MECHANICAL DESIGN

OF
STATIC EQUIPMENT
(OIL, GAS & HYDROCARBON

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 INDEX

SR.NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE

NO.
1. Introduction to Pressure Vessel
(ASME SEC VIII DIV 1)
2. Vessel Support Design
3. Flange Design
4. Heat Exchanger (UHX & TEMA)
5. API 650 Tanks

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 1. INTRODUCTION TO PRESSURE VESSEL
Part UG Design CODE ASME SECTION VIII DIV-1
1. UG-16
(b) Minimum Thickness of Pressure Components.
The minimum thickness permitted for shells and heads, after forming and regardless of product and
material, shall be 1/16 in. (1.5 mm) exclusive of any corrosion allowance.
Exceptions are:
(1) the minimum thickness does not apply to heat transfer plates of plate‐type heat exchangers;
(2) this minimum thickness does not apply to the inner pipe of double pipe heat exchangers nor to pipes
and tubes that are enclosed and protected from mechanical damage by a shell, casing, or ducting, where
such pipes or tubes are 6 inch (DN 150) and less. This exemption applies whether or not the outer pipe,
shell, or protective element is constructed to Code rules.

(e) Corrosion Allowance in Design Formulas. The dimensional symbols used in all design formulas
throughout this Division represent dimensions in the corroded condition.

2. UG-20
Design Temperature: Design Temperature shall always be greater than operating temperature.

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Here, Tmax = maximum operating temperature.

UG-20(f)
Impact testing per UG-84 is not mandatory for pressure vessel materials that satisfy all of the following:
(1) The material shall be limited to P‐No. 1, Gr. No. 1 or 2, and the thickness, as defined in UCS-66(a), shall
not exceed that given in (a) or (b) below:
(a) 13 mm for materials listed in Curve A of Figure UCS-66;
(b) 25 mm for materials listed in Curve B, C, or D of Figure UCS-66.

(2) The completed vessel shall be hydrostatically

tested per UG-99(b) or UG-99(c)

(3) Design temperature is not greater than 345°C nor colder than −29°C.

(4) The thermal or mechanical shock loadings are not a controlling design requirement.

(5) Cyclical loading is not a controlling design requirement.

3. UG-21
Each element of a pressure vessel shall be designed for at least the most severe condition (including static
head in the operating position)
 4. UG-23
Maximum Allowable Stress value:
This is the maximum stress a material can sustain for given design temperature. The maximum allowable
tensile stress values permitted for different materials are given in Section II, Part D, Subpart 1.

FOS :: Factor of safety considered by ASME SEC VIII DIV 1 is 3.5

UTS :: Ultimate tensile strength of the given design temperature
YS :: Yield Strength for a given design temperature.

So,
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
Maximum Allowable Stress = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � , 1.5�
3.5

5. UG-27

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6. UG-28
Thickness of shell & tube under external pressure

Stepwise procedure to calculate the required thickness of Shell under external pressure.
Step-1
Determine thickness of vessel under internal pressure to come up with a thickness “t”.
This is the least thickness that is to be provided for sustaining internal pressure.

Step-2
Determine L/Do & Do/t

Here ,
h= is D/4 for ellipsoidal dish
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Do = OD of vessel
t = thickness under internal pressure.

Step-3
See Section II, Part D, Subpart 3, Figure G at the value of L/Do & Do/t to determine the value of factor A

Step-4
See Section II, Part D, Subpart 3 to determine the value of factor B.
In cases where the value of A falls to the right of the end of the material/temperature line, assume an intersection
with the horizontal projection of the upper end of the material/temperature line. If tabular values are used, the
last (maximum) tabulated value shall be used.

For values of A falling to the left of the applicable material/temperature line, the value of Pa can be calculated
using the following equation:

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐵𝐵 =
2
 4𝐵𝐵
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 =
3(𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 /𝑡𝑡)

Thus ,

2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 =
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
3� �
𝑡𝑡

Here, E= Modulus of elasticity at design temperature

Pa = Calculated value of maximum allowable external working pressure.

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 DISH HEADS
( As per Sec. VIII, UG- 32 )

1. Torispherical Heads - 10%

Crown radius (R) = Diameter (D)
Knuckle radius (r) = D/10
Height (H) = D x 0.194 + SF + t
Blank Dia. = D x 1.11 + 2SF

Volume (SF are not included) :–

[D(in.)/12]³ x 0.582 = gal.

2. Ellipsoidal Heads - 2:1

Crown radius (R) = 0.90D
Knuckle radius (r) = 0.17D

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Height (H) = D x 0.25 + SF + t
Blank Dia. = D x 1.15 + 2SF

Volume (SF are not included) :–

[D(in.)/12]³ x 0.954 = gal.

3. Hemispherical Heads
Inside Dish Radius (IDR) = D/2
Height (H) = D/2 + t
Blank Dia. = πD/2

Volume:–
[D(in.)/12]³ x 1.958 = gal.

Thinning Allowance - 10% on all thickness OR

- 12mm and Under – Add 1.5mm to the minimum
Over 12mm – Add 1.5mm or 15% of minimum, whichever is greater

Visit to : www.PVtools.weebly.com
APPENDIX 1-4

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APPENDIX 1-4
 APPENDIX 1-4

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UG-40 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

The limits of reinforcement, measured parallel to the vessel wall, shall be at a distance, on each side of the
axis of the opening, equal to the greater of the following:
(1) the diameter d of the finished opening;
(2) the inside radius, Rn, of the nozzle plus the vessel wall thickness t , plus the nozzle wall thickness tn.
(c) The limits of reinforcement, measured normal to the vessel wall, shall conform to the contour of the
surface at a distance from each surface equal to the smaller of the
following:
(1) 2 1/2 times the vessel wall thickness t;
(2) 2 1/2 times the nozzle wall thickness tn plus the thickness te as defined in
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Where,
ta = minimum neck thickness required for internal and external pressure using UG-27 and UG-28 (plus
corrosion and threading allowance), as applicable. The effects of external forces and moments from
supplemental loads (see UG-22) shall be considered. Shear stresses caused by UG-22 loadings shall not
exceed 70% of the allowable tensile stress for the nozzle material.

tb1 = for vessels under internal pressure, the thickness (plus corrosion allowance) required for pressure
(assuming E = 1.0) for the shell or head at the location where the nozzle neck or other connection attaches to
the vessel but in no case less than the minimum thickness specified for the material in UG-16(b).

tb2 = for vessels under external pressure, the thickness (plus corrosion allowance) obtained by using the
external design pressure as an equivalent internal design pressure (assuming E = 1.0) in the formula for the
shell or head at the location where the nozzle neck or other connection attaches to the vessel but in no case
less than the minimum thickness specified for the material in UG-16(b).

tb3 = the thickness given in Table UG-45 plus the thickness added for corrosion allowance.

tUG-45 = minimum wall thickness of nozzle necks.

UG-46 Inspection Opening

UG-84 Impact testing procedure.

UG-99 STANDARD HYDROSTATIC TEST

UG-99(b) -hydrostatic test pressure that at every point in the vessel is at least equal to 1.3 times the
maximum allowable working pressure36 multiplied by the lowest stress ratio (LSR)

to the stress value S at its design temperature.

UG 99b = 1.3 * M.A.W.P. * Sa/S

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The stress ratio for each pressure-boundary material is the ratio of the stress value Sa at its test temperature

UG 99b[36] = 1.3 * Design Pres * Sa/S (here MAWP=Design Pressure)

UG 99c = 1.3 * M.A.P. – Head (Hyd)

UW : REQUIREMENTS FOR PRESSURE VESSELS FABRICATED BY WELDING

UW-2 When vessels are to contain lethal65 substances,
either liquid or gaseous, all butt-welded joints shall be
fully radiographed

UW-3 WELDED JOINT CATEGORY

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UW-11 RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION :

RT 1: (E=1), All butt welds-full length radiography

RT 2: Category A and D butt welds full length radiography and category B and C butt welds spot Radiography

RT 3: (E=0.85), Spot radiography butt welds

RT 4: (E=0.7), Partial / No radiography

UW-13 ATTACHMENT DETAILS:

NOTES:
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(6) In all cases, the projected length of taper, ℓ, shall be not less than 3y.
(7) Length of required taper, ℓ, may include the width of the weld. The shell plate centreline may be on either
side of the head plate centreline.
(8) In all cases, ℓ shall be not less than 3y when t h exceeds t s . Minimum length of skirt is 3t h but need not
exceed 1 1/2 in. (38 mm) except when necessary to provide required length of taper. When t h is equal to or
less than 1.25t s , length of skirt shall be sufficient for any required taper.
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UW-40 PROCEDURES FOR POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT
Material::

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UCS-56 REQUIREMENTS FOR POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT

Post weld heat treatment is mandatory under the following conditions:

(1) for welded joints over 38 mm nominal thickness;
(2) for welded joints over 32 mm nominal thickness through 38 mm nominal thickness unless preheat is
applied at a minimum temperature of 95°C during welding.

Post weld heat treatment is required for equipment under lethal service.

UCS-66 MATERIALS

Unless exempted by the rules of UG-20(f) or other rules of this Division, Figure UCS-66M shall be used to
establish impact testing exemptions for steels listed in Part UCS.
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NOTES:
(1) Curve A applies to:
(a) all carbon and all low alloy steel plates, structural shapes, and bars not listed in Curves B, C, and D below;
(b)SA-216 Grades WCB and WCC if normalized and tempered or water‐quenched and tempered; SA-217
Grade WC6 if normalized and tempered or water‐quenched and tempered.

(2) Curve B applies to:

(a) SA-216 Grade WCA if normalized and tempered or water‐quenched and tempered
SA-216 Grades WCB and WCC for thicknesses not exceeding 2 in. (50 mm), if produced to fine grain practice
and water‐quenched and tempered
SA-217 Grade WC9 if normalized and tempered
SA-285 Grades A and B
SA-299
SA-414 Grade A
SA-515 Grade 60
SA-516 Grades 65 and 70 if not normalized
SA-612 if not normalized
SA-662 Grade B if not normalized
SA/EN 10028‐2 Grades P235GH, P265GH, P295GH, and P355GH as rolled
SA/AS 1548 Grades PT430NR and PT460NR
(b)except for cast steels, all materials of Curve A, if produced to fine grain practice and normalized, that are
not listed in Curves C and D below;
(c) all pipe, fittings, forgings and tubing not listed for Curves C and D below;
(d)parts permitted under UG-11 shall be included in Curve B even when fabricated from plate that otherwise
would be assigned to a different curve.

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(3) Curve C applies to:
(a) see below:
SA-182 Grades F21 and F22 if normalized and tempered
SA-302 Grades C and D
SA-336 F21 and F22 if normalized and tempered, or liquid quenched and tempered
SA-387 Grades 21 and 22 if normalized and tempered, or liquid quenched and tempered
SA-516 Grades 55 and 60 if not normalized
SA-533 Types B and C Class 1
SA-662 Grade A
SA/EN 10028-2 Grade 10CrMo9–10 if normalized and tempered
(b) all materials listed in 2(a) and 2(c) for Curve B if produced to fine grain practice and normalized,
normalized and tempered, or liquid quenched and tempered as permitted in the material specification, and
not listed for Curve D below.

(4) Curve D applies to:

SA-203
SA-299 if normalized
SA-508 Grade 1
SA-516 if normalized or quenched and tempered
SA-524 Classes 1 and 2
SA-537 Classes 1, 2, and 3
SA-612 if normalized
SA-662 if normalized
SA-738 Grade A
SA-738 Grade A with Cb and V deliberately added in accordance with the provisions of the material
specification, not colder than −20°F(−29°C)
SA-738 Grade B not colder than −20°F (−29°C)
SA/AS 1548 Grades PT430N and PT460N
SA/EN 10028‐2 Grades P235GH, P265GH, P295GH, and P355GH if normalized
SA/EN 10028‐3 Grade P275NH

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UCS-79 FORMING PRESSURE PARTS

(b) Carbon and low alloy steel plates shall not be formed cold by blows.
All vessel shell sections, heads, and other pressure parts fabricated by cold forming shall be heat treated
subsequently when the resulting extreme fiber elongation exceeds 5% from the supplied condition. For P-No.
1, Group Nos. 1 and 2, heat treatment is required when the extreme fiber elongation exceeds 40%, or if the
extreme fiber elongation exceeds 5% and any of the following conditions exist:
(1) The vessel will contain lethal substances either liquid or gaseous.
(2) The material is not exempt from impact testing by the rules of this Division or impact testing is required
by the material specification.
(3) The thickness of the part before cold forming exceeds 16 mm.
(4) The reduction by cold forming from the as‐rolled thickness is more than 10% at any location where the
extreme fiber elongation exceeds 5%.
(5) The temperature of the material during forming is in the range of 120°C to 480°C.

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 ASME Impact Test Requirement
The ASME Impact Test Requirement article provides you with information about
impact test requirements in pressure vessel design and construction.

Example ::

Let's say, you have a pressure vessel under design, process and construction has not
started yet.

Based on the ASME impact test requirement, you need to make assessment to see that
either your pressure vessel is exempted from impact testing, or you need to carry out
the test.

There are 4 steps for impact test exemption assessment. You need to know these steps.
You might be exempted in the first, second or third steps and might not be exempted
even in step 4.

So if you are in step 4 and you have not exempted, then you need to carry out the test.
I will explain the process for exemption in this article.

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Basic Concept:

You may know carbon steels and low alloy steels exhibit a drastic change in their
room temperature ductility at sub-zero service temperatures. Different types of
materials exhibit different types of transition behavior.

We can see there is a sudden, phenomenal drop in their notch-toughness properties

below the "transition" range of temperature, which should be a matter of concern for
us.

Body centered cubic or Ferritic alloys exhibit a significant transition in behavior when
impact tested over a range of temperatures. Above transition temperature range,
impact specimens fracture in a "ductile" manner, absorbing relatively large amounts of
energy.
At lower temperatures, i.e. below the transition temperature range, the impact test
specimens are found to fracture in a brittle (cleavage) manner, absorbing less energy.

And within the transition temperature range, the fracture is a mixture of ductile and
brittle nature.

A material would be invulnerable to a sudden drop in notch-toughness at the lowest

specified service (or design) temperature, if it is proved by conducting Charpy V-
notch Impact tests on representative test samples, at reference (the lowest service)
temperature.

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Grain refined carbon steel forgings and wrought materials (thoroughly worked and
normalized) generally exhibit good notch toughness.

ASME Code Section VIII Div 1 exemption rules for ASME Impact Test
Requirement:

There are specific rules in ASME Code for exemption from ASME Impact Test
Requirement. This test is very expensive, so pressure vessel manufacturers are trying
to be exempted for this costly test.

You need to follow the following clauses to make exemption assessment for ASME
impact test requirement:

UG-20(f) →→→UCS-66(a) →→→ UCS-66(b) →→→UCS-68(c)

First you have to keep your pressure vessel design data available and then refer to
UG-20 (f). If you are exempted from this clause, you do not need proceed further.

But if you are not exempted by UG-20 (f), you have to proceed to UCS-66(a), but
again if you are exempted, there is no need for more assessment.

But if not, you have to proceed to UCS-66(b). If you are exempted now, there is no
need for more assessment; otherwise, you have to proceed to UCS-68(c), and again if
you are still not exempted, you have to carry out impact testing.
For some cases, You might be exempted from the ASME impact test requirement in
the first stage in UG-20 (f). In others, You might be exempted in UCS-66(a) or UCS-
66(b) or UCS-68(c). If you are not exempted, you must prepare yourself for doing this
costly test.

This test would be more costly out of the US because of Laboratory Accreditation
requirements. Also, there are fewer accredited labs in Europe and the Middle East, and
their price is high as well.

UG-20(f)

We will start with UG-20(f) for the ASME impact test requirement. If your MOC
(Material of Construction) is categorized in P-No. 1 or 2 (Refer to ASME Code
Section IX for P-No Definition) and your MOC thickness has the limited value
defined in this clause, then you might be exempted from impact testing.

But you need to refer to Fig UCS-66 in ASME Code Section VIII Div 1 and see in
which A, B, C or D curves your MOC is listed. All ASME carbon steel and low alloy
steel material is distributed in these 4 groups (Curves) of materials.

You need to know that the materials listed in curve D have the best toughness
property, better than the materials listed in curve C. Similarly materials listed in curve

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C have better toughness properties compared to materials listed in curve B and
materials listed in Curve B have better toughness than materials listed in Curve A .

See Following Fig UCS-66(a):

When you determine your MOC curve, then you have to review UG-20(f) and look
for the possibility of exemption from the ASME impact test requirement. There are
some other conditions in this clause, which you should consider for exemption.

For instance, the vessel should be hydrostatically tested after completion, and the
thermal and mechanical loading can not be a design controlling factor.

For example, if your MOC is a normalized SA 516 Gr.70 with 0.75 inch thickness you
will be exempted from ASME impact test requirement.

Your thickness, in this example, is 0.75 of an inch, and is listed in curve D

which is up to 1 inch, you are exempted by this clause. Of course, you will be
carry out hydro-static test and ensure that the mentioned loadings are not a design
controlling factor in your considered pressure vessel.

UCS-66(a)

So assume that in the above example, your MOC thickness is 1.125 inch instead of 1
inch, you will not be exempted by UG-20(f) and you have to refer to UCS-66(a);

But for assessment, based on this clause, you need to know your pressure vessel
MDMT (Minimum Design Metal Temperature). Assume that is -20 degree F, so you

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should now go to Fig. UCS-66 and locate 1.125 inch in the horizontal axis and draw a
vertical line.

In a similar way, locate -20 degree F in the vertical axes and draw a horizontal line.
These two lines will cross each other.

See above Figure, the lines are identified in red.

If the cross point falls above the curve D (because your MOC is listed in curve D) you
are exempted. Otherwise you are not, but for the current example, you are above the
curve D so you are exempted from impact testing.

To simplify your assessment for the ASME impact test requirement, the Fig-66 has
been converted to the table(table UCS-66). For any MOC with specific thickness you
can go to this table and see what is the minimum permissible temperature without
impact testing.

See following UCS-66(a) Table:

In the above example (normalized SA 516 Gr.70, Curve D, 1.125 inch thickness), the
minimum permissible temperature without impact test is -26 degree F. This means
that, if in the above example your MDMT changes from -20 degree F to -27 degree F,

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then you cannot be exempted from the ASME impact test requirement by UCS-66(a),
and you have to proceed to UCS-66(b)

UCS-66(b)

Let us explain this clause with the above example. Your MDMT from above is -27
degree F, nominal thickness is 1.125 inch, normalized SA 516 Gr.70 listed in curve D
and you are not exempted by UCS-66(a)

So you are here to continue your assessment to find a chance for exemption. You have
to refer to Fig UCS-66.1 and calculate the following formula:

Ratio= tr E / (tn –c)

tr is the required design thickness for all applicable loading. We assume for the above
example that is 0.95 inch. E is your joint efficiency, and we assume for this vessel it is
1. This means your vessel is RT2, tn is your nominal thinness, which in the example
from above it is 1.125 inches, and C is corrosion allowance, and we assume it is 0.125
inches; so let calculate:

Ratio = 0.95x1/(1.125 – 0.125) Ratio= 0.95

See following Fig UCS-66(b):

Then go to the Figure UCS-66(b) and in the vertical axes locate Ratio and draw a
horizontal line. Then locate the cross point with the graph and draw a vertical line to

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cross the horizontal axis.

