoras
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"Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here. For the Samian statuary, see Pythagoras (sculptor).
For other uses, see Pythagoras (disambiguation).

Pythagoras

Bust of Pythagoras of Samos in the Capitoline

Museums, Rome[1]

Born c. 570 BC
Samos

Died c. 495 BC (aged around 75)

either Croton or Metapontum

Era Ancient Greek philosophy

Region Western philosophy

School Pythagoreanism

 Mathematics
Main interests
 Metaphysics
 Music
 Mysticism
 Ethics
  Politics
 Religion
Notable ideas Communalism
 Metempsychosis
 Musica universalis

Attributed ideas:

 Five climactic zones

 Five regular solids
 Proportions
 Pythagorean theorem
 Pythagorean tuning
 Sphericity of the Earth
 Vegetarianism
Influences[show]

Influenced[show]
Pythagoras of Samos[a] (c. 570 – c. 495 BC)[b] was an Ionian Greek philosopher and the
eponymous founder of the Pythagoreanism movement. His political and religious teachings were
well-known in Magna Graecia and influenced the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and, through
them, Western philosophy. Knowledge of Pythagoras's life is largely clouded by legend
and obfuscation, but he appears to have been the son of Mnesarchus, a seal engraver on the
island of Samos. Modern scholars disagree regarding Pythagoras's education and influences, but
they do agree that, in around 530 BC, he travelled to Croton, where he founded a school in which
initiates were sworn to secrecy and lived a communal, ascetic lifestyle. Following Croton's
decisive victory over Sybaris in around 510 BC, Pythagoras's followers came into conflict with
supporters of democracy and Pythagorean meeting houses were burned. Pythagoras may have
been killed during this persecution, or he may have escaped to Metapontum, where he eventually
died.
The teaching most securely identified with Pythagoras is metempsychosis, or the "transmigration
of souls", which holds that every soul is immortal and, upon death, enters into a new body. He
may have also devised the doctrine of musica universalis, which holds that the planets move
according to mathematicalequations and thus resonate to produce an inaudible symphony of
music. Scholars debate whether Pythagoras himself developed the numerological and musical
teachings attributed to him, or if those teachings were developed by his later followers,
particularly Philolaus of Croton. He probably prohibited his followers from eating beans, but he
may or may not have advocated a strictly vegetarian diet.
In antiquity, Pythagoras was credited with many mathematical and scientific discoveries,
including the Pythagorean theorem, Pythagorean tuning, the five regular solids, the Theory of
Proportions, the sphericity of the Earth, and the identity of the morning and evening stars as the
planet Venus. It was said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher ("lover of
wisdom")[c] and that he was the first to divide the globe into five climatic zones. Classical
historians debate whether Pythagoras made these discoveries, and many of the accomplishments
credited to him likely originated earlier or were made by his colleagues or successors. Some
accounts mention that the philosophy associated with Pythagoras was related to mathematics and
that numbers were important, but it is debated to what extent, if at all, he actually contributed to
mathematics or natural philosophy.
Pythagoras influenced Plato, whose dialogues, especially his Timaeus, exhibit Pythagorean
teachings. Pythagorean ideas about mathematical perfection also impacted ancient Greek art. His
teachings underwent a major revival in the first century BC among Middle Platonists, coinciding
with the rise of Neopythagoreanism. Pythagoras continued to be regarded as a great philosopher
throughout the Middle Ages and his philosophy had a major impact on scientists such
as Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton. Pythagorean symbolism was used
throughout early modern European esotericismand his teachings as portrayed
in Ovid's Metamorphoses influenced the growth of the vegetarian movement.

Heraclitus
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Heraclitus

Heraclitus by Johannes Moreelse. The image depicts him as "the

weeping philosopher" wringing his hands over the world, and as
"the obscure" dressed in dark clothing—both traditional motifs
 Born c. 535 BC
Ephesus, Ionia, Persian Empire

Died c. 475 BC (age c. 60)

Era Ancient philosophy

Region Western philosophy

School Ionian

Main Metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, cosmology

interests

Notable Logos, "everything flows", fire is the arche, idios

ideas
kosmos, unity of opposites

Influences[show]

Influenced[show]

Heraclitus of Ephesus (/ˌhɛrəˈklaɪtəs/;[1] Greek: Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος Hērákleitos ho