You will be able to reach a value of 8 in the horizontal axes. This 8, is your 8 degree F
bonus from table UCS-66, which you can reduce by 8 degrees F minimum permissible
temperature in table without impact testing.

In the above example, your MDMT is -27 degree F, and in the UCS 66 table, the
minimum permissible temperature without impact testing designated -26 degree F. So
with this clause you can reduce it to -36 degree F(-26 -8 = -34). Your MDMT is -27
degree F, so you are exempted from impact testing with this clause.

UCS-68(c)

Let us change one variable in the above example. Let's assume you need to have -45
degree F for your MDMT. Other variable are the same; it means normalized SA 516
Gr.70 listed in curve D, thickness 1.125, so you can see you are not exempted by
UCS-66(b);

This is because the minimum permissible temperature is -36 degree F, but your
MDMT is -45 degree F, so UCS-68(c) might be helpful.

It says that if post weld heat treatment is not a code requirement and your P-No is 1
and you carry out post weld heat treatment, a 30 degree F bonus will be granted to you
to reduce the minimum permissible temperature in table UCS-66.
So when post weld heat treatment is code requirement?

It is code requirement when your service is lethal and when your thickness for P-No. 1
is greater than 1.5 inch;

So, for our example, our service is not lethal and our P-No. is 1 and thickness is 1.125
and it is less than 1.5 inch: therefore, post weld heat treatment is not code requirement.

It means if you carry out post heat treatment, a 30 degree F bonus will be granted by
this clause. For this example our minimum permissible temperature would be -36-
30=-66 degree F, and your MDMT is -45 degree F, so you are exempted from impact
testing.

Now the worst case: in the above, assume you need to have -70 degree F for your
MDMT; you can see with this new condition you cannot be exempted even by UCS-
68(c) and you have to carry out impact testing.

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 WRC 107 & 297
Whenever Pressure Vessel or Heat exchanger (Static Equipments) nozzle loads exceeds
the allowable values provided by Vendors (Equipment manufacturer) or standard project
specific tables (guidelines), the piping stress professional is permitted to use WRC
107/297 (or any other FEA) to check the stresses at the Nozzle-Shell junction point and
check the stresses with allowable values provided by Codes. If the stresses are found to
be within allowable limit then the load and moment values can be accepted without any
hesitation.However there are some boundary conditions which must be met before using
WRC. This small write up will try to explain the required details for performing WRC 107
and WRC 297 using Caesar II and step by step method for performing WRC check.

Both WRC 107 and WRC 297 deal with “local” stress states in the vicinity of an
attachment to a vessel or pipe. As indicated by their titles, WRC-107 can be used for
attachments to both spherical and cylindrical shells while WRC-297 only addresses
cylinder to cylinder connections. While both bulletins are used for nozzle connection.
WRC-107 is based on un-penetrated shell, while WRC-297 assumes a circular opening in
vessel. Furthermore, WRC-107 defines values for solid and hollow attachments of either
round and rectangular shape for spherical shells but drops the solid/hollow distinction
for attachments to cylindrical shells. WRC-297, on the other hand, is intended only for
cylindrical nozzles attached to cylindrical shells.

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As shown in fig, Stretch your right hand with Middle finger along the Vessel Centerline.
Index Finger should parallel to nozzle centerline and should point in a direction from
nozzle towards entering vessel. And Thumb should be perpendicular to both. Then
1.Directionof Index Finger represents +P.
2.Direction of Middle Finger represents +VL
3.Direction of Thumb represents +VC
4.ML will be positive if by applying right hand thumb rule to ML, direction of thumb is
same as that of VC.
5.MC will be positive if by applying right hand thumb rule to MC, direction of thumb is
opposite to direction of VL.
6.MT will be positive if by applying right hand thumb rule to MT, direction of thumb is
opposite to direction of P.Get the loads and moments from CAESAR output. Compare the
direction of Forces and Moments in CAESAR output with conventional Force and
Moment directions and enter the values of P, VL, VC, MT, MC and ML accordingly.

Boundary condition for using WRC 107:

To determine whether WRC 107 bulletin can be used for local stress checking the
following geometry guidelines must be met:

1. Nozzle Connection is assumed to be a rectangular loading surface (no nozzle, no

hole) for circular and longitudinal moment loads. In short, not for nozzle stress
calculations.
2. WRC 107 has no provision for pressure loads. The adding of pressure to external
loads has historically been problematic for WRC 107 calculations.
3. Shell reinforcements are not considered.
4. WRC 107 does not provide flexibilities of the intersections
5. d/D<0.33
6. Dm/T=(D-T)/T>50 (Here, T=Vessel Thickness, Dm=mean diameter of vessel,
d=nozzle OD, D= Shell OD,)
7. Not intended for small D/T ratios.

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Boundary condition for using WRC 297:
To determine whether WRC 297 bulletin can be used for local stress checking the
following geometry guidelines must be met:
1. Includes effect of nozzle, nozzle opening and nozzle thickness.
2. Does not include pressure effects. (See WRC 468)
3. Includes stiffness calculations in Fig 59&60 that can easily be used to produce
numbers that are off by several orders of magnitude (high and low) since
extrapolation on log-log plot is required for geometric parameters.
4. Shell reinforcements are not considered.
5. d/D<=0.5
6. d/t>=20 and d/t<=100 (Here t=nozzle thickness)
7. D/T>=20 and D/T<=2500
8. d/T>=5
9. Nozzle must be isolated (it may not be close to a discontinuity) – not within
2√(DT) on vessel and not within 2√(dt) on nozzle

Difference between WRC 107 and 297:

The major differences other than the boundary conditions mentioned above are listed
below:
1. WRC 107 calculates only the vessel stresses while WRC 297 calculates Vessel stresses
along with nozzle stresses.
2. WRC 297 is applicable only for normally (perpendicular) intersecting two
cylindrical shells whereas WRC 107 is applicable for cylindrical as well as spherical
shells of any intersection.
3. The attachments for WRC 297 checking must be hollow but WRC 107 analyzes
cylindrical or rectangular attachments which can be rigid or hollow.
4. WRC 297 is not applicable for nozzles protruding inside the vessel (Fig 1 ).
Tangential Nozzle (Fig 2), Nozzle at angle (Fig 3).
5. Typically, WRC-107 is used for local stress calculations and WRC-297 is used for
flexibility calculations.

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IMAGE FROM PV_ELITE FOR NOZZLE LOADING ON SHELL

IMAGE FROM PV_ELITE FOR NOZZLE LOADING ON DISH

 2. VESSEL SUPPORT

SKIRT SUPPORTED VESSEL :

One of the most common methods of supporting vertical pressure vessels is by means
of a rolled cylindrical or conical shell called a skirt. The skirt can be either lap-, fillet-, or
butt-welded directly to the vessel. This method of support is attractive from the
designer’s standpoint because it minimizes the local stresses at the point of attachment,
and the direct load is uniformly distributed over the entire circumference. The use of
conical skirts is more expensive from a fabrication standpoint, and unnecessary for
most design situations.

The critical line in the skirt support is the weld attaching the vessel to the skirt. This
weld, in addition to transmitting the overall weight and overturning moments, must
also resist the thermal and bending stresses due to the temperature drop in the skirt.
The thinner the skirt, the better it is able to adjust to temperature variations. A “hot
box” design is used for elevated temperatures to minimize discontinuity stresses at the
juncture by maintaining a uniform temperature in the region. In addition, skirts for
elevated temperature design will normally be insulated inside and outside for several
meter below the point of attachment.

There are various methods of making the attachment weld of the skirt to the shell. The
preferred method is the one in which the center line of the shell and skirt coincide. This

ESEDA
method will minimize stresses at the juncture. Probably the most common method,
however, is to make the OD of the skirt match the OD of the shell. The joint efficiency of
the attachment weld also varies by the method of attachment and is usually the
governing factor in determining the skirt thickness. This weld may be subject to
cracking in severe cyclic service.
Because the skirt is an attachment to the pressure vessel, the selection of material is not
governed by the ASME Code. Any material selected, however, should be compatible with
the vessel material in terms of weldability. Strength for design is also not specified for
support material by the ASME Code. Usually, in the absence of any other standard, the
rules of the AISC Steel Construction Manual will be utilized. Nonmandatory Appendix G
in the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1 contains general guidelines on skirt supports
(and other types of supports). Additionally, Part 4 in the ASME Code, Section VIII,
Division 2 contains rules regarding applied forces, localized stresses, and thermal
gradients for skirt supports for vessels designed to Division 2, but may be used for good
practice of skirt supports for vessels designed to Division 1. For elevated temperature
design of a vessel with a support skirt made of different materials, the upper portion of
the skirt should be the same material of the shell, however, the upper portion should
also extend below the hotbox. A thermal analysis should be performed to determine the
temperature gradient along the length of the skirt and the location where another
material may be used for the skirt support.
The most common governing conditions for determining the thickness of the skirt are
as follows:
1. Weight + overturning moment
2. Imposed loads from anchor chairs
3. Vessel erection
LEG SUPPORTS:

A wide variety of vessels, bins, tanks, and hoppers may be supported on legs. The
designs can vary from small vessels supported on 3 or 4 legs, to very large vessels and
spheres up to 24 meter in diameter, supported on 16 or 20 legs. Sometimes the legs are
also called columns or posts. Almost any number of legs can be used, but the most
common variations are 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, or 20. Legs should be equally spaced around the
circumference. Leg supports may be braced or unbraced. Braced legs are those which
are reinforced with either cross-bracing or sway-bracing. Sway braces are the diagonal
members which transfer the horizontal loads, but unlike cross braces, they operate in
tension only. The diagonal members in a sway-braced system are called tie rods, which
transfer the load to each adjacent panel. Turnbuckles may be used for adjustments of
the tie rods.
Cross braces, on the other hand, are tension and compression members. Cross braces
can be pinned at the center or unpinned, and transfer their loads to the legs via wing
plates or can be welded directly to the legs. Bracing is used to reduce the number or size
of legs required by eliminating bending in the legs. The bracing will take the horizontal
loads, thus reducing the size of the legs to those determined by compression or
buckling.

ESEDA
The additional fabrication costs of bracing may not warrant the savings in the size of the
legs, however. Bracing may also cause some additional difficulties with the routing of
any piping connected to nozzles on the bottom of the vessel.
Legs may be made out of pipe, channels, angles, rectangular tubing, or structural
sections. Legs may be welded directly to the vessel shell or head or may be bolted or
welded to clips which are directly attached to the shell. It is preferable if the centroid of
the leg coincides with the center line of the vessel shell to minimize the eccentric action.
However, this may be more expensive from a welding and fit up viewpoint due to the
coping and contouring necessary to accomplish this.

Skirt-supported vessels are more common in refinery service, leg-supported vessels are
more common in the chemical industry. This may be due in part to the ventilation
benefits and the toxicity of the stored or processed chemicals. Legs should not be used
to support vessels in high-vibration, shock, or cyclic service due to the high localized
stresses at the attachments.Legs are anchored to the foundations by base plates, which
are held in place by anchor bolts embedded in the concrete. For large vessels in high
seismic areas, a shear bar may be welded to the underside of the base plate which, in
turn, fits into a corresponding recessed groove in the concrete.

SADDLE SUPPORTS:

Usually, horizontal pressure vessels and tanks are supported on two vertical cradles
called saddles. The use of more than two saddles is unnecessary and should be avoided.
Using more than two saddles is normally a stress related issue, which can be solved in a
more conventional manner. The reason for not using more than two saddles is that it
creates an indeterminate structure, both theoretically and practically. With two saddles,
there is a high tolerance for soil settlement with no change in shell stresses or loading.
Even where soil settlement is not an issue, it is difficult to ensure that the load is
uniformly distributed.
Obviously there are ways to accomplish this, but the additional expense is often
unwarranted. Vessels 12-15 meter in diameter and 46m long have been supported on
two saddles. A methodology for the determination of the stresses in the shell and heads
of a horizontal vessel supported on saddles was first published in 1951 by L. P. Zick.
This effort was a continuation of others’ work, started as early as the 1930s. This
procedure has been used, with certain refinements since that time, and is often called
Zick’s analysis, or the stresses are referred to as Zick’s stresses.

Zick’s analysis is based on the assumption that the supports are rigid and are not
connected to the vessel shell. In reality, most vessels have flexible supports which are
attached to the vessel, usually by welding.
Whatever the reason, and there are a myriad of them, Zick’s assumptions may yield an
analysis that is not 100% accurate. These results should, however, be viewed more in
terms of the performance they have demonstrated in the past 45 years, than in the exact
analytical numbers they produce. As a strategy, the procedure is successful when
utilized properly. There are other issues that also would have an effect on the outcome
of the numerical answers such as the relative rigidity of the saddled from infinitely rigid
to flexible.
The answers should be viewed in light of the assumptions as well as the necessity for 5-
digit accuracy.
The ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2 contains rules for determining the actual and

ESEDA
allowable stresses for a vessel being supported by two saddles, with or without
reinforcing plates, and with or without stiffening rings. These rules are based largely on
Zick’s analysis. However, as with all other types of supports, the ASME Code does not
have specific design procedures for the design of saddles. Typically, the allowable
stresses utilized are those as outlined in the AISC Steel Construction Manual.
The saddle itself has various parts: the web, base plate, ribs, and wear plate. The web
can be on the center line of the saddle or offset. The design may have outer ribs only or
inner ribs only, but usually it has both. For designs in seismic areas, the ribs perform the
function of absorbing the longitudinal, horizontal loads. The saddle itself is normally
bolted to a foundation via anchor bolts. The ASME Code does specify the minimum
included arc angle (contact angle) of 120 deg. The maximum efficient saddle angle is
180deg, since the weight and saddle splitting force go to zero above the belt line. In
effect, taking into account the 6deg allowed for reduction of stresses at the horn for
wear plates, the maximum angle becomes 168deg.
Saddles may be steel or concrete. They may be bolted, welded, or loose. For the loose
type, some form of liner should be used between the vessel and the saddle. The typical
loose saddle is the concrete type. Usually one end of the vessel is anchored and the
other end sliding. The sliding end may have bronze, oiled, or Teflon slide plates
to reduce the friction caused by the thermal expansion or contraction of the vessel.
Longitudinal location of the saddles also has a large effect on the magnitude of the
stresses in the vessel shell as well as a bearing on the design of the saddle parts
themselves. For large diameter, thin-walled vessels, the saddles are best placed within
0.5R of the tangent line to take advantage of the stiffening effect of the heads. Other
vessels are best supported where the longitudinal bending at the midspan is
approximately equal to the longitudinal bending at the saddles. However, the maximum
distance is 0.2 L.
Lugs and Ring Supports
Lugs. Lugs offer one of the least expensive and most direct ways of supporting pressure
vessels. They can readily absorb diametral expansion by sliding over greased or
bronzed plates, are easily attached to the vessel by minimum amounts of welding, and
are easily leveled in the field.
Since lugs are eccentric supports they induce compressive, tensile, and shear forces in
the shell wall. The forces from the eccentric moments may cause high localized stresses
that are combined with stresses from internal or external pressure. In thin-walled
vessels, these high local loads have been known to physically deform the vessel wall
considerably. Such deformations can cause angular rotation of the lugs, which in turn
can cause angular rotations of the supporting steel.
Two or four lug systems are normally used; however, more may be used if the situation
warrants it. There is a wide variety of types of lugs, and each one will cause different
stress distributions in the shell. Either one or two gussets can be used, with or without a
compression plate.
If a compression plate is used, it should be designed to be stiff enough to transmit the
load uniformly along the shell. The base plate of the lug can be attached to the shell wall
or unattached. Reinforcing pads can be used to reduce the shell stresses. In some cases,
the shell course to which the lugs are attached can be made thicker to reduce the local
stress.

ESEDA
The method shown utilizes the local load analysis developed by Bijlaard in the 1950s,
which was further refined and described in the WRC Bulletin 107. This procedure uses
the principles of flexible load surfaces. When making decisions regarding the design of
lugs, a certain sequence of options should be followed. The following represents a
ranking of these options based on the cost to fabricate the equipment:
1. 2 lugs, single gusset
2. 2 lugs, double gussets
3. 2 lugs with compression plate
4. Add reinforcing pads under (2) lugs
5. Increase size of (2) lugs
6. 4 lugs, single gusset
7. 4 lugs, double gussets
8. 4 lugs with compression plates
9. Add reinforcing pads under (4) lugs
10. Increase size of (4) lugs
11. Add ring supports

Ring Supports. In reality, ring supports are used when the local stresses at the lugs
become excessively high. As can be seen from the previous list, the option to go to
complete, 360-degree stiffening rings would, in most cases, be the most expensive
option. Typically, vessels supported by rings or lugs are contained within a structure
rather than supported at grade and as such would be subject to the seismic movement
of which they are a part.
Vessels supported on rings should only be considered for lower or intermediate
temperatures, say below 400 or 500 degrees. Using ring supports at higher
temperatures could cause extremely large discontinuity stresses in the shell
immediately adjacent to the ring due to the differences in expansion between the ring
and the shell. For elevated temperature design, rings may still be used, but should not
be directly attached to the shell wall. A totally loose ring system can be fabricated and
held in place with shear bars. With this system there is no interaction between the shell
and the support rings.
The analysis for the design of the rings and the stresses induced in the shell employs the
same principles as Lug Method 1, ring analysis. The eccentric load points are translated
into radial loads in the rings by the gussets. The composite ring section comprised of the
shell and ring is then analysed for the various loads.

ESEDA
LEG SUPPORT DESIGN REPORT

Design Pressure P = 13.728 bar

Design Temperature T = 85 Deg C
Vessel Outside diameter D = 1682 mm
Vessel thickness ts = 16 mm
Corrosion allowance CA = 0 mm
Tan to tan distance H = 1900 mm
Height of bottom tan line above gride H1 = 928.5 mm
Operating weight of vessel W = 4000 kg
Seismic Coefficient Cs = 0.742
Number of leg support N = 4
Total length of leg L = 1078.5 mm
MOC of Leg IS 2062 Gr A
2
Yield strength of material Fy = 240 N/mm
Member Selected IS 150 x 150 x 16
Occational load factor OCC = 1.33
Effective leg end correction factor k' = 1
A = 150
B = 150
t = 16
2
E = 200000 N/mm

ESEDA

2
Cross section area Ar = 4560 mm
Radius of gyration rv(min) = 29.4 mm

3
Section modulus Zvv = Iv/(Cx / Sin 45) Zvv = 64804 mm
LEG SUPPORT DESIGN REPORT

Overturning moment at top of all leg Mt= WxCsxH/2 = 2819.6 kg_m

Overturning moment at top of all leg Mb= WxCsx(H/2+H1) = 5575.4 kg_m

Total weight on top of one leg W/N = 1000 kg

sin 45 = X1/A X1 = 106.07 mm

sin 45 = Cx/X2 X2 = 60.953 mm

Diameter of circle passing through neutral axis

Dn = OD + 2*pad thk. + 2 (X1-X2) Dn = 1.8042 m

4 2
Axial compression from neutral axis Sma = + = 0.897 kg/mm
2
8.7963 N/mm

= = 1466.8 N/mm
2

′×

1.33 × 0.6 × × 2
Allowable Compression = = 181.36 N/mm
. + . .

ESEDA
4
Maximum eccentric load = + = 2676.3 kg
×

Shear at top of one leg =W× × = 1177.9

2( + )

Weak axis bending at the bottom of the leg

× + × 2
= here ecc = (X1-X2)+pad thk = 22.127 kg/mm
2
= 217.0 N/mm

factor = here Cm = 0.85 (circum joint eff) = 0.8586

1−
0.6 ∗

2
Sb = 0.66 x Fy x Occ = 210.67 N/mm

Unit check IS-800-1984 × = 0.9328 < 1 OK

+
Anchor Bolt & BasePlate Thickness Calculations:

Number of Legs Nleg 4

Vessel Outside Diameter Vod 1724 mm
Vessel T.L to T.L Lv 4200 mm
Operating Weight of Vessel Wgt 3500 kg
Bolts material specification SA 36
Bolt Allowable Stress Tensile Stba 1165 kgf/cm²
Bolt Size M27 Bolt Tensile Area BltArea 413.852 mm²
Total Number of Bolts per BasePlate Nbt 1
Base Plate material specification SA 36
BasePlate Allowable Bending Stress Sb 1167.1 kgf/cm²
B 210 mm Leg Size ISA 150x150x16
m 30 mm Total Shear (Wind / Seismic) Ft 350 kg
d1 90 mm Length of Leg from B.T.L L 1600 mm
c 43.1 mm

LOAD ACTING
B POINT M
m
c P
d1 a=

t
m
B.C.D
c
D
EL O. T
m VESS e f
B
Y X

ESEDA
Modular Ratio Of Steel/Concrete refer D.Moss n 10

Moment on Baseplate due to Transverse Load (M) : Axial Load (P) :

= Ft * L / Nleg = Wgt / Nleg
= 350 * 1600 /4 = 3500 /4
= 140.00 kg m = 875.00 kg

Eccentricity (e):
= M / P
= 140.00 / 875.00
= 160.00 mm > D/6 = 35.00 --> Axial Load + Bending, Partial compression, Uplift

f = B - (d1 + m + c)
= 210 - (90 + 30 + 43.1)
= 46.90 mm

K1 = 3 (e + 0.5 * B)
= 3 (160.00 + 0.5 * 210)
= 795.00 mm

K2 = ( 6 * n * BltArea ) * (f + e) / B
= (6 * 10 * 413.852) * (46.90 + 160.00) / 210
= 24464.57 mm²

K3 = -K2 * (0.5 * B + f)
= -24464.57 * (0.5 * 210 + 46.90)
= -3716167.48 mm³

Iteratively Solving for the Effective Bearing Length:

Y³ + K1 * Y² + K2 * Y + K3 = 0
Y³ + 795.00 * Y² + 24464.57 * Y + -3716167.48 = 0
Y = 53.32 mm
Tenssion Force:
T = (-)P((B/2 - Y/3 - e)/(B/2 - Y/3 + f)
= (-)875.00 ((210/2 - 53.32/3 - 160.00)/(210/2 - 53.32/3 + 46.90)
= 474.75 kg

Bearing Pressure :
fc = 2(P + T) /(Y * B)
= 2 (875.00 + 474.75) / (53.32 * 210)
= 24.11 kg/cm²

x = B - d1 - Y
= 210 - 90 - 53.32
= 66.68 mm

Bolt Area Required due to T

= T / (Stba * Nbt)
= 474.75 / (1165 * 1)
= 40.751 mm²

Baseplate Thickness Calculation per D. Moss:

Overturning Moment due To Bolt Tension [Mt]:

= T * x
= 474.75 * 66.68
= 31.66 Kg-m

ESEDA
Equivalent Bearing Pressure (f1):
= fc * (Y - a) / Y
= 24.11 * (53.32 - 30) / 53.32
= 10.54 Kg/cm²

Overturning Moment due to Bearing Pressure [Mc]:

= (a² * B / 6) * (f1 + 2 * fc)
= (30² * 210 / 6) * (10.54 + 2 * 24.11)
= 18.51 Kg-m

Baseplate Required Thickness [Treq]:

= (6 * max(Mt,Mc) / (B * Sb))½
= (6 * 31.66 * 100 / (210/10 * 1167.1))½
= 8.803 mm
 SKIRT SUPPORT DESIGN & ITS ANCHOR BOLT

Skirt Support Design

Skirt OD Sod 4050 mm

Skirt thickness Sthk 10 mm
Skirt ID Sid 4030 mm
Base plate material SA 240 304L
Inside diameter of base ring Di 3870 mm
Outside Diameter of Basering Dou 4270 mm
Nominal Diameter of Bolts M36
2
Single bolt area 738.015 mm
2
Bolt Allowable Stress Sa 172.38 N/mm
2
Allowable stress of base plate Sal 115.08 N/mm
Distance between Gussets Rg = 102 mm
Dist. from Bolt Center to Gusset (Rg/2) Cg = 51 mm
Number of Gussets per bolt NG = 2
Thickness of Top Plate or Ring TTA = 30 mm
Radial Width of the Top Plate TOPWTH = 136 mm
2
Concrete load Sc = 1.12 N/mm

Determine Maximum Bending Width of Basering Section

Rw1 = (Dou - Sod)/2, = 110 mm
Rw2 = ( Sid - Di)/2 = 80 mm

Required basering thickness

2
= ( 1, 2) × Tbr = 15.34676 mm

ESEDA
Provided base ring thickness Tb = 25 mm

Basering Stress at given Thickness

( 1, 2
=3× × Sb = 65.0496 N/mm2 <

Required Thickness of Top Plate in Tension

6×
=
×

here, × ×2× = 1622043 Nmm

=
8

Wt = (TOPWTH - bolt diameter), Width of Section = 100 mm

T = 38.68 mm

Provided top plate thickness = 40 mm

 SKIRT SUPPORT DESIGN & ITS ANCHOR BOLT

Material of Construction = SA 193 GR.B7

Corrosion Allowance for Anchor bolt (on diameter) Ca = 0 mm

Empty Weight We = 40120 kg

Operating Weight Wo = 87480 kg

No. of Anchor Bolts Nb = 8

Bolt Circle Diameter Db = 4182 mm

Anchor Bolt Size = M36

Allowable Tensile Stress for Anchor Bolts Stb = 172 N/mm²

Allowable Shear Stress for Anchor Bolts Ssb = 114 N/mm²

Root Area of Anchor Bolt Ab = 641.00 mm²

Corroded Root Area of Anchor Bolt Abc = 641.00 mm²

Earthquake Condition
Seismic Shear Fs = 172.00 kN Seismic Moment Ms = 872.00 kN m

Tensile load per bolt = [ 4 * Ms / ( Nb * Db )] - Wo / Nb = Tbs = -2.97 kN

ESEDA
Shear load per bolt = Fs / Nb = Fbs = 21.50 kN

Tensile stress per bolt (No uplift occurs) Tbs / Abc = Sts = 0.00 N/mm²

Shear stress per bolt Fbs / Abc = Sss = 33.54 N/mm² < Stb OK

Combined Tensile & Shear = (Sts / Stb)² + (Sss / Ssb)² = 0.09 < 1 OK

Wind Condition
Wind Shear Fw = 133 kN Wind Moment Mw = 486 kN m

Tensile load per bolt = [ 4 * Mw / ( Nb * Db )] - We / Nb = Tbw = 8.93 kN

Shear load per bolt = Fw / Nb = Fbw = 16.63 kN

Tensile stress per bolt Tbw / Abc = Stw = 13.93 N/mm² < Stb OK

Shear stress per bolt Fbw / Abc = Ssw = 25.94 N/mm² < Stb OK

Combined Tensile & Shear = (Stw / Stb)² + (Ssw / Ssb)² = 0.06 < 1 OK

8 Nos. M36 Anchor Bolts @ 4182 mm BCD

LUG SUPPORT DESIGN REPORT

Design Pressure P = 13.728 bar

Design Temperature T = 85 Deg C
Vessel Outside diameter D = 1500 mm
Vessel thickness ts = 8 mm
Corrosion allowance CA = 0 mm
Pad circumference distance C11P = 300 mm
Pad longitudinal distance C22P = 430 mm
Pad thickness tp = 8 mm
Vessel OD to bolt centre Dlug = 203 mm
Bolt circle diameter of lug Db = 1922 mm
Circumferential Length of top plate & bottom plate Lpl = 250 mm
Radial Width of Top Bar Plate Wtp = 70 mm
Thickness of Top Plate Ttp = 12 mm
Radial Width of bottom Support Lug Plate wpl = 253 mm
Thickness of Gusset Plate Tgp = 10 mm
Height of Gusset Plate Hgp = 350 mm
Mean Width of Gusset Plate wgp = 161.5 mm
Distance between Gussets Dgp = 200 mm
Thickness of bottom Support Lug Plate Tpl = 12 mm
Lug support force bearing width Wfb = 75 mm
Yield strength of material Fy = 132.15 N/mm2
Allowable stress Sallowable = 2/3 Fy Sallowable = 88.1 N/mm2

Bolt Material
Bolt allowable stress at design temperature
Root area of single bolt
Bolt Diameter

Number of lug
ESEDA N =
SA-36
172.38 N/mm2
3.4 cm2
24 mm

4 mm
Overturing moment M = 1790 Nm
Operating weight of vessel W = 31780 N

Force on one Lug, Operating Condition

4 Flug = 8876.3 N
= +

Top Bar Plate Stress per Bednar p.154

0.75 × F ×D ×L
S = Stpl = 16.417 N/mm2
T ×W ×H

Required thickness of top plate

0.75 × F ×D ×L
= Ttpr = 2.2361 mm
S ×W ×H

Bearing Area
= × Ba = 18750 mm2
Bending Stress in bottom Plate (Unif. Load) Per Bednar p.156
× / ×
= here β = 2.105 Spl = 38.926 N/mm2

Bottom Plate Required Thickness (Uniform Load)

× / × Tplr = 7.9766 mm
=

Bottom Plate Required Thickness based on ADM S 3/4

trAD = 10.409 mm
×
= 0.71 × ×

Gusset Plate Axial Stress ( Force / Gusset Plate Area )

= 2
Sgp = 2.7481 N/mm2
×

Required gusset plate thickness

Tgpr = 0.3119 mm

ESEDA
= 2
×

Gusset Plate Allowable Stress

Maximum Compressive Gusset Plate Stress per Bednar

× 3× −
= SgpB = 6.3325 N/mm2
× × ∝

Gusset Plate Allowable Compressive Stress

18000 SgaB = 60.39 N/mm2

=
1
1 + 18000 × ∝
0.289 ×

48 1 (if -ive no anchor bolt is required) = -184.1 mm

2
= −W ×

48 1
= −W × Ar = NA mm
2
×
 SADDLE SUPPORT DESIGN EXCEL SHEET
ASME SEC VIII DIV 2 based on the Zick analysis method
4.15.3 SADDLE SUPPORTS FOR HORIZONTAL VESSELS
Design Pressure + Static Head P = 13.09 bar
Shell ID Di = 3400 mm
Shell thickness t = 28 mm
Corrosion allowance CA = 1.6 mm
Width of reinforcement pad b = 250 mm
Mean radius of shell =(Di + t + CA)/2 Rm = 1714.8 mm
Wear plate thickness tr = 28 mm
Distance from the axis of the saddle support to the tangent line on the curve
a = 1750 mm
for a dished head or to the inner face
Length of the cylindrical shell measured from tangent line to tangent line for a
L = 13200 mm
vessel with dished heads
Length of base plate E = 2970 mm
Distance from centre of vessel to base of saddle B 2200 mm
Distance between the saddle support Ls = 9700 mm
Moment factor Ftr = 3
Number of saddle = 2
Inside depth of head h2 = 851.6 mm

If a reinforcing plate is included in the design to reduce the stresses in the cylindrical shell at the saddle support, then the width of the
reinforcing plate, b1 should satisfy below requirement

= min + 1.56 × ,2 b1 = = min [591.83 , 3500 ] mm

b1 = 581.920 mm
Selected b1 b1 = 600.000 mm

ESEDA
Saddle Reaction Force due to Wind Ft
= Fwt = 257.6 KN
= × + ×

Saddle Reaction Force due to Wind Fl

= Fwl = 12.4 KN
= , , ×

Saddle Reaction Force due to Earthquake Ft

= Fst = 306.9 KN
= × + ×

Saddle Reaction Force due to Earthquake Fl

= , , × = Fsl = 62.64 KN

Combined load saddle wt 767

Q = ℎ + max( , , , ) Q = 1073.9 KN

Spacing of saddle from tan line 0.25L = 3300 mm

If 0.25L is > a then moment at the saddle, moment at centre of vessel & shear force at saddle shall be calculated as shown below

−ℎ
1− +
Moment at saddle = =− 1− 2 M1 = -295.3 kNm
4ℎ
1+
3

2( −ℎ )
Moment at centre of vessel = 1+ 4 M2 = 1466.81 kNm
= −
4 4ℎ
1+ 3

Shear force at the saddle ( −2 ) T = 726.64 kN

=
ℎ
 ( )
=
4ℎ
+ 3

Longitudinal membrane plus bending stresses in the cylindrical shell between the supports

2
top of shell = −
σ1 = 36.50 N/mm
2

2
bottom of shell σ2 = 48.53 N/mm
= +
2

The maximum values of longitudinal membrane plus bending stresses at the saddle support are given by the following equations

2
top of shell = −
σ3 = 53.87 N/mm
2

2
bottom of shell σ4 = 36.22 N/mm
= + ∗
2

Shear stress in the shell on rings, no stiffener

× = 18.79 N/mm
2
=
×

Circumferential stresses in the cylindrical shell without stiffening ring(s)

2
− × × σ6 = -5.3147 N/mm
=
+ +

ESEDA
here & = 0.78 × = 165.96 mm

x1 & x2 =

The circumferential compressive membrane plus bending stress shall be computed

if L > 8Rm then

2
− 3 σ7 = -139.74 N/mm
= −
4 + + 2

if L < 8Rm then

− 12 2
∗= − σ7 * = -144.54 N/mm
4 + +

The stresses σ6 , σ7 , and σ7* may be reduced by adding a reinforcement or wear plate at the saddle location that is welded to the cylindrical
shell that satisfies the requirements. The stress can be computed using the equations shown below

2
− σ6r = -2.58 N/mm
=
+Ƞ

− 3 σ7r = -37.28 N/mm

2
= −
4 +Ƞ 2 +Ƞ

− 12 2
∗= − σ7r* = -38.41 N/mm
4 +Ƞ +Ƞ

here

Ƞ= , 1.0 Ƞ = 1
Base plate length E = Bplen = 3150 mm
Base plate width Bpwid = 250 mm
Base plate thickness Bpthk = 25 mm
no. of rib Nribs = 6
rib thickness Ribtk = 20 mm
web thickness Webtk = 20 mm
Allowable stress of base plate = 115 N/mm2
Bolt hole centre to edge distance = 53 mm
Minimum thickness of Baseplate

3× + × ℎ tb = 23.75403299 mm
=
4× ℎ ×

Distance between Rid e = 608.8 mm

e = .

2
Baseplate Pressure Area × Ap = 0.0761 m
=
2

Axial Load = × = × P = 103.7751675 KN

×

ESEDA
2
Area of Rib and Web = + Ar = 0.011415 m

2
Compressive stress Sc = 9.091122869 N/mm
=

Outside ribs
Radius of gyration r = 0.048
r=

4
i1 ℎ × ℎ = 2.60417E-05 m
12

Slenderness ratio l1 /r = 46.06

2
See App L Fa = Sca = 98.076 N/mm

Bending Moment = 0.5 × × × M = 29.4 KN_m

2

Bending Stress × 0.5 × ℎ = 140.93 N/mm

2
=

2
= 0.66*Sy Sba = 112.2 N/mm

Combined stress = 1.35

+ ≤1
Inside ribs
Radius of gyration r 0.048
r=
Slenderness ratio

4
i2 ℎ × ℎ i2 = 2.60417E-05 m
12
Slenderness ratio l2 /r = 2.6171
2
See App L Fa = Sca = 98.076 N/mm

Bending Moment = × × M = 3.34 KN_m

2

2
Bending Stress × 0.5 × ℎ Sb = 16.014 N/mm
=

2
= 0.66*Sy Sba = 112.2 N/mm

Combined stress = 0.24

+ ≤1

ESEDA
 3. FLANGES
“A flange is a forged or cast ring of steel designed to connect mechanically sections of
pipe or join pipe to a pressure vessel, pump, valve or any other piece of equipment.”
Usually flanges are welded or threaded and two flanges are joined to each other by
bolting together them with gaskets to provide a seal. It provides an easy access to the
piping system in case of cleaning, modification and inspections.
STANDARD FLANGES
The basic types of flanges are:
• Slip-on
• Blind
• Lap-Joint
• Socket Weld
• Threaded
• Weld-Neck
SLIP-ON FLANGE
The flange is slipped over the pipe and is settled by welding at both top and base side of
the flange. They are used to provide sufficient strength to the connection and prevent
leakage. This flange is favoured over weld neck flanges as less accuracy is required
when cutting pipe to length, the cost to produce is lower but there is nearly the same
outcome.

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BLIND FLANGES
This is a flange without a bore. Also called a blanking flange, it is used to fix or seal an
end of a piping framework or shut off a piping system or vessel opening. Inspection of
vessels or piping system is easier and it is simpler to access it. A blind flange can be
supplied with or without hub depending on the requirements.
LAP-JOINT FLANGES
This is again similar to a slip-on flange, but it has a radius at the intersection of the bore
and the flange face to accommodate a lap stub end. The face on the stub end forms the
gasket face on the flange. This type of flange is used in applications where section of
piping systems need to be dismantle quickly and easily for inspection or replacement.

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SOCKET WELD FLANGES
This is similar to a slip-on flange in outline, but the bore is counter-bored to accept pipe.
The diameter of the remaining bore is the same as the inside diameter of the pipe. The
flange is attached to the pipe by a fillet weld around the hub of the flange. An optional
interval weld may be applied in high stress applications. It’s biggest use is in high
pressure systems such as hydraulic and steam lines.
THREADED FLANGES
This is similar to a slip-on flange in outline, but the bore is threaded, thus enabling
assembly without welding. This obviously limits its application to relatively low
pressure piping systems. The flange may be welded around the joint after assembly, but
this is not considered a satisfactory method of increasing its applications.