Ephésios; c. 535 – c. 475 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, and a native of the city
of Ephesus,[2] then part of the Persian Empire. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known
about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of
wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the apparently riddled[3] and allegedly
paradoxical[4]nature of his philosophy and his stress upon the needless unconsciousness of
humankind,[5] he was called "The Obscure" and the "Weeping Philosopher".
Heraclitus was famous for his insistence on ever-present change as being the fundamental
essence of the universe, as stated in the famous saying, "No man ever steps in the same river
twice"[6] (see panta rhei below). This is commonly considered to be one of the first digressions
into the philosophical concept of becoming, and has been contrasted with Parmenides statement
that "what is-is" as one of the first digressions into the philosophical concept of being. As such,
Parmenides and Heraclitus are commonly considered to be two of the founders of ontology.
Scholars have generally believed that either Parmenides was responding to Heraclitus, or
Heraclitus to Parmenides, though opinion on who was responding to whom changed over the
course of the 20th century.[7]Heraclitus' position was complemented by his stark commitment to
a unity of opposites in the world, stating that "the path up and down are one and the same".
Through these doctrines Heraclitus characterized all existing entities by pairs of contrary
properties, whereby no entity may ever occupy a single state at a single time. This, along with his
cryptic utterance that "all entities come to be in accordance with this Logos" (literally, "word",
"reason", or "account") has been the subject of numerous interpretations.

Parmenides
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Parmenides

Bust of Parmenides discovered at Velia, thought to

have been partially modeled on a Metrodorus bust.[1]

Born c. 515 BC[2]

Elea, Magna Graecia

Era Pre-Socratic philosophy

Region Western philosophy

School Eleatic school

 Main interests Metaphysics (ontology)

Notable ideas "Thought and being are the same"[3]

The truth–appearance distinction
Nothing comes from nothing
The Void

Influences[show]

Influenced[show]

Parmenides of Elea (/pɑːrˈmɛnɪdiːz ... ˈɛliə/; Greek: Παρμενίδης ὁ Ἐλεάτης; fl. late sixth or

early fifth century BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher from Elea in Magna
Graecia (Greater Greece, included Southern Italy). He was the founder of the Eleatic
school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem, On Nature, which has
survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides prescribes two views of reality. In
"the way of truth" (a part of the poem), he explains how reality (coined as "what is-is") is
one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, necessary, and unchanging. This is
generally considered to be one of the first digressions into the philosophical concept of being,
and has been contrasted with Heraclitusstatement that "No man ever steps in the same river
twice" as one of the first digressions into the philosophical concept of becoming. As such,
Parmenides and Heraclitus are generally considered to be two of the founders of ontology.
Scholars have generally believed that either Parmenides was responding to Heraclitus, or
Heraclitus to Parmenides, though opinion on who was responding to who changed over the
course of the 20th century. In "the way of opinion", Parmenides explains the world of
appearances, in which one's sensory faculties lead to conceptions which are false and deceitful.
He has been considered to be the founder of metaphysics or ontology.[4]

Empedocles
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Empedocles
 Empedocles, 17th-century engraving

Born c. 490 BC
Akragas, Sicily

Died c. 430 BC (aged around 60)

Mount Etna, Sicily

Era Pre-Socratic philosophy

Region Western philosophy

School Pluralist school

Main Cosmogenesis, ontology, epistemology

interests

Notable All matter is made up of four

ideas
elements: water, earth, air and fire
The cosmic principles of
Philotes ("Love")
and Neikos("Repulsion")[1]
 Theories about respiration[2]

Influences[show]

Influenced[show]

Empedocles (/ɛmˈpɛdəkliːz/; Greek: Ἐμπεδοκλῆς [empedoklɛ̂ːs], Empedoklēs; c. 490 –

c. 430 BC) was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a citizen of Akragas, a Greek city in Sicily.
Empedocles' philosophy is best known for originating the cosmogenic theory of the four classical
elements. He also proposed forces he called Love and Strife which would mix and separate the
elements, respectively. These physical speculations were part of a history of the universe which
also dealt with the origin and development of life.
Influenced by the Pythagoreans, Empedocles was a vegetarian who supported the doctrine
of reincarnation. He is generally considered the last Greek philosopher to have recorded his ideas
in verse. Some of his work survives, more than is the case for any other pre-Socratic philosopher.
Empedocles' death was mythologized by ancient writers, and has been the subject of a number of
literary treatments.