ESEDA
WELD-NECK FLANGES
As its name, this is a flange attached by welding neck of flange to a pipe. It is expensive
because of its long neck, but more suitable for high stress applications because the neck
provides important reinforcement to the flange. The bore of the flange matches the bore
of the pipe, reducing turbulence and erosion.

SPECIAL FLANGES
The special types of flanges are:
• Groove Flanges / Tongue Flanges
• Long Neck

GROOVE FLANGES / TONGUE FLANGES

A groove flange is constantly paired with a tongue flange.
The tongue flange has the face with a raised ring (i.e. the tongue). One flange has a
machined raised ring (also called the tongue) and the other one has machined groove
depression (also called the groove). Those two flanges should match perfectly with each
other.
Tongue-and-groove facings are standardized in both large and small types. They are
mainly used for pump covers and valve bonnets.
Tongue-and-groove joints have the advantage of being self-aligning and act as a
reservoir for the adhesive. Major machining operation are not necessary especially
thanks to the scarf joint keeping the oxis of loading in line.

LONG NECK FLANGES

Owing to our rich industrial experience, we are offering a comprehensive range of Long
Weld Neck Flanges. The professionals of our organization source these neck flanges
from trusted vendors. These flanges are unique due to their simple connectivity with

ESEDA
other pipes. Moreover, our products are extensively used in refining industries for
linking purposes. Our esteemed patrons can avail these qualitative range of flanges from
us at industry-leading prices.

ASME SEC VIII DIV 1 , APPENDIX-2 FLANGES

Loose Type Flanges.
This type covers those designs in which the flange has no direct connection to the
nozzle neck, vessel, or pipe wall, and designs where the method of attachment is not
considered to give the mechanical strength equivalent of integral attachment.
 ESEDA
(b) Integral Type Flanges. This type covers designs where the flange is cast or forged
integrally with the nozzle neck, vessel or pipe wall, butt welded thereto, or attached by
other forms of arc or gas welding of such a nature that the flange and nozzle neck, vessel
or pipe wall is considered to be the equivalent of an integral structure.
In welded construction, the nozzle neck, vessel, or pipe wall is considered to act as a
hub.
(c) Optional Type Flanges. This type covers designs where the attachment of the flange
to the nozzle neck, vessel, or pipe wall is such that the assembly is considered to act as a
unit, which shall be calculated as an integral flange, except that for simplicity the
designer may calculate the construction as a loose type flange, provided none of the
following values is exceeded:

go=16mm , B/g0=300 (B=flange ID), Design Pressure <= 20bar & Operating temp= 370
deg C.

ESEDA
 B 1 = B + g1 for loose type flanges and for integral
type flanges that have calculated values h / ho
and g 1 / go which would indicate an f value of
less than 1.0, although the minimum value of f
permitted is 1.0.
= B + go for integral type flanges when f is equal
to or greater than one
b o = basic gasket seating width (from Table 2-5.2)
B s = bolt spacing. The bolt spacing may be taken as
the bolt circle circumference divided by the
number of bolts or as the chord length between
adjacent bolt locations.
B s c = bolt spacing factor
B s m a x = maximum bolt spacing
C = bolt‐circle diameter
c = basic dimension used for the minimum sizing of
welds equal to tn or tx, whichever is less
C b = conversion factor
= 0.5 for U.S. Customary calculations; 2.5 for SI
calculations
d = factor
= for integral type flanges

= for loose type flanges

ESEDA
e = factor
= for integral type flanges

= for loose type flanges

ð17Þ 2-3 NOTATION
F = factor for integral type flanges (from Figure
The symbols described below are used in the equations 2-7.2)
for the design of flanges (see also Figure 2-4): f = hub stress correction factor for integral flanges
from Figure 2-7.6 (When greater than one, this
A = outside diameter of flange or, where slotted
is the ratio of the stress in the small end of hub
holes extend to the outside of the flange, the dia-
to the stress in the large end.) (For values below
meter to the bottom of the slots
limit of figure, use f = 1.)
a = nominal bolt diameter
F L = factor for loose type flanges (from Figure 2-7.4)
A b = cross‐sectional area of the bolts using the root
G = diameter at location of gasket load reaction. Ex-
diameter of the thread or least diameter of un-
cept as noted in sketch (1) of Figure 2-4, G is de-
threaded position, if less
fined as follows (see Table 2-5.2):
A m = total required cross‐sectional area of bolts, ta-
(a) when bo ≤ 1/4 in. (6 mm), G = mean dia-
ken as the greater of A m 1 and A m 2
meter of gasket contact face
A m 1 = total cross‐sectional area of bolts at root of
(b) when bo > 1/4 in. (6 mm), G = outside dia-
thread or section of least diameter under stress,
meter of gasket contact face less 2b
required for the operating conditions
g 1 = thickness of hub at back of flange
= W m 1 / Sb
g o = thickness of hub at small end
A m 2 = total cross‐sectional area of bolts at root of
(a) for optional type flanges calculated as in-
thread or section of least diameter under stress,
tegral and for integral type flanges per Figure
required for gasket seating
2-4, illustration (7), g o = t n
= W m 2 / Sa
(b) for other integral type flanges, g o = the
B = inside diameter of flange. When B is less than
smaller of t n or the thickness of the hub at the
20g 1, it will be optional for the designer to sub-
small end
stitute B 1 for B in the formula for longitudinal
H = total hydrostatic end force
stress SH.
= 0.785G 2P
b = effective gasket or joint‐contact‐surface seating
h = hub length
width [see Note in 2-5(c)(1)]
H D = hydrostatic end force on area inside of flange
= 0.785B 2P
h D = radial distance from the bolt circle, to the circle
on which HD acts, as prescribed in Table 2-6
H G = gasket load (difference between flange design
bolt load and total hydrostatic end force)
= W −H
h G = radial distance from gasket load reaction to the
bolt circle
= (C − G )/2
h o = factor
= t x = two times the thickness g 0, when the design is
H p = total joint‐contact surface compression load
= 2b × 3.14 G mP
H T = difference between total hydrostatic end force
and the hydrostatic end force on area inside of
flange
= H − HD
h T = radial distance from the bolt circle to the circle
on which HT acts as prescribed in Table 2-6
K = ratio of outside diameter of flange to inside dia-
meter of flange
= A/B
L = factor
ESEDA
=
m = gasket factor, obtain from Table 2-5.1 [see Note
in 2-5(c)(1)]
M D = component of moment due to HD,
= HDhD
M G = component of moment due to HG,
= HGhG
M o = total moment acting upon the flange, for the op-
erating conditions or gasket seating as may ap-
ply (see 12-4)
M T = component of moment due to HT
= HThT
N = width used to determine the basic gasket seat-
ing with b o , based upon the possible contact
width of the gasket (see Table 2-5.2)
P = internal design pressure (see UG-21). For
flanges subject to external design pressure,
see 2-11.
R = radial distance from bolt circle to point of inter-
section of hub and back of flange. For integral
and hub flanges,
=
S a = allowable bolt stress at atmospheric tempera-
ture (see UG-23)
S b = allowable bolt stress at design temperature (see
UG-23)
S f = allowable design stress for material of flange at
design temperature (operating condition) or at-
mospheric temperature (gasket seating), as may
apply (see UG-23)
S H = calculated longitudinal stress in hub
S n = allowable design stress for material of nozzle
neck, vessel or pipe wall, at design temperature
(operating condition) or atmospheric tempera-
ture (gasket seating), as may apply (see UG-23)
S R = calculated radial stress in flange
S T = calculated tangential stress in flange
T = factor involving K (from Figure 2-7.1)
t = flange thickness
t n = nominal thickness of shell or nozzle wall to
which flange or lap is attached
calculated as an integral flange or two times
the thickness of shell nozzle wall required for
internal pressure, when the design is calculated
as a loose flange, but not less than 1/4 in. (6 mm)
U = factor involving K (from Figure 2-7.1)
V = factor for integral type flanges (from Figure
2-7.3)
V L = factor for loose type flanges (from Figure 2-7.5)
W = flange design bolt load, for the operating condi-
tions or gasket seating, as may apply [see
2-5(e)]
w = width used to determine the basic gasket seat-
ing width b 0, based upon the contact width be-
tween the flange facing and the gasket (see
Table 2-5.2)
W m 1 = minimum required bolt load for the operating
conditions [see 2-5(c)]. For flange pairs used
to contain a tubesheet for a floating head or a
U‐tube type of heat exchangers, or for any other
similar design, W m 1 shall be the larger of the
values as individually calculated for each flange,
and that value shall be used for both flanges.
W m 2 = minimum required bolt load for gasket seating
[see 2-5(c)]. For flange pairs used to contain a
tubesheet for a floating head or U‐tube type of
heat exchanger, or for any other similar design
where the flanges or gaskets are not the same,
W m 2 shall be the larger of the values calculated
for each flange and that value shall be used for
both flanges.
Y = factor involving K (from Figure 2-7.1)
y = gasket or joint‐contact‐surface unit seating load,
[see Note 1, 2-5(c)]
Z = factor involving K (from Figure 2-7.1)
 Table 2-5.1
Gasket Materials and Contact Facings
Gasket Factors m for Operating Conditions and Minimum Design Seating Stress y
Gasket Min. Design Facing Sketch and
Factor Seating Stress y, Column in
Gasket Material m psi (MPa) Sketches Table 2-5.2
Self‐energizing types (O-rings, metallic, elastomer, other gasket 0 0 (0) … …
types considered as self‐sealing)

Elastomers without fabric or high percent of mineral fiber:

Below 75A Shore Durometer 0.50 0 (0) (1a), (1b), (1c),
75A or higher Shore Durometer 1.00 200 (1.4) (1d), (4), (5);
Column II

Mineral fiber with suitable binder for operating conditions:

1
/8 in. (3.2 mm) thick 2.00 1,600 (11) (1a), (1b), (1c),
1
/16 in. (1.6 mm) thick 2.75 3,700 (26) (1d), (4), (5);
1
/32 in. (0.8 mm) thick 3.50 6,500 (45) Column II

Elastomers with cotton fabric insertion 1.25 400 (2.8) (1a), (1b), (1c),
(1d), (4), (5);
Column II

Elastomers with mineral fiber fabric insertion (with or without wire reinforcement):
3‐ply 2.25 2,200 (15) (1a), (1b), (1c),
(1d), (4), (5);
Column II
2‐ply 2.50 2,900 (20)

ESEDA
1‐ply 2.75 3,700 (26)

Vegetable fiber 1.75 1,100 (7.6) (1a), (1b), (1c),

(1d), (4), (5);
Column II

Spiral‐wound metal, mineral fiber filled:

Carbon 2.50 10,000 (69) (1a), (1b); Column
Stainless, Monel, and nickel‐base alloys 3.00 10,000 (69) II

Corrugated metal, mineral fiber inserted, or corrugated metal, jacketed mineral fiber filled:
Soft aluminum 2.50 2,900 (20) (1a), (1b); Column
Soft copper or brass 2.75 3,700 (26) II
Iron or soft steel 3.00 4,500 (31)
Monel or 4–6% chrome 3.25 5,500 (38)
Stainless steels and nickel‐base alloys 3.50 6,500 (45)

Corrugated metal:
Soft aluminum 2.75 3,700 (26) (1a), (1b), (1c),
Soft copper or brass 3.00 4,500 (31) (1d); Column II
Iron or soft steel 3.25 5,500 (38)
Monel or 4–6% chrome 3.50 6,500 (45)
Stainless steels and nickel‐base alloys 3.75 7,600 (52)

Flat metal, jacketed mineral fiber filled:

Soft aluminum 3.25 5,500 (38) (1a), (1b),
Soft copper or brass 3.50 6,500 (45) (1c) [Note (1)],
Iron or soft steel 3.75 7,600 (52) (1d) [Note (1)],
Monel 3.50 8,000 (55) (2) [Note (1)];
4–6% chrome 3.75 9,000 (62) Column II
Stainless steels and nickel‐base alloys 3.75 9,000 (62)
 Table 2-5.1
Gasket Materials and Contact Facings
Gasket Factors m for Operating Conditions and Minimum Design Seating Stress y (Cont'd)
Gasket Min. Design Facing Sketch and
Factor Seating Stress y, Column in
Gasket Material m psi (MPa) Sketches Table 2-5.2

Grooved metal:
Soft aluminum 3.25 5,500 (38) (1a), (1b), (1c),
Soft copper or brass 3.50 6,500 (45) (1d), (2), (3);
Iron or soft metal 3.75 7,600 (52) Column II
Monel or 4–6% chrome 3.75 9,000 (62)
Stainless steels and nickel‐base alloys 4.25 10,100 (70)

Solid flat metal:

Soft aluminum 4.00 8,800 (61) (1a), (1b), (1c),
Soft copper or brass 4.75 13,000 (90) (1d), (2), (3), (4),
Iron or soft steel 5.50 18,000 (124) (5); Column I
Monel or 4–6% chrome 6.00 21,800 (150)
Stainless steels and nickel‐base alloys 6.50 26,000 (180)

Ring joint:
Iron or soft steel 5.50 18,000 (124) (6); Column I
Monel or 4–6% chrome 6.00 21,800 (150)
Stainless steels and nickel‐base alloys 6.50 26,000 (180)

GENERAL NOTE: This Table gives a list of many commonly used gasket materials and contact facings with suggested design values of m and

ESEDA
y that have generally proved satisfactory in actual service when using effective gasket seating width b given in Table 2-5.2. The design values
and other details given in this Table are suggested only and are not mandatory.
NOTE:
(1) The surface of a gasket having a lap should not be against the nubbin.
Design of Weldneck Flange
Design Condition
Design Pressure P 10.24 bar Allowable Stress
Design Temperature 95 °C Flange N/mm2 Bolting N/mm2
Flange material SA-266 2 At design temp Sfo 138 At design temp Sb 172
Bolt material SA-193 B7 At ambient temp Sfa 138 At ambient temp Sa 172
Corrosion Allowance 3 mm Bolt Size M24 Joint Eff E 1
Allowable stress of shell at design temperature 138 Full bolt load No

Flange Dimensions Remark

Flange inside diameter with C/A 750 mm
Flange inside diameter w/o C/A Bcor 756 mm ID
Flange outside diameter A 908 mm OD
Required small end hub thickness with C/A g0required 5.81686 mm
Provided small end hub thickness with C/A g0 8 mm OK
Corroded small end hub thickness g0cor 5 mm
Required large end hub thickness with C/A g1required 8.725291 mm
Provided large end hub thickness with C/A g1 12 mm OK
Corroded large end hub thickness g1cor 9 mm
Bolt circle diameter C 850 mm OK
Require hub length hrequired 13.088 mm
Provided hub length h 18 mm
Radial distance from BCD to point of intersection of hub and
R 38 mm OK
back of flange
Provided edge distance E 29 mm OK
Provided number of bolt 24

Gasket type & MOC Remark

ESEDA
Gasket outside diameter GO 805 mm
Gasket inside diameter GI 779 mm
Width N 13 mm OK
Basic Gasket width bo 6.5 mm
Effective gasket width b 6.425 mm
Gasket load reaction diameter G 792.15 mm
2
Gasket seating load y 68.95 N/mm
Gasket factor m 3
Minimum gasket contact width Nmin Ab*Sa/(y*Π*(GO+GI)) 3.763 mm Brown Young

Load and bolt calculation Remark

2
Hydrostatic End force H (Π/4)*G *P 504568.8 N
Total joint-contact surface compression load HP 2*Π*G*m*b*P 98215.75 N
2
Hydrostatic end force on area inside of flange HD (Π/4)*Bcor *P 459566.7 N
Difference between total hydrostatic end force and the
HT H-HD 45002.03 N
hydrostatic end force on area inside of flange.
Minimum required bolt load for the operating conditions Wm1 HP+H 602784.5 N
Minimum required bolt load for gasket seating Wm2 Π*y*b*G 1102425 N
Total cross-sectional area of bolts required for the
Am Max(Wm2/Sa,Wm1/Sb) 6409.448 mm2
operating conditions
Cross-sectional area of the bolts using the root diameter of the
Ab 7505.952 mm2 SAFE
thread
Flange design bolt load, for the operating conditions or gasket
W 0.5*(Am+Ab)*Sa 1196724 N
seating
For full bolt load condition W Sa*Ab 1291024 N
Difference between total hydrostatic end force and the HG Wm1-H 98215.75 N
hydrostatic end force on area inside of flange
Maximum bolt spacing Bsmax 2a+[6*t/(m+0.5)] 156 mm
Provided bolt spacing BS 110.9473 mm OK
2
Bolt stress in operating condition Wm1/Ab 80.30754 N/mm OK
2
Bolt stress in gasket seating condition Wm2/Ab 146.8734 N/mm OK
Level arm Remark
Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the bolt circle hG 0.5*(C-G) 28.92 mm
Radial distance from the bolt circle to the circle on which HT
acts with C/A hT 0.5*(R+g1cor+hG) 37.962 mm

Radial distance from the bolt circle, to the circle on which HD

hD R+0.5*g1cor 42.5 mm
acts with C/A

Moment Remark
Component of moment due to HD MD HD*hD 19531.59 Nm
Component of moment due to HT MT HT*hT 1708.384 Nm
Component of moment due to HG MG HG*hG 2840.868 Nm
Total moment acting upon the flange, for the operating
MO MD+MG+MT 24080.84 Nm
conditions
Total moment acting upon the flange, for the seating conditions
MO' W*(C-G)/2 34614.97 Nm

Hub factors Remark

Factor ho √(Bcor*g0cor) 61.482 mm
h/ho 0.293
g1/g0=g1cor/g0cor 1.8
Factors for integral flange F Refer FIG. 2-7.2 0.875
Factors for integral flange V Refer FIG. 2-7.3 0.327
Hub stress correction factor f Refer FIG. 2-7.6 1.7
Ratio of flange OD to flange ID K A/B 1.201
2
Factor K (1+8.55246*log10K)-1
T 2
(1.04720+1.9448*K )*(K-1) 1.839
2
Factor K (1+8.55246*log10K)-1
U 2
11.757

ESEDA
1.36136*(K -1)*(K-1)
2 2
Factor Y (1/K-1)*(0.66845+5.7169*[(K *log10K)/(K -1)]) 10.699
2 2
Factor Z (K +1)/(K -1) 5.519
Factor for integral flange e F/ho 0.0142 1/mm
3
Factor for integral flange d (U/V)*ho*gocor2 55264.22 mm

Stress Factor Remark

Finish thickness of flange w/o CA t 63 mm
Alfa α te+1 1.897
Beta β (4/3)*t*e+1 2.195
Gama γ α/T 1.032
3
Delta δ t /d 4.525
Lamda λ γ+δ 5.556
mO Mo/Bcor 31.85296 kN
mG Mo'/Bcor 45.787 kN

Stress Calculation Remark

Operating Condition
2
Longitudinal hub Stress SHo (f*mO)/(λ*g1cor2) 120.32 N/mm SAFE SHO <min(1.5Sfo, 2.5Sno)
2 2
Radial Flange Stress SRo [(1.33*t*e+1)*mO]/(λ*t ) 3.166879 N/mm SAFE SRO < Sfo
2 2
Tangential flange stress STo [(Y*mO)/t ]-(Z*SRo) 68.38601 N/mm SAFE STO < Sfo
2
Average Flange Stress, Operating SAO (SHo+max(SRO,STO))/2 94.35318 N/mm SAFE SAO < Sfo
Seating Condition
2 2
Longitudinal hub Stress SH (f*mG)/(λ*g1cor ) 173.0 N/mm SAFE SH <min(1.5Sfa, 2.5Sna)
2 2
Radial Flange Stress SR [(1.33*t*e+1)*mG]/(λ*t ) 4.55 N/mm SAFE SR < Sfa
2
Tangential flange stress ST [(Y*mG)/t2]-(Z*SR) 98.30139 N/mm SAFE ST < Sfa
2
(SH+max(SR,ST))/2 135.6278 N/mm SAFE SA < Sfa

Required finish thickness of flange including CA = 69 mm minimum thickness

Provided finish thickness of flange including CA = 73 mm provided thickness
Provided thickness of flange including 6mm step = 79 mm
 S H E L L- A N D - T U B E H E AT E X C H A N G E R S
4. Effectively Design Shell-and-Tube Heat
Exchangers
hermal design of shell-and-tube
To make the most
of exchanger T heat exchangers (STHEs) is
done by sophisticated computer
software. However, a good un-
derstanding of the underlying principles
of exchanger design is needed to use this
design software, software effectively.
ESEDA
This article explains the basics of ex-
one needs to changer thermal design, covering such
topics as: STHE components; classifica-
understand STHE tion of STHEs according to construction
and according to service; data needed for
classification, thermal design; tubeside design; shellside
design, including tube layout, baffling,
exchanger and shellside pressure drop; and mean
components, tube temperature difference. The basic equa-
tions for tubeside and shellside heat
layout, baffling, transfer and pressure drop are well-
known; here we focus on the application
pressure drop, and of these correlations for the optimum de-
sign of heat exchangers. A followup arti-
mean temperature cle on advanced topics in shell-and-tube
heat exchanger design, such as allocation
difference. of shellside and tubeside fluids, use of
multiple shells, overdesign, and fouling,
is scheduled to appear in the next issue.
Components of STHEs
It is essential for the designer to have a
good working knowledge of the mechani-
cal features of STHEs and how they in-
fluence thermal design. The principal
components of an STHE are:
• shell;
• shell cover;
• tubes;
• channel;
• channel cover;
• tubesheet;
• baffles; and
• nozzles.
Other components include tie-rods and
spacers, pass partition plates, impinge-
ment plate, longitudinal baffle, sealing
strips, supports, and foundation.
The Standards of the Tubular Ex-
changer Manufacturers Association
(TEMA) (1) describe these various com-
ponents in detail.
An STHE is divided into three parts:
the front head, the shell, and the rear
head. Figure 1 illustrates the TEMA
nomenclature for the various construction
possibilities. Exchangers are described by
the letter codes for the three sections —
for example, a BFL exchanger has a bon-
net cover, a two-pass shell with a longitu-
dinal baffle, and a fixed-tubesheet rear
head.
Classification
based on construction
Fixed tubesheet. A fixed-tubesheet
heat exchanger (Figure 2) has straight
tubes that are secured at both ends to
tubesheets welded to the shell. The con-
struction may have removable channel
covers (e.g., AEL), bonnet-type channel
covers (e.g., BEM), or integral tubesheets
(e.g., NEN).
The principal advantage of the fixed-
tubesheet construction is its low cost be-
cause of its simple construction. In fact,
the fixed tubesheet is the least expensive
construction type, as long as no expan-
sion joint is required.
Other advantages are that the tubes can
be cleaned mechanically after removal of
S H E L L- A N D - T U B E H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

Stationary Head Types Shell Types Rear Head Types

E L
A
One-Pass Shell Fixed Tube Sheet
Like "A" Stationary Head

Removable Channel and Cover

F M

Two-Pass Shell Fixed Tube Sheet

with Longitudinal Baffle Like "B" Stationary Head

N
G
Bonnet (Integral Cover) Fixed Tube Sheet
Like "C" Stationary Head
Split Flow

Integral With Tubesheet

H
ESEDA Double Split Flow
P

S
Outside Packed Floating Head

Removable Cover

Floating Head with Backing Device

J

Divided Flow
T
N
Pull-Through Floating Head

Channel Integral With Tubesheet

K
and Removable Cover
U
Kettle-Type Reboiler
U-Tube Bundle

X W

Externally Sealed
Special High-Pressure Closures Cross Flow Floating Tubesheet

■ Figure 1. TEMA designations for shell-and-tube heat exchangers.

the channel cover or bonnet, and that
leakage of the shellside fluid is mini-
mized since there are no flanged joints.
A disadvantage of this design is
that since the bundle is fixed to the
shell and cannot be removed, the out-
sides of the tubes cannot be cleaned
mechanically. Thus, its application is
limited to clean services on the shell-
side. However, if a satisfactory chem-
ical cleaning program can be em-
ployed, fixed-tubesheet construction
may be selected for fouling services
on the shellside.
In the event of a large differential
temperature between the tubes and
the shell, the tubesheets will be un-
able to absorb the differential stress,
thereby making it necessary to incor-
porate an expansion joint. This takes
away the advantage of low cost to a
significant extent.
U-tube. As the name implies, the
free to “float” within the shell. This
permits free expansion of the tube
bundle, as well as cleaning of both
the insides and outsides of the tubes.
Thus, floating-head SHTEs can be
used for services where both the
shellside and the tubeside fluids are
dirty — making this the standard con-
struction type used in dirty services,
such as in petroleum refineries.
There are various types of float-
ing-head construction. The two most
common are the pull-through with
backing device (TEMA S) and pull-
through (TEMA T) designs.
The TEMA S design (Figure 4) is
the most common configuration in
the chemical process industries (CPI).
The floating-head cover is secured
against the floating tubesheet by bolt-
ing it to an ingenious split backing
ring. This floating-head closure is lo-
cated beyond the end of the shell and
changer, the shell cover is removed
first, then the split backing ring, and
then the floating-head cover, after
which the tube bundle can be re-
moved from the stationary end.
In the TEMA T construction (Fig-
ure 5), the entire tube bundle, includ-
ing the floating-head assembly, can
be removed from the stationary end,
since the shell diameter is larger than
the floating-head flange. The floating-
head cover is bolted directly to the
floating tubesheet so that a split back-
ing ring is not required.
The advantage of this construction
is that the tube bundle may be re-
moved from the shell without remov-
ing either the shell or the floating-
head cover, thus reducing mainte-
nance time. This design is particular-
ly suited to kettle reboilers having a
dirty heating medium where U-tubes
cannot be employed. Due to the en-

ESEDA
tubes of a U-tube heat exchanger contained by a shell cover of a larger larged shell, this construction has the
(Figure 3) are bent in the shape of a diameter. To dismantle the heat ex- highest cost of all exchanger types.
U. There is only one tubesheet in a U-
tube heat exchanger. However, the
Bonnet Bonnet
lower cost for the single tubesheet is (Stationary Stationary Support Stationary (Stationary
offset by the additional costs incurred Head) Tubesheet Bracket Tubesheet Head)
for the bending of the tubes and the
somewhat larger shell diameter (due
to the minimum U-bend radius), mak-
ing the cost of a U-tube heat ex-
changer comparable to that of a fixed-
tubesheet exchanger.
The advantage of a U-tube heat
exchanger is that because one end is
free, the bundle can expand or con- Baffles Tie Rods
tract in response to stress differen- and Spacers
tials. In addition, the outsides of the
tubes can be cleaned, as the tube bun- ■ Figure 2. Fixed-tubesheet heat exchanger.
dle can be removed.
The disadvantage of the U-tube Header Tubeplate Shell Tubes Baffles
construction is that the insides of the
tubes cannot be cleaned effectively,
since the U-bends would require flex-
ible-end drill shafts for cleaning.
Thus, U-tube heat exchangers should
not be used for services with a dirty
fluid inside tubes.
Floating head. The floating-head
heat exchanger is the most versatile
type of STHE, and also the costliest.
In this design, one tubesheet is fixed
relative to the shell, and the other is ■ Figure 3. U-tube heat exchanger.
S H E L L- A N D - T U B E H E AT E X C H A N G E R S
There are also two types of packed
floating-head construction — outside-
packed stuffing-box (TEMA P) and
outside-packed lantern ring (TEMA
W) (see Figure 1). However, since
they are prone to leakage, their use is
limited to services with shellside flu-
ids that are nonhazardous and non-
toxic and that have moderate pres-
sures and temperatures (40 kg/cm2
and 300°C).
Classification
based on service
Basically, a service may be single-
phase (such as the cooling or heating
of a liquid or gas) or two-phase (such
as condensing or vaporizing). Since
there are two sides to an STHE, this
can lead to several combinations of
services.
Broadly, services can be classified
as follows:
ESEDA
• single-phase (both shellside and
tubeside);
• condensing (one side condens-
ing and the other single-phase);
• vaporizing (one side vaporizing
and the other side single-phase); and
• condensing/vaporizing (one side
condensing and the other side
vaporizing).
The following nomenclature is
usually used:
Heat exchanger: both sides single-
phase and process streams (that is,
not a utility).
Cooler: one stream a process fluid
and the other cooling water or air.
Heater: one stream a process fluid
and the other a hot utility, such as
steam or hot oil.
Condenser: one stream a condens-
ing vapor and the other cooling water
or air.
Chiller: one stream a process
fluid being condensed at sub-atmo-
spheric temperatures and the other a
boiling refrigerant or process stream.
Reboiler: one stream a bottoms
stream from a distillation column and
the other a hot utility (steam or hot
oil) or a process stream.
This article will focus specifically
on single-phase applications.
Design data
Before discussing actual thermal
design, let us look at the data that
must be furnished by the process li-
censor before design can begin:
1. flow rates of both streams.
2. inlet and outlet temperatures of
both streams.
3. operating pressure of both
streams. This is required for gases,
especially if the gas density is not
furnished; it is not really necessary
for liquids, as their properties do not
vary with pressure.
4. allowable pressure drop for
both streams. This is a very important
parameter for heat exchanger design.
Generally, for liquids, a value of
0.5–0.7 kg/cm2 is permitted per shell.
A higher pressure drop is usually war-
ranted for viscous liquids, especially
in the tubeside. For gases, the allowed
value is generally 0.05–0.2 kg/cm2,
with 0.1 kg/cm2 being typical.
5. fouling resistance for both
streams. If this is not furnished, the
designer should adopt values speci-
fied in the TEMA standards or based
on past experience.
6. physical properties of both
streams. These include viscosity,
thermal conductivity, density, and
specific heat, preferably at both inlet
and outlet temperatures. Viscosity
data must be supplied at inlet and
outlet temperatures, especially for
liquids, since the variation with tem-
perature may be considerable and is
irregular (neither linear nor log-log).
7. heat duty. The duty specified
should be consistent for both the
shellside and the tubeside.
8. type of heat exchanger. If not
furnished, the designer can choose
this based upon the characteristics of
the various types of construction de-
scribed earlier. In fact, the designer is
normally in a better position than the
process engineer to do this.
9. line sizes. It is desirable to
match nozzle sizes with line sizes to
avoid expanders or reducers. Howev-
er, sizing criteria for nozzles are usu-
ally more stringent than for lines, es-
pecially for the shellside inlet. Conse-
quently, nozzle sizes must sometimes
be one size (or even more in excep-
tional circumstances) larger than the
corresponding line sizes, especially
for small lines.
10. preferred tube size. Tube size
is designated as O.D. × thickness ×
length. Some plant owners have a
preferred O.D. × thickness (usually
based upon inventory considerations),
and the available plot area will deter-
mine the maximum tube length.
Many plant owners prefer to stan-
dardize all three dimensions, again
based upon inventory considerations.
11. maximum shell diameter. This
is based upon tube-bundle removal re-
quirements and is limited by crane ca-
pacities. Such limitations apply only to
exchangers with removable tube bun-
dles, namely U-tube and floating-head.
For fixed-tubesheet exchangers, the
only limitation is the manufacturer’s
fabrication capability and the avail-
ability of components such as dished
ends and flanges. Thus, floating-head
heat exchangers are often limited to a
shell I.D. of 1.4–1.5 m and a tube
length of 6 m or 9 m, whereas fixed-
tubesheet heat exchangers can have
shells as large as 3 m and tubes
lengths up to 12 m or more.
12. materials of construction. If
the tubes and shell are made of iden-
tical materials, all components should
be of this material. Thus, only the
shell and tube materials of construc-
tion need to be specified. However, if
the shell and tubes are of different
metallurgy, the materials of all princi-
pal components should be specified
to avoid any ambiguity. The principal
components are shell (and shell
cover), tubes, channel (and channel
cover), tubesheets, and baffles.
Tubesheets may be lined or clad.
13. special considerations. These
include cycling, upset conditions, al-
ternative operating scenarios, and
whether operation is continuous or
intermittent.
Tubeside design
Tubeside calculations are quite
straightforward, since tubeside flow
represents a simple case of flow
through a circular conduit. Heat-trans-
fer coefficient and pressure drop both
vary with tubeside velocity, the latter
more strongly so. A good design will
make the best use of the allowable
pressure drop, as this will yield the
highest heat-transfer coefficient.
If all the tubeside fluid were to
flow through all the tubes (one tube
pass), it would lead to a certain veloc-
ity. Usually, this velocity is unaccept-
ably low and therefore has to be in-
creased. By incorporating pass parti-
tion plates (with appropriate gasket-
ing) in the channels, the tubeside fluid
is made to flow several times through
a fraction of the total number of tubes.
Thus, in a heat exchanger with 200
tubes and two passes, the fluid flows
through 100 tubes at a time, and the
velocity will be twice what it would
be if there were only one pass. The
Viscosity influences the heat-trans-
fer coefficient in two opposing ways
— as a parameter of the Reynolds
number, and as a parameter of Prandtl
number. Thus, from Eq. 1c:
h α (µ)0.33–0.8 (2a)
h α (µ)–0.47 (2b)
In other words, the heat-transfer
coefficient is inversely proportional
to viscosity to the 0.47 power. Simi-
larly, the heat-transfer coefficient is
directly proportional to thermal con-
ductivity to the 0.67 power.
These two facts lead to some inter-
esting generalities about heat transfer.
A high thermal conductivity promotes
a high heat-transfer coefficient. Thus,
cooling water (thermal conductivity
of around 0.55 kcal/h•m•°C) has an
extremely high heat-transfer coeffi-
cient of typically 6,000 kcal/h•m2•°C,
followed by hydrocarbon liquids
(thermal conductivity between 0.08
and 0.12 kcal/h•m•°C) at 250–1,300
kcal/h•m2•°C, and then hydrocarbon
gases (thermal conductivity between
0.02 and 0.03 kcal/h•m•°C) at
50–500 kcal/h•m2•°C.
Hydrogen is an unusual gas, be-
cause it has an exceptionally high
thermal conductivity (greater than
that of hydrocarbon liquids). Thus,
its heat-transfer coefficient is to-
ward the upper limit of the range
for hydrocarbon liquids.
The range of heat-transfer coeffi-
cients for hydrocarbon liquids is

ESEDA
Pass Stationary Tie Rods Floating Shell
number of tube passes is usually one, Partition Tubesheet Shell and Spacers Tubesheet Cover
two, four, six, eight, and so on.

Heat-transfer coefficient
The tubeside heat-transfer coeffi-
cient is a function of the Reynolds
number, the Prandtl number, and
the tube diameter. These can be bro-
ken down into the following funda-
mental parameters: physical Support
Stationary-Head Saddles Floating-Head
properties (namely viscosity, ther- Channel Baffles Cover
mal conductivity, and specific heat);
tube diameter; and, very important-
ly, mass velocity. ■ Figure 4. Pull-through floating-head exchanger with backing device (TEMA S).
The variation in liquid viscosity is
quite considerable; so, this physical
Pass Tie Rods Floating-Head
property has the most dramatic effect Partition and Spacers Shell Floating Cover
on heat-transfer coefficient. Tubesheet Weir
The fundamental equation for tur-
bulent heat-transfer inside tubes is:

Nu = 0.027 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.33 (1a)

or

(hD/k) =
0.027 (DG/µ)0.8 (cµ/k)0.33 (1b)
Support Support
Rearranging: Shell
Stationary-Head Saddle Baffles Saddle
Cover
Channel
h = 0.027(DG/µ)0.8(cµ/k)0.33(k/D) (1c)
■ Figure 5. Pull-through floating-head exchanger (TEMA T).
S H E L L- A N D - T U B E H E AT E X C H A N G E R S
rather large due to the large variation
in their viscosity, from less than 0.1
cP for ethylene and propylene to more
than 1,000 cP or more for bitumen.
The large variation in the heat-transfer
coefficients of hydrocarbon gases is
attributable to the large variation in
operating pressure. As operating pres-
sure rises, gas density increases. Pres-
sure drop is directly proportional to
the square of mass velocity and in-
versely proportional to density. There-
fore, for the same pressure drop, a
higher mass velocity can be main-
tained when the density is higher. This
larger mass velocity translates into a
higher heat-transfer coefficient.
Pressure drop
Mass velocity strongly influences
the heat-transfer coefficient. For tur-
bulent flow, the tubeside heat-transfer
coefficient varies to the 0.8 power of
ESEDA
tubeside mass velocity, whereas tube-
side pressure drop varies to the square
of mass velocity. Thus, with increas-
ing mass velocity, pressure drop in-
creases more rapidly than does the
heat-transfer coefficient. Consequent-
ly, there will be an optimum mass ve-
locity above which it will be wasteful
to increase mass velocity further.
Furthermore, very high velocities
lead to erosion. However, the pres-
sure drop limitation usually becomes
controlling long before erosive veloc-
ities are attained. The minimum rec-
ommended liquid velocity inside
tubes is 1.0 m/s, while the maximum
is 2.5–3.0 m/s.
Pressure drop is proportional to
the square of velocity and the total
length of travel. Thus, when the num-
ber of tube passes is increased for a
given number of tubes and a given
tubeside flow rate, the pressure drop
rises to the cube of this increase. In
actual practice, the rise is somewhat
less because of lower friction factors
at higher Reynolds numbers, so the
exponent should be approximately
2.8 instead of 3.
Tubeside pressure drop rises steeply
with an increase in the number of tube
passes. Consequently, it often happens
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS • FEBRUARY 1998
Table 1. Heat exchanger service for Example 1.
Fluid
Flow rate, kg/h
Temperature in/out, °C
Operating pressure, kg/cm2 (abs.)
Allowable pressure drop, kg/cm2
Fouling resistance, h•m2•°C/kcal
Heat duty, MM kcal/h
Viscosity in/out, cP
Design pressure, kg/cm2 (gage)
Line size, mm (nominal)
Material of construction
that for a given number of tubes and
two passes, the pressure drop is much
lower than the allowable value, but
with four passes it exceeds the allow-
able pressure drop. If in such circum-
stances a standard tube has to be em-
ployed, the designer may be forced to
accept a rather low velocity. However,
if the tube diameter and length may be
varied, the allowable pressure drop can
be better utilized and a higher tubeside
velocity realized.
The following tube diameters are
usually used in the CPI: w, 1, e, 5,
1, 14, and 11 in. Of these, 5 in. and
1 in. are the most popular. Tubes
smaller than 5 in. O.D. should not be
used for fouling services. The use of
small-diameter tubes, such as 1 in.,
is warranted only for small heat ex-
changers with heat-transfer areas less
than 20–30 m2.
It is important to realize that the
total pressure drop for a given stream
must be met. The distribution of pres-
sure drop in the various heat exchang-
ers for a given stream in a particular
circuit may be varied to obtain good
heat transfer in all the heat exchang-
ers. Consider a hot liquid stream flow-
ing through several preheat exchang-
ers. Normally, a pressure drop of 0.7
kg/cm2 per shell is permitted for liq-
uid streams. If there are five such pre-
heat exchangers, a total pressure drop
of 3.5 kg/cm2 for the circuit would be
Shellside Tubeside
Crude oil Heavy gas oil circulating reflux
399,831 277,200
227 / 249 302 / 275
28.3 13.0
1.2 0.7
0.0007 0.0006
5.4945 5.4945
0.664 / 0.563 0.32 / 0.389
44.0 17.0
300 300
Carbon steel Tubes: Type 410 stainless steel
Other: 5Cr1Mo
permitted. If the pressure drop
through two of these exchangers turns
out to be only 0.8 kg/cm2, the balance
of 2.7 kg/cm2 would be available for
the other three.
Example 1:
Optimizing tubeside design
Consider the heat exchanger ser-
vice specified in Table 1. A TEMA
Type AES exchanger (split-ring pull-
through floating-head construction)
was to be employed. Tubes were to
be either 25 mm O.D. (preferred) or
20 mm O.D., 2 mm thick, and 9 m
long (but could be shorter).
A first design was produced using
25-mm-O.D. × 9-m tubes (Case A in
Table 2). The tubeside pressure drop
was only 0.17 kg/cm2 even though
0.7 kg/cm2 was permitted. Further,
the tubeside heat-transfer resistance
was 27.71% of the total, which meant
that if the allowable pressure drop
were better utilized, the heat-transfer
area would decrease. However, when
the number of tube passes was in-
creased from two to four (keeping the
shell diameter the same and decreas-
ing the number of tubes from 500 to
480 due to the extra pass-partition
lanes), the tubeside pressure drop in-
creased to 1.06 kg/cm2, which was
unacceptable. (The shellside design
was satisfactory, with the allowable
pressure drop quite well utilized.)
 m/s earlier), pressure drop (0.51
Table 2. Details of two designs for Example 1. kg/cm2 vs. 0.17 kg/cm2), and heat-
transfer coefficient (1,976 vs. 1,285
Case A Case B
kcal/h•m2•°C) were all much higher.
Shell I.D., mm 925 780 The overall heat-transfer coefficient
Tube O.D. × Number of tubes × 25 × 500 × 2 20 × 540 × 2 for this design was 398 kcal/h•m2•°C
Number of tube passes vs. 356 for Case A.
Heat-transfer area, m2 343 300
Tube pitch × Tube layout angle 32 × 90° 26 × 90° Stepwise calculations
Baffle type Single-segmental Single-segmental for viscous liquids
Baffle spacing, mm 450 400 When the variation in tubeside vis-
Baffle cut, percent of diameter 25 30
cosity is pronounced, a single-point
calculation for the tubeside heat-
Velocity, m/s
transfer coefficient and pressure drop
Shellside 1.15 1.52 will give unrealistic results. This is
Tubeside 1.36 2.17 particularly true in cases where a
Heat-transfer coefficient, kcal/h•m2•°C combination of turbulent (or transi-
Shellside 2,065 2,511 tion) flow and laminar flow exist,
Tubeside 1,285 1,976
since the thermal performance is very
different in these two regimes.
Pressure drop, kg/cm2
In such cases, it will be necessary
Shellside 0.86 1.2 to perform the calculations stepwise
Tubeside 0.17 0.51 or zone-wise. The number of steps or

Resistance, %
Shellside film
Tubeside film
Fouling
Metal wall
Overdesign
Table 3. Process parameters for Example 2.
Fluid
Flow rate, kg/h
Temperature in/out, °C
Allowable pressure drop, kg/cm2
Fouling resistance, h•m2•°C/kcal
Viscosity in/out, cP
Design pressure, kg/cm2 (gage)
Heat duty, kcal/h
Since the overdesign in the four-
pass configuration was 28.1%, an at-
tempt was made to reduce the tube-
side pressure drop by decreasing the
tube length. When the tube length
was reduced to 7.5 m, the overdesign
was 5.72%, but the tubeside pressure
drop was 0.91 kg/cm2, which was
ESEDA
zones will be determined by the vari-
17.24 15.84 ation in the tubeside viscosity and
27.71 21.14 thus the Reynolds number.
50.35 57.66
Example 2:
4.69 4.87 Stepwise calculations
8.29 4.87 The principal process parameters
for a kettle-type steam generator in a
refinery are shown in Table 3. The
viscosity of the heavy vacuum gas oil
varies from 1.6 cP at the inlet to 6.36
cP at the outlet.
Shellside Tubeside A design was produced without
Boiler feedwater, Steam Heavy vacuum gas oil performing the calculations stepwise
23,100 (fully vaporized) 129,085 — that is, on the basis of a single av-
154 / 154 299 / 165 erage temperature and corresponding
Negligible 1.4 physical properties. Details of this de-
sign are shown in Table 4.
0.0002 0.0006
Performing the tubeside calcula-
0.176 / 0.176 1.6 / 6.36 tions stepwise, in ten equal heat duty
6.5 21.3 steps, revealed that the original ex-
11,242,000 11,242,000 changer was undersurfaced. The rele-
vant performance parameters for the
single-point and stepwise calculations
still higher than that permitted. are compared in Table 5.
Next, a design with 20-mm-O.D. The main reason for the difference
tubes was attempted (Case B in Table was the variation in Reynolds num-
2). The shell diameter and heat-trans- ber, from 9,813 in the first zone to
fer surface decreased considerably, 2,851 in the last zone. In addition,
from 925 mm to 780 mm, and from the mean temperature difference
343 m2 to 300 m2, respectively. The (MTD) decreased drastically, from
tubeside velocity (2.17 m/s vs. 1.36 138.47°C in the first zone to a mere
S H E L L- A N D - T U B E H E AT E X C H A N G E R S
17.04°C in the last. Thus, while the
initial zones (the hot end) had both a
high heat-transfer coefficient and a
high MTD, these decreased progres-
sively toward the outlet (cold) end of
the exchanger. Consequently, while
the first zone required a length of
only 2.325 m, the last zone required
a length of 44.967 m, even though
the heat duties were the same. The
tubeside pressure drop was only
marginally higher by the stepwise
method, because the tubeside is en-
tirely in the transition regime (Re be-
tween 2,851 and 9,813).
Shellside design
The shellside calculations are far
more complex than those for the
tubeside. This is mainly because on
the shellside there is not just one flow
stream but one principal cross-flow
stream and four leakage or bypass
ESEDA
streams. There are various shellside
flow arrangements, as well as various
tube layout patterns and baffling de-
signs, which together determine the
shellside stream analysis.
Shell configuration
TEMA defines various shell pat-
terns based on the flow of the shell-
side fluid through the shell: E, F, G,
H, J, K, and X (see Figure 1).
In a TEMA E single-pass shell, the
shellside fluid enters the shell at one
end and leaves from the other end.
This is the most common shell type
— more heat exchangers are built to
this configuration than all other con-
figurations combined.
A TEMA F two-pass shell has a
longitudinal baffle that divides the
shell into two passes. The shellside
fluid enters at one end, traverses the
entire length of the exchanger
through one-half the shell cross-sec-
tional area, turns around and flows
through the second pass, then finally
leaves at the end of the second pass.
The longitudinal baffle stops well
short of the tubesheet, so that the
fluid can flow into the second pass.
The F shell is used for tempera-
ture-cross situations — that is, where
Table 4. Design produced for Example 2
without stepwise calculations.
Number of kettles
Kettle/port I.D., mm
Tubes per kettle
Number of tube passes
Tube pitch
Baffling
Connections, mm (nominal)
Heat-transfer area, m2
Table 5. Performance parameters for Example 2 using
single-point and stepwise calculations.
Tubeside heat-transfer coefficient, kcal/h•m2•°C
Overall heat-transfer coefficient, kcal/h•m2•°C
Tubeside pressure drop, kg/cm2
Overdesign, %
the cold stream leaves at a tempera-
ture higher than the outlet tempera-
ture of the hot stream. If a two-pass
(F) shell has only two tube passes,
this becomes a true countercurrent ar-
rangement where a large temperature
cross can be achieved.
A TEMA J shell is a divided-flow
shell wherein the shellside fluid en-
ters the shell at the center and divides
into two halves, one flowing to the
left and the other to the right and
leaving separately. They are then
combined into a single stream. This is
identified as a J 1–2 shell. Alterna-
tively, the stream may be split into
two halves that enter the shell at the
two ends, flow toward the center, and
leave as a single stream, which is
identified as a J 2–1 shell.
A TEMA G shell is a split-flow
shell (see Figure 1). This construction
is usually employed for horizontal
thermosyphon reboilers. There is only
a central support plate and no baffles.
A G shell cannot be used for heat ex-
2 (in parallel)
1,825 / 1,225
790 tubes
Type 316 stainless steel
25 mm O.D. × 2 mm thick × 9 m long
12
32 mm square (90°)
Full support plates only
Shellside: inlet 75, outlet 3 × 200
Tubeside: 150
1,104 (2 × 552)
Single-point Stepwise
Calculations Calculations
347.9 229.2
244.7 179.3
1.28 1.35
24.03 –9.11
changers with tube lengths greater
than 3 m, since this would exceed the
limit on maximum unsupported tube
length specified by TEMA — typical-
ly 1.5 m, though it varies with tube
O.D., thickness, and material.
When a larger tube length is need-
ed, a TEMA H shell (see Figure 1) is
used. An H shell is basically two G
shells placed side-by-side, so that
there are two full support plates. This
is described as a double-split config-
uration, as the flow is split twice and
recombined twice. This construction,
too, is invariably employed for hori-
zontal thermosyphon reboilers. The
advantage of G and H shells is that
the pressure drop is drastically less
and there are no cross baffles.
A TEMA X shell (see Figure 1) is
a pure cross-flow shell where the
shellside fluid enters at the top (or
bottom) of the shell, flows across the
tubes, and exits from the opposite
side of the shell. The flow may be
introduced through multiple nozzles
located strategically along the length
of the shell in order to achieve a bet-
ter distribution. The pressure drop
will be extremely low — in fact,
there is hardly any pressure drop in
the shell, and what pressure drop
there is, is virtually all in the noz-
zles. Thus, this configuration is em-
ployed for cooling or condensing va-
pors at low pressure, particularly
vacuum. Full support plates can be
located if needed for structural in-
tegrity; they do not interfere with the
shellside flow because they are par-
allel to the flow direction.
A TEMA K shell (see Figure 1) is
a special cross-flow shell employed
for kettle reboilers (thus the K). It
has an integral vapor-disengagement
space embodied in an enlarged shell.
Here, too, full support plates can be
employed as required.
ESEDA
Tube layout patterns
There are four tube layout pat-
terns, as shown in Figure 6: triangular
(30°), rotated triangular (60°), square
(90°), and rotated square (45°).
A triangular (or rotated triangular)
pattern will accommodate more tubes
than a square (or rotated square) pat-
Triangular Rotated
(30 ˚) Triangular
(60˚)
Square Rotated
(90˚) Square
(45˚)
■ Figure 6. Tube layout patterns.
tern. Furthermore, a triangular pat-
tern produces high turbulence and
therefore a high heat-transfer coeffi-
cient. However, at the typical tube
pitch of 1.25 times the tube O.D., it
does not permit mechanical cleaning
of tubes, since access lanes are not
available. Consequently, a triangular
layout is limited to clean shellside
services. For services that require
mechanical cleaning on the shellside,
square patterns must be used. Chemi-
cal cleaning does not require access
lanes, so a triangular layout may be
used for dirty shellside services pro-
vided chemical cleaning is suitable
and effective.
A rotated triangular pattern sel-
dom offers any advantages over a
triangular pattern, and its use is
consequently not very popular.
For dirty shellside services, a
square layout is typically employed.
However, since this is an in-line
pattern, it produces lower turbu-
lence. Thus, when the shellside
Reynolds number is low (< 2,000),
it is usually advantageous to em-
ploy a rotated square pattern be-
cause this produces much higher
turbulence, which results in a high-
er efficiency of conversion of pres-
sure drop to heat transfer.
As noted earlier, fixed-tubesheet
construction is usually employed for
clean services on the shellside, U-
tube construction for clean services
on the tubeside, and floating-head
construction for dirty services on
both the shellside and tubeside. (For
clean services on both shellside and
tubeside, either fixed-tubesheet or
U-tube construction may be used, al-
though U-tube is preferable since it
permits differential expansion be-
tween the shell and the tubes.)
Hence, a triangular tube pattern may
be used for fixed-tubesheet exchang-
ers and a square (or rotated square)
pattern for floating-head exchangers.
For U-tube exchangers, a triangular
pattern may be used provided the
shellside stream is clean and a
square (or rotated square) pattern if
it is dirty.
Tube pitch
Tube pitch is defined as the shortest
distance between two adjacent tubes.
For a triangular pattern, TEMA
specifies a minimum tube pitch of
1.25 times the tube O.D. Thus, a 25-
mm tube pitch is usually employed
for 20-mm O.D. tubes.
For square patterns, TEMA addi-
tionally recommends a minimum
cleaning lane of 4 in. (or 6 mm) be-
tween adjacent tubes. Thus, the mini-
mum tube pitch for square patterns is
either 1.25 times the tube O.D. or the
tube O.D. plus 6 mm, whichever is
larger. For example, 20-mm tubes
should be laid on a 26-mm (20 mm +
6 mm) square pitch, but 25-mm tubes
should be laid on a 31.25-mm (25
mm × 1.25) square pitch.
Designers prefer to employ the
minimum recommended tube pitch,
because it leads to the smallest shell
diameter for a given number of tubes.
However, in exceptional circum-
stances, the tube pitch may be in-
creased to a higher value, for exam-
ple, to reduce shellside pressure drop.
This is particularly true in the case of
a cross-flow shell.
Baffling
Type of baffles. Baffles are used to
support tubes, enable a desirable ve-
locity to be maintained for the shell-
side fluid, and prevent failure of tubes
due to flow-induced vibration. There
are two types of baffles: plate and rod.
Plate baffles may be single-segmental,
double-segmental, or triple-segmen-
tal, as shown in Figure 7.
Baffle spacing. Baffle spacing is
the centerline-to-centerline distance
between adjacent baffles. It is the
most vital parameter in STHE design.
The TEMA standards specify the
minimum baffle spacing as one-fifth
of the shell inside diameter or 2 in.,
whichever is greater. Closer spacing
will result in poor bundle penetration
by the shellside fluid and difficulty in
mechanically cleaning the outsides of
the tubes. Furthermore, a low baffle
spacing results in a poor stream dis-
tribution as will be explained later.
S H E L L- A N D - T U B E H E AT E X C H A N G E R S
Single Segmental Double Segmental
Baffles Baffles
No-Tubes-in-Window Segmental Baffles
■ Figure 7. Types of baffles.
ESEDA
The maximum baffle spacing is
the shell inside diameter. Higher baf-
fle spacing will lead to predominantly
longitudinal flow, which is less effi-
cient than cross-flow, and large un-
supported tube spans, which will
make the exchanger prone to tube
failure due to flow-induced vibration.
Optimum baffle spacing. For tur-
bulent flow on the shellside (Re >
1,000), the heat-transfer coefficient
varies to the 0.6–0.7 power of veloci-
ty; however, pressure drop varies to
the 1.7–2.0 power. For laminar flow
(Re < 100), the exponents are 0.33 for
the heat-transfer coefficient and 1.0
for pressure drop. Thus, as baffle
spacing is reduced, pressure drop in-
creases at a much faster rate than
does the heat-transfer coefficient.
This means that there will be an
optimum ratio of baffle spacing to
shell inside diameter that will result
in the highest efficiency of conver-
sion of pressure drop to heat transfer.
This optimum ratio is normally be-
tween 0.3 and 0.6.
Baffle cut. As shown in Figure 8,
baffle cut is the height of the segment
that is cut in each baffle to permit the
shellside fluid to flow across the baffle.
This is expressed as a percentage of
Triple Segmental
Baffles
Rod Baffle
the shell inside diameter. Although the case of a two-pass shell (TEMA
this, too, is an important parameter for F), a vertical cut is preferred for ease
STHE design, its effect is less pro- of fabrication and bundle assembly.
found than that of baffle spacing. Baffling is discussed in greater de-
Baffle cut can vary between 15% tail in (2) and (3).
and 45% of the shell inside diameter.
Both very small and very large Equalize cross-flow
baffle cuts are detrimental to effi- and window velocities
cient heat transfer on the shellside Flow across tubes is referred to as
due to large deviation from an ideal cross-flow, whereas flow through the
situation, as illustrated in Figure 9. It window area (that is, through the baffle
is strongly recommended that only cut area) is referred to as window flow.
baffle cuts between 20% and 35% be The window velocity and the
employed. Reducing baffle cut cross-flow velocity should be as close
below 20% to increase the shellside as possible — preferably within 20%
heat-transfer coefficient or increas-
ing the baffle cut beyond 35% to de-
crease the shellside pressure drop
usually lead to poor designs. Other
aspects of tube bundle geometry
should be changed instead to achieve Baffle
Cut
those goals. For example, double-
segmental baffles or a divided-flow
shell, or even a cross-flow shell,
may be used to reduce the shellside
pressure drop.
For single-phase fluids on the
shellside, a horizontal baffle cut (Fig-
ure 10) is recommended, because this Baffle
minimizes accumulation of deposits
at the bottom of the shell and also
prevents stratification. However, in ■ Figure 8. Baffle cut.

Shell
Diameter
a. Small Baffle Cut
■ Figure 9. Effect of small and large baffle cuts.
of each other. If they differ by more
than that, repeated acceleration and
deceleration take place along the
length of the tube bundle, resulting in
inefficient conversion of pressure
drop to heat transfer.
Shellside stream analysis
ESEDA
On the shellside, there is not just
one stream, but a main cross-flow
stream and four leakage or bypass
streams, as illustrated in Figure 11.
Tinker (4) proposed calling these
streams the main cross-flow stream
(B), a tube-to-baffle-hole leakage
stream (A), a bundle bypass stream
(C), a pass-partition bypass stream
(F), and a baffle-to-shell leakage
stream (E).
While the B (main cross-flow)
stream is highly effective for heat
Horizontal Cut
Vertical Cut
■ Figure 10. Baffle cut orientation.
Main Flow
Eddies
Baffle
b. Large Baffle Cut
transfer, the other streams are not as
effective. The A stream is fairly effi-
cient, because the shellside fluid is
in contact with the tubes. Similarly,
the C stream is in contact with the
peripheral tubes around the bundle,
and the F stream is in contact with
the tubes along the pass-partition
lanes. Consequently, these streams
also experience heat transfer, al-
though at a lower efficiency than the
B stream. However, since the E
stream flows along the shell wall,
where there are no tubes, it encoun-
ters no heat transfer at all.
The fractions of the total flow rep-
resented by these five streams can be
determined for a particular set of ex-
changer geometry and shellside flow
conditions by any sophisticated heat-
exchanger thermal design software.
Essentially, the five streams are in
parallel and flow along paths of vary-
ing hydraulic resistances. Thus, the
flow fractions will be such that the
A
B C
C C
■ Figure 11. Shellside flow distribution.
Eddies
Baffle
Main
Flow
Baffle
c. Ideal Baffle Cut and Baffle Spacing
pressure drop of each stream is iden-
tical, since all the streams begin and
end at the inlet and outlet nozzles.
Subsequently, based upon the effi-
ciency of each of these streams, the
overall shellside stream efficiency
and thus the shellside heat-transfer
coefficient is established.
Since the flow fractions depend
strongly upon the path resistances,
varying any of the following con-
struction parameters will affect
stream analysis and thereby the shell-
side performance of an exchanger:
• baffle spacing and baffle cut;
• tube layout angle and tube
pitch;
• number of lanes in the flow di-
rection and lane width;
• clearance between the tube and
the baffle hole;
• clearance between the shell I.D.
and the baffle; and
• location of sealing strips and
sealing rods.
A
C
F
B B
B
B B
A
E
E
S H E L L- A N D - T U B E H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

Using a very low baffle spacing

tends to increase the leakage and by-
Table 6. Process parameters for Example 3.
pass streams. This is because all five
Shellside Tubeside
shellside streams are in parallel and,
therefore, have the same pressure Fluid Crude oil Heavy gas oil circulating reflux
drop. The leakage path dimensions Flow rate, kg/h 367,647 105,682
are fixed. Consequently, when baffle Temperature in/out, °C 209 / 226 319 / 269
spacing is decreased, the resistance of Heat duty, MM kcal/h 4.0 4.0
the main cross-flow path and thereby Density in/out, kg/m3 730 / 715 655 / 700
its pressure drop increases. Since the
Viscosity in/out, cP 0.52 / 0.46 0.27 / 0.37
pressure drops of all five streams must
be equal, the leakage and bypass Specific heat in/out, kcal/kg•°C 0.63 / 0.65 0.78 / 0.73
streams increase until the pressure Thermal conductivity in/out, kcal/h•m•°C 0.087 / 0.085 0.073 / 0.0795
drops of all the streams balance out. Allowable pressure drop, kg/cm2 1.0 0.7
The net result is a rise in the pressure Fouling resistance, h•m2•°C/kcal 0.0006 0.0006
drop without a corresponding increase Design pressure, kg/cm2 (gage) 36.6 14.0
in the heat-transfer coefficient.
Design temperature, °C 250 340
The shellside fluid viscosity also
affects stream analysis profoundly. In Line size, mm (nominal) 300 150
addition to influencing the shellside Material of construction Carbon steel 5Cr1Mo
heat transfer and pressure drop per-
formance, the stream analysis also
affects the mean temperature differ- Table 7. Effects of varying baffle spacing for a constant 25%

ESEDA
ence (MTD) of the exchanger. This baffle cut for Example 3.
will be discussed in detail later. First,
though, let’s look at an example that Design A Design B Design C
demonstrates how to optimize baffle Baffle spacing, mm 300 350 400
design when there is no significant Tube-to-baffle-hole leakage (A), fraction 0.157 0.141 0.13
temperature profile distortion.
Main cross-flow stream (B), fraction 0.542 0.563 0.577
Example 3: Bundle bypass stream (C), fraction 0.113 0.116 0.119
Optimizing baffle design Baffle-to-shell leakage stream (E), fraction 0.12 0.109 0.1
Consider the heat exchanger ser- Pass-partition bypass stream (F), fraction 0.069 0.072 0.075
vice specified in Table 6. Since there Overall shellside heat-transfer efficiency, % 71.3 73.4 74.9
are two independent variables — baf- Shellside velocity, m/s
fle spacing and baffle cut — we will
Cross-flow 2.5 2.15 1.87
first keep the baffle cut constant at
Window flow 2.34 2.34 2.34
25% and vary the baffle spacing
(Table 7). Later, the baffle spacing Shellside pressure drop, kg/cm2 1.34 1.03 0.79
will be kept constant and the baffle Heat-transfer coefficient, kcal/h•m2•°C
cut varied (Table 8). In real practice, Shellside 2,578 2,498 2,372
both parameters should be varied si- Tubeside 1,402 1,402 1,402
multaneously, but keeping one pa- Overall 401.8 399.8 396.5
rameter constant and varying the
Overdesign, % 7.58 7.08 6.21
other will more vividly demonstrate
the influence of each parameter.
The first design developed is des- increased from 300 mm to 400 mm, less, since the shellside velocity and
ignated Design A in Table 7. Here, the main cross-flow, bundle bypass, the Reynolds number decrease, both
the baffle cut is 25% and the baffle and pass-partition bypass streams in- the shellside heat-transfer coefficient
spacing is 300 mm. In Designs B and crease progressively, whereas the and the shellside pressure drop de-
C, the baffle spacing was changed to tube-to-baffle-hole leakage and baf- crease, but the former at a much
350 mm and 400 mm, respectively. fle-to-shell leakage streams decrease lower rate than the latter. Since the
There is no temperature profile dis- progressively. The overall heat-trans- allowable shellside pressure drop is
tortion problem with these designs. fer efficiency of the shellside stream 1.0 kg/cm2, Design A is ruled out, as
Notice that as the baffle spacing is increases progressively. Neverthe- its shellside pressure drop far ex-
 Table 8. Effects of varying baffle cut for a constant 400-mm baffle spacing for Example 3.

Design D Design E Design F Design G Design H

Baffle cut, percent of diameter 25 30 33 36 20
Tube-to-baffle-hole leakage (A), fraction 0.13 0.106 0.093 0.08 0.159
Main cross-flow stream (B), fraction 0.577 0.612 0.643 0.674 0.54
Bundle bypass stream (C), fraction 0.119 0.122 0.118 0.117 0.126
Baffle-to-shell leakage stream (E), fraction 0.1 0.091 0.085 0.078 0.114
Pass-partition bypass stream (F), fraction 0.075 0.069 0.062 0.052 0.061
Overall shellside heat-transfer efficiency, % 74.9 73.0 75.7 78.6 72.7
Shellside velocity, m/s
Cross-flow 1.87 1.87 1.87 1.87 1.87
Window flow 2.34 1.86 1.65 1.48 3.09
Shellside pressure drop, kg/cm2 0.79 0.69 0.65 0.6 0.98
Heat-transfer coefficient, kcal/h•m2•°C
Shellside 2,372 2,200 2,074 1,929 2,406
Tubeside 1,402 1,402 1,402 1,402 1,402
Overall 396.5 391.4 387.3 381.9 397.4
Overdesign, % 6.21 4.86 3.76 2.33 6.43

ceeds this limit. Designs B and C are

both acceptable. The overdesign
varies marginally. Thus, it would be
prudent to adopt Design C, since it
has a lower pressure drop and a bet-
ter stream analysis.
ESEDA pears to be the best choice, since De-
sign D cannot be accepted because of
the excessive shellside pressure drop.

Now consider the effect of varying
the baffle cut while keeping the baffle
spacing constant at 400 mm, as
shown in Table 8. As the baffle cut is
progressively increased from 25% in
Design D to 36% in Design G, the
following changes are observed:
• the main cross-flow stream (B)
fraction increases appreciably;
• the tube-to-baffle-hole (A), baf-
fle-to-shell (E), and pass-partition (F)
stream fractions decrease steadily;
• the bundle bypass (C) stream
fraction remains steady;
• the overall heat-transfer effi-
ciency of the shellside stream first de-
creases and then increases; and
• as the window velocity decreas-
es, the shellside heat-transfer coeffi-
cient falls; the pressure drop also de-
creases, but not as fast as the heat-
transfer coefficient.
These observations are reflected in
the overdesign values. Design E ap-
Reducing ∆P
by modifying baffle design
Single-pass shell and single-seg-
mental baffles. The first baffle alter-
native is the single-segmental baffle
in a single-pass (TEMA E) shell.
However, in many situations, the
shellside pressure drop is too high
with single-segmental baffles in a sin-
gle-pass shell, even after increasing
the baffle spacing and baffle cut to the
highest values recommended. Such a
situation may arise when handling a
very high shellside flow rate or when
the shellside fluid is a low-pressure
gas. In these cases, the next alterna-
tive that should be considered is the
double-segmental baffle (Figure 7).
Single-pass shell and double-seg-
mental baffles. By changing the baf-
fling from single-segmental to double-
segmental at the same spacing in an
otherwise identical heat exchanger,
the cross-flow velocity is reduced ap-
proximately to half, because the shell-
side flow is divided into two parallel
streams. This greatly reduces the
cross-flow pressure drop. However,
the window velocity and therefore the
window pressure drop cannot be re-
duced appreciably (assuming that the
maximum recommended baffle cut
was already tried with single-segmen-
tal baffles before switching to double-
segmental baffles). Nevertheless,
since cross-flow pressure drop is in-
variably much greater than window
pressure drop, there is an appreciable
reduction in the total pressure drop.
There is also a decrease in the shell-
side heat-transfer coefficient, but this
is considerably less than the reduction
in the pressure drop. The use of dou-
ble-segmental baffles is covered in
depth in (3).
Divided-flow shell and single-seg-
mental baffles. If the allowable shell-
side pressure drop cannot be satisfied
even with double-segmental baffles at
a relatively large spacing, a divided-
flow shell (TEMA J) with single-seg-
mental baffles (Figure 1) should be in-
vestigated next. Since pressure drop is
proportional to the square of the veloc-
ity and to the length of travel, a divid-
ed-flow shell will have approximately
S H E L L- A N D - T U B E H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

one-eighth the pressure drop in an oth-
erwise identical single-pass exchanger.
The advantage of a divided-flow
shell over double-segmental baffles is
that it offers an even larger reduction
its cost, typically by about 10%. The
higher cost is offset to some extent by
the higher shellside heat-transfer co-
efficient, since pure cross-flow is
more efficient than the combination

in pressure drop, since not only cross-
flow velocity but even window veloc-
ity can be reduced. The disadvantage
is the increase in cost due to the addi-
tional piping required.
Divided-flow shell and double-
segmental baffles. If even a divided-
flow shell with single-segmental baf-
fles is unable to meet the allowable
shellside pressure drop limit, it will
be necessary to adopt a combination
of a divided-flow shell and double-
segmental baffles. With such a com-
bination, a very large reduction in
shellside pressure drop is possible —
to as low as 4% of the pressure drop
in a single-pass exchanger with the
Temperature
of cross-flow and window flow in
conventional designs.
Cross-flow shell. There are some
services where the pressure drop limi-
tation is so severe that none of the
above shell/baffling configurations can
yield a satisfactory design. A steam
ejector condenser operating at a pres-
sure of 50 mm Hg and having an al- Exchanger Length
lowable pressure drop of 5 mm Hg is
an example. Such situations require the ■ Figure 12. Countercurrent flow.
use of a cross-flow shell (TEMA X).
Here, pure cross-flow takes place at
a very low velocity, so there is virtually
no pressure drop in the shell. Whatever
pressure drop occurs is almost entirely
in the nozzles. Support plates will be

Temperature
same baffle spacing and baffle cut. In needed to meet TEMA requirements

ESEDA
sharp contrast, the heat-transfer coef-
ficient will reduce to about 40%.
No-tubes-in-window segmental
baffles. As baffle spacing is increased
to reduce the shellside pressure drop,
an exchanger becomes more prone to
tube failure due to flow-induced vi-
bration. Exchangers with double-seg-
mental baffles are less likely to expe-
rience such problems than those with
single-segmental baffles.
However, a vibration problem may
persist even with double-segmental
baffles. In such cases, a no-tubes-in-
window design (Figure 7) should be
adopted. Here, each tube is supported
by every baffle, so that the unsupport-
ed tube span is the baffle spacing. In
exchangers with normal single-seg-
mental baffles, the unsupported tube
span is twice the baffle spacing.
Should it become necessary to use
a very large baffle spacing to restrict
the shellside pressure drop to the per-
mitted value, intermediate supports
may be used to increase the natural
frequency of the tubes, thus produc-
ing a design that is safe against tube
failure due to flow-induced vibration.
The no-tubes-in-window design
requires a larger shell diameter for a
given number of tubes. This esclates
and prevent any possible flow-induced
tube vibration. Since the shellside flow
is parallel to these support plates, shell-
side pressure drop is not increased.
Increasing tube pitch
For a given number of tubes, the
smaller the tube pitch, the smaller the
shell diameter, and therefore the
lower the cost. Consequently, design-
ers tend to pack in as many tubes as
mechanically possible.
As noted earlier, designers gener-
ally set the tube pitch at 1.25 times
the tube O.D. For square or rotated
square pitch, a minimum cleaning
lane of 4 in. or 6 mm is recommend-
ed by TEMA.
As far as thermal-hydraulics are
concerned, the optimum tube-pitch-
to-tube-diameter ratio for conversion
of pressure drop to heat transfer is
typically 1.25–1.35 for turbulent flow
and around 1.4 for laminar flow.
Increasing the tube pitch to re-
duce pressure drop is generally not
recommended for two reasons. First,
it increases the shell diameter and,
thereby, the cost. Second, reducing
pressure drop by modifying the baf-
fle spacing, baffle cut, or shell type
will result in a cheaper design.
Exchanger Length
■ Figure 13. Cocurrent flow.
However, in the case of X shells, it
may be necessary to increase the tube
pitch above the TEMA minimum to
meet pressure drop limitations, since
there are no other parameters that can
be modified.
Mean temperature difference
Temperature difference is the driv-
ing force for heat transfer.
When two streams flow in op-
posing directions across a tube wall,
there is true countercurrent flow
(Figure 12). In this situation, the
only limitation is that the hot
stream should at all points be hotter
than the cold stream. The outlet
temperature of the cold stream may
be higher than the outlet tempera-
ture of the hot stream, as shown in
Figure 12.
 Since the temperature difference
varies along the length of the heat
exchanger, it has to be weighted to
obtain a mean value for single-point
determination of heat-transfer area.
The logarithmic mean temperature
difference (LMTD) represents this
weighted value.
If the hot and cold streams flow in
the same direction, flow is cocurrent
(Figure 13). The mean temperature
difference is still represented by the
LMTD. However, the LMTD for
cocurrent flow is lower than that for
countercurrent flow for the same ter-
minal differences. This is because al-
though one terminal temperature dif-
ference is very high, the other is far
too low — that is, the temperature
differences along the path of heat
transfer are not balanced.
What is even more serious with
cocurrent flow is that the outlet tem-
ESEDA
perature of the cold stream must be
somewhat lower than the outlet tem-
perature of the hot stream, which is a
serious limitation. Consequently,
countercurrent flow is always pre-
ferred to cocurrent flow.
These principles apply only to sin-
gle-pass exchangers. However, as
noted earlier, shell-and-tube heat ex-
changers invariably have two or more
tube passes. Since the shellside fluid
flows in one direction, half the tube
passes experience countercurrent
flow and the other half experience
cocurrent flow. The MTD for this sit-
uation is neither the LMTD for coun-
tercurrent flow nor that for cocurrent
flow, but a value between the two.
A correction factor, Ft, which de-
pends on the four terminal tempera-
tures and the shell style can be deter-
mined from charts in the TEMA stan-
dards. The LMTD for countercurrent
flow is multiplied by this factor to ob-
tain the corrected MTD.
An important limitation for 1-2
shells (one shell pass and two or more
tube passes) is that the outlet tempera-
ture of the cold stream cannot exceed
the outlet temperature of the hot
stream. This is because of the presence
of one or more cocurrent passes. In re-
ality, a very small temperature differ-
ence is possible, but this represents an
area of uncertainty and the credit is
very small, so it is usually ignored.
When there is a temperature cross
(that is, the outlet temperature of the
cold stream is higher than the outlet
temperature of the hot stream), and
pure countercurrent flow is not possi-
ble, multiple shells in series must be
used. This will be discussed in detail
in the followup article scheduled to
be published in the next issue.
An F shell has two passes, so if there
are two tube passes, this is a pure coun-
tercurrent situation. However, if an F
shell has four or more tube passes, it is
no longer a true countercurrent situation
and, hence, the Ft correction has to be
applied. An F shell having four or more
tube passes is represented as a 2-4 shell.
The Ft factor for a 2-4 shell is identical
to that for two 1-2 shells in series or two
shell passes. The TEMA Ft factor chart
for three shell passes really represents
three shells in series, that for four shell
passes four shells in series, and so on.
It is important to realize that the
LMTD and Ft factor concept assumes
that there is no significant variation in
the overall heat-transfer coefficient
along the length of the shell. Howev-
Tubeside
M ain C
Temperature
Appare
Shellside
C = Bundle-to-Shell Bypass
E = Baffle-to-Shell Leakage
Exchanger Length
■ Figure 14. Temperature profile distortion factor due to bypass and leakage.
er, there are some services where this
is not true. An example of this is the
cooling of a viscous liquid — as the
liquid is cooled, its viscosity increas-
es, and this results in a progressive
reduction in the shellside heat-trans-
fer coefficient. In this case, the sim-
plistic overall MTD approach will be
inaccurate, and the exchanger must
be broken into several sections and
the calculations performed zone-wise.
Temperature profile distortion
An important issue that has not
been considered so far is the tempera-
ture profile distortion. As noted earli-
er, the leakage and bypass streams are
less efficient for heat transfer than the
main cross-flow stream.
Consider a case where the shellside
stream is the cold fluid. Since the
main cross-flow stream encounters a
very large fraction of the total heat-
transfer surface, it has to pick up a
very large part of the total heat duty.
Assume that the cross-flow stream is
58% of the total shellside stream, but
that it comes in contact with 80% of
the tubes. As a result, its temperature
rises more rapidly than if the entire
shellside stream were to pick up the
entire heat duty. Therefore, its temper-
m
Strea
ross-flow
am
C Stre
re Profi
le
nt Te mperatu
E Stream
Last Baffle
S H E L L- A N D - T U B E H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

ature profile will be steeper than that

of the total stream (the apparent tem-
Table 9. Process parameters for Example 4.
perature profile) without considering
the various flow fractions (Figure 14). Shellside Tubeside
The temperature profiles of the Fluid Naphtha Cooling water
baffle-hole-to-tube leakage, shell-to- Flow rate, kg/h 9,841 65,570
bundle leakage, and pass-partition by-
Temperature in/out, °C 114 / 40 33 / 40
pass streams will depend on their re-
Heat duty, MM kcal/h 0.46 0.46
spective flow fractions and the frac-
tional heat-transfer area encountered. Specific gravity in/out 0.62 / 0.692 1.0 / 1.0
However, since the shell-to-baffle Viscosity in/out, cP 0.254 / 0.484 0.76 / 0.66
leakage stream does not experience Average specific heat, kcal/kg•°C 0.632 1.0
any heat transfer, the remaining four Thermal conductivity in/out, kcal/h•m•°C 0.092 / 0.101 0.542 / 0.546
streams must pick up the entire heat Allowable pressure drop, kg/cm2 0.7 0.7
duty, so that these four streams to-
Fouling resistance, h•m2•°C/kcal 0.0002 0.0004
gether will have a temperature profile
steeper than that of the apparent Design pressure, kg/cm2 (gage) 12.0 6.5
stream. Consequently, the temperature Design temperature, °C 150 60
difference between the hot and the Material of construction Carbon steel Admirality brass
cold streams will be lower all along
the length of the heat exchanger,
thereby resulting in the reduction of
the MTD. This reduction in the MTD Table 10. Construction parameters for Example 4.

ESEDA
is known as the temperature profile
distortion (or correction) factor.
The temperature profile distortion
factor is more pronounced when the
leakage and bypass streams are high,
especially the shell-to-baffle leakage
stream, and the ratio of shellside tem-
perature difference to the temperature
approach at the shell outlet is high.
The latter is because the closer the
temperature approach at the shell out-
let, the sharper the reduction in MTD.
Nomenclature
c = stream specific heat, kcal/kg•°C
D = tube inside diameter, m
Ft = LMTD correction factor,
dimensionless
G = stream mass velocity, kg/m2•h
h = stream heat-transfer coefficient,
kcal/h•m2•°C
k = stream thermal conductivity,
kcal/h•m•°C
Nu = Nusselt number = hD/k,
dimensionless
Pr = Prandtl number = cµ/k,
dimensionless
Re = Reynolds number = DG/µ,
dimensionless
Greek Letter
µ = stream viscosity, kg/m•h
Shell I.D.
Tubes
Number of tube passes
Tube pitch
Baffling
Connections
Heat-transfer area
The leakage and bypass streams
tend to be high when the shellside
viscosity is high and when the baffle
spacing is very low. Thus, care has to
be exercised in the design of viscous
liquid coolers such as a vacuum
residue cooler in a crude oil refinery.
The minimum recommended tem-
perature profile distortion factor is
0.75. Below this, two or more shells
in series must be employed. By using
multiple shells in series, the ratio of
shellside temperature difference to
the temperature approach at the shell
outlet is reduced. The mixing of the
main cross-flow stream with the by-
pass and leakage streams after each
shell reduces the penalty due to the
distortion of the temperature profile
and hence increases the temperature
profile distortion factor.
500 mm
188 tubes, 20 mm O.D. × 2 mm thick × 6 m long
2
26 mm square (90°)
Single-segmental, 140 mm spacing, 21% cut (diameter)
75 mm on shellside, 150 mm on tubeside
70 m2
In many situations, a temperature
profile distortion factor is unavoid-
able, such as when cooling a viscous
liquid over a large temperature
range, and there is no alternative to
the use of multiple shells in series.
However, in many other situations,
improper baffle spacing unnecessar-
ily imposes such a penalty where it
is easily avoidable. Designers nor-
mally tend to pack baffles as close
as possible to get the maximum
shellside heat-transfer coefficient,
pressure drop permitting. In many
such cases, the use of somewhat
higher baffle spacing will reduce the
shell-to-baffle leakage stream (the
principal culprit) and hence improve
the MTD correction factor appre-
ciably, thereby producing a much
better design.
 Table 11. Detailed results of Example 4 iterations.

Existing Design Alternative No. 1 Alternative No. 2 Alternative No. 3 Alternative No. 4
Baffle spacing, mm 140 160 175 190 210
Stream analysis, fraction of stream
Baffle-hole-to-tube leakage (A) 0.189 0.173 0.163 0.154 0.143
Main cross-flow (B) 0.463 0.489 0.506 0.521 0.539
Shell-to-bundle leakage (C) 0.109 0.113 0.116 0.118 0.121
Shell-to-baffle leakage (E) 0.24 0.225 0.215 0.207 0.196
Pass-partition bypass stream (F) 0 0 0 0 0
Overall shellside heat-transfer 62 64.7 66.4 67.9 69.7
efficiency, %
Temperature profile distortion factor 0.6 0.692 0.735 0.766 0.794
Shellside velocity, m/s 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.12
Shellside heat-transfer coefficient, 614 570 562 550 512
kcal/h•m2•°C
Shellside pressure drop, kg/cm2 0.034 0.029 0.027 0.026 0.023
Overall heat-transfer coefficient,
kcal/h•m2•°C 380 362 359 354 338
Mean temperature difference, °C 13.73 15.9 16.87 17.58 18.22
Overdesign, % –21.1 –12.8 –8.26 –5.73 –6.61

Example 4: Temperature
distortion and baffle spacing
Consider an existing naphtha
cooler in a refinery and petrochemi-
ESEDA
cal complex. The process parameters
are listed in Table 9, and the con-
struction parameters in Table 10.
The existing design was undersur-
faced by 21%, mainly because the
temperature profile distortion factor
was 0.6, which is lower than the
minimum recommended value of
0.75. The existing design had a baf-
fle spacing of 140 mm and a baffle
cut of 21% (of the diameter). The
shell-to-baffle leakage stream frac-
tion was 0.24.
To improve the design, the baffle
spacing was progressively increased.
The undersurfacing decreased with
increasing baffle spacing, up to a
spacing of 190 mm; thereafter, per-
formance again started to deteriorate.
Thus, 190 mm is the optimum baffle
spacing.
The detailed results of the vari-
ous iterations are compared in
Table 11. CEP
R. MUKHERJEE is assistant chief consultant in
the Heat and Mass Transfer Dept. of Engineers
India Ltd., New Delhi (011-91-11-371-6171;
Fax: 011-91-11-371-5059l; e-mail:
shilpi@giasdla.vsnl.net.in), where he has
been employed since 1971. He has over 26
years of experience in the design, revamping,
and troubleshooting of air-cooled and shell-
and-tube heat exchangers (especially for oil
refineries, gas processing plants, and
petrochemical plants), and also has
considerable experience in heat-exchanger-
network synthesis and optimization. He has
written several articles in technical journals
and has presented two papers in the Industrial
Session of the 10th International Heat Transfer
Conference at Brighton in August 1994.
He has served as faculty for several courses in
heat exchanger design, energy conservation,
and heat exchanger network optimization.
He is an honors graduate in chemical
engineering from Jadavpur Univ., Calcutta,
and is a member of the Indian Institute of
Chemical Engineers and the Indian Society
for Heat and Mass Transfer.
Acknowledgment
The author is grateful to the management of
Engineers India, Ltd., for permission to publish
this article and acknowledges the use of Heat
Transfer Research, Inc.’s software for the
worked-out examples and their design
methodology.
Literature Cited
1. Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association, “Standards of the Tubular
Exchanger Manufacturers Associa-
tion,” 7th ed., TEMA, New York
(1988).
2. Mukherjee, R., “Don’t Let Baffling
Baffle You,” Chem. Eng. Progress, 92
(4), pp. 72–79 (Apr. 1996).
3. Mukherjee, R., “Use Double-Segmen-
tal Baffles in Shell-and-Tube Heat Ex-
changers,” Chem. Eng. Progress, 88
(11), pp. 47–52 (Nov. 1992).
4. Tinker, T., “Shellside Characteristics of
Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers: A
Simplified Rating System for Commer-
cial Heat Exchangers,” Trans. ASME,
80, pp. 36–52 (1958).
Further Reading
Kakac, S., et al., “Heat Exchangers: Ther-
mal-Hydraulic Fundamentals and De-
sign,” Hemisphere Publishing Corp.,
New York (1981).
Schlunder, E.V., et al., eds., “Heat Ex-
changer Design Handbook,” Hemi-
sphere Publishing Corp., New York
(1983).
SECTION 1 HEAT EXCHANGER NOMENCLATURE

FIGURE N-1.2

R6M END REAR Em)

lw€s
RATIONMY HEM TYPES
- Y l E U m
-p
HEIO

c-r--ra

E L
A ONE PASS SHEU
FIXED NBESHER
LIKE "A" STATIONARY HEAD

CHANNEL
AND REMOVABLE COVER F

--
FIXED TUBEWEET
TWO P A S SHELL LIKE "B" STATIONARY H U D
WITH LONGITUDINAL BAFFLE

B ------- -----
G
I, I A
cz ;, FIXED TUBESHER
LIKE 'W STATIONARY H U D
BONNET (INTEGRAL COVER) SPLIT FLOW
2

P
OUTSIDE PACKED FLOATING H U D

ESEDA
DOUBLE SPLIT FLOW
QU

CHANNEL INTKiRAL WITH TUBE-

S
SHEET A N D REMOVABLE COVER
J FLOATING HEAD
WlTH BACKING DEVICE

DIVIDED FLOW

N
PULL THROUGH FLOATING HEAD

CHANNEL INTEGRAL WlTH TUBE-

SHEET AND REMOVABLE COVER

KEnLE TYPE REBOILER

U
U-TUBE BUNDLE

c;r-7-1
D
W
SPECIAL HIGH PRESSURE CLOSURE CROSS FLOW EXTERNALLY SEALED
FLOATING TUBESHE€1

@TubularExchanger ManufacturersAssociation, Inc.

 HEAT EXCHANGER NOMENCLATURE SECTION 1

N-2 NOMENCLATURE OF HEAT EXCHANGER COMPONENTS I

For the purpose of establishing standard terminology, Figure N-2 illustrates various types of heat
exchangers. Typical parts and connections, for illustrative purposes only, are numbered for identificationin
I
Table N-2.
TABLE N-2

1. Stationary Head-Channel 21. Floating Head Cover-External 1

2. Stationary Head-Bonnet 22. FloatingTubesheet Skirt
3. Stationary Head Flange-Channel or Bonnet 23. Packing Box
4. Channel Cover 24. Packing I
5. Stationary Head Nozzle 25. Packing Gland
6. Stationary Tubesheet 26. Lantern Ring
7. Tubes 27. Tierods and Spacers
8. Shell 28. Transverse Baffles or Support Plates
9. Shell Cover 29. Impingement Plate
10. Shell Flange-StationaryHead End 30. Longitudinal Baffle
11. Shell Flange-Rear Head End 31. Pass Patiion
12. Shell N o d e 32. Vent Connection
13. Shell Cover Flange 33. Drain Connection
14. ExpansionJoint 34. Instrument Connection
15. Floating Tubesheet 35. Support Saddle
16. Floating Head Cover 36. Lifting Lug
17. Floating Head Cover Flange 37. Support Bracket
18. Floating Head Backing Device 38. Weir
19. Split Shear Ring 39. Liquid Level Connection

ESEDA
20. Slip-on Backing Flange 40. Floating Head Support

FIGURE N-2

AES

@TubularExchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc. 1-3

SECTION 1 HEAT EXCHANGER NOMENCLATURE

FIGURE N-2 (continued)

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 HEAT EXCHANGER NOMENCLATURE SECTION 1

FIGURE N-2 (continued)

AKT

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AJW

@TubularExchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc. 1-5

 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-1 SCOPE AND GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

RCB-1.1 SCOPE OF STANDARDS
RCB-1.11 GENERAL
The TEMA Mechanical Standards are applicable to shell and tube heat exchangers which
do not exceed any of the following criteria:
(1) inside diameters of 100 in. (2540 mm)
(2) product of nominal diameter, in. (mm) and design pressure, psi (kPa) of 100,000
(17.5 x 106)
I
(3) a design pressure of 3,000 psi (20684 kPa)
The intent of these parameters is to limit the maximum shell wall thickness to approximately
3 in. (76 mm), and the maximum stud diameter to approximately 4 in. (102 mm). Criteria
contained in these Standards may be applied to units which exceed the above parameters.
R-1.I2 DEFINITION OF TEMA CLASS "R" EXCHANGERS
The TEMA Mechanical Standards for Class "Fluheat exchangers specify design and
fabrication of unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for the generally severe requirements
of petroleum and related processing applications.
C-1.12 DEFINITION OF TEMA CLASS "C' EXCHANGERS
The TEMA Mechanical Standards for Class "Cuheat exchangers specify design and
fabrication of unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for the generally moderate
requirements of commercial and general process applications.
8-1.12 DEFINITION OF TEMA CLASS "B" EXCHANGERS
The TEMA Mechanical Standards for Class TIB" heat exchangers specify design and

ESEDA
fabrication of unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for chemical process service.
RCB-1.13 CONSTRUCTION CODES
The individual vessels shall comply with the ASME (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, hereinafter referred
to as the Code. These Standards supplement and define the Code for heat exchanger
applications. The manufacturer shall comply with the construction requirements of state
and local codes when the purchaser specifies the plant location. It shall be the
responsibility of the purchaser to inform the manufacturer of any applicable local codes.
Application of the Code symbol is required, unless otherwise specified by the purchaser.
RCB-1.14 MATERIALS-DEFINITION OF TERMS
For purposes of these Standards, "carbon steel" shall be construed as any steel or low
alloy falling within the scope of Part UCS of the Code. Metals not included by the foregoing
(except cast iron) shall be considered as "alloys" unless otherwise specifically named.
Materials of construction, including gaskets, should be specified by the purchaser. The
manufacturer assumes no responsibility for deterioration of parts for any reason.
RCB-1.2 DESIGN PRESSURE
RCB-1.21 DESIGN PRESSURE
Design pressures for the shell and tube sides shall be specified separately by the
purchaser.
RCB-1.3 TESTING
RCB-1.31 STANDARD TEST
The exchanger shall be hydrostatically tested with water. The test pressure shall be held
for at least 30 minutes. The shell side and the tube side are to be tested separately in such
a manner that leaks at the tube joints can be detected from at least one side. When the
tube side design pressure is the higher pressure, the tube bundle shall be tested outside of
the shell only if specified by the purchaser and the construction permits. Welded joints are
to be sufficiently cleaned prior to testing the exchanger to permit proper inspection during
SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

the test. The minimum hydrostatic test pressure at room temperature shall be in
accordance with the Code.
RCB-1.311 OTHER LIQUID TESTS
Liquids other than water may be used as a testing medium if agreed upon between the
purchaser and the manufacturer.
RCB-1.32 PNEUMATIC TEST
When liquid cannot be tolerated as a test medium the exchanger may be given a
pneumatic test in accordance with the Code. It must be recognized that air or gas is
hazardous when used as a pressure testing medium. The pneumatic test pressure at room
temperature shall be in accordance with the Code.
RCB-1.33 SUPPLEMENTARY AIR TEST
When a supplementary air or gas test is specified by the purchaser, it shall be preceded by
the hydrostatic test required by Paragraph RCB-1.31. The test pressure shall be as agreed
upon by the purchaser and manufacturer, but shall not exceed that required by Paragraph
RCB-1.32.
RCB-1.4 METAL TEMPERATURES
RCB-1.41 METAL TEMPERATURE LIMITATIONS FOR PRESSURE PARTS
The metal temperature limitations for various metals are those prescribed by the Code.
RCB-1.42 DESIGN TEMPERATURE OF HEAT EXCHANGER PARTS
RCB-1.421 FOR PARTS NOT IN CONTACT WlTH BOTH FLUIDS
Design temperatures for the shell and tube sides shall be specified separately by the
purchaser. The Code provides the allowable stress limits for parts to be designed at

ESEDA
the specified design temperature.
RCB-1.422 FOR PARTS IN CONTACT WlTH BOTH FLUIDS
The design temperature is the design metal temperature and is used to establish the
Code stress limits for design. The design metal temperature shall be based on the
operating temperatures of the shellside and the tubeside fluids, except when the
purchaser specifies some other design metal temperature. When the design metal
temperature is less than the higher of the design temperatures referred to in Paragraph
RCB-1.421, the design metal temperature and the affected parts shall be shown on the
manufacturer's narneplate(s) as described in Paragraph G-3.1.
RCB-1.43 MEAN METAL TEMPERATURES
RCE1.431 FOR PARTS NOT IN CONTACT WlTH BOTH FLUIDS
The mean metal temperature is the calculated metal temperature, under specified
operating conditions, of a part in contact with a fluid. It is used to establish metal
properties under operating conditions. The mean metal temperature is based on the
specified operating temperatures of the fluid in contact with the part.
RCB-1.432 FOR PARTS IN CONTACT WlTH BOTH FLUIDS
The mean metal temperature is the calculated metal temperature, under specified
operating conditions, of a part in contact with both shellside and tubeside fluids. It is
used to establish metal properties under operating conditions. The mean metal
temperature is based on the specified operating temperatures of the shellside and
tubeside fluids. In establishing the mean metal temperatures, due consideration shall
be given to such factors as the relative heat transfer coefficients of the two fluids
contacting the part and the relative heat transfer area of the parts contacted by the two
fluids.
RCB-1.5 STANDARD CORROSION ALLOWANCES
The standard corrosion allowances used for the various heat exchanger parts are as follows,
unless the conditions of service make a different allowance more suitable and such allowance is
specified by the purchaser.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-1.51 CARBON STEEL PARTS

R-1.511 PRESSURE PARTS
All carbon steel pressure parts, except as noted below, are to have a corrosion
allowance of 1/8"(3.2 mm).
CB-1.511 PRESSURE PARTS
All carbon steel pressure parts, except as noted below, are to have a corrosion
allowance of 1116" (1.6 mm).
RCB-1.512 INTERNAL FLOATING HEAD COVERS
Internalfloating head covers are to have the corrosion allowance on all wetted surfaces
except gasket seating surfaces. Corrosion allowance on the outside of the flanged
portion may be included in the recommended minimum edge distance.
RCB-1.513 TUBESHEETS
Tubesheets are to have the corrosion allowance on each side with the provision that, on
the grooved side of a grooved tubesheet, the depth of the gasketed groove may be
considered as available for corrosion allowance.
RCB-1.514 EXTERNAL COVERS
Where flat external covers are grooved, the depth of the gasketed groove may be
considered as available for corrosion allowance.
RCB-1.515 END FLANGES
Corrosion allowance shall be applied only to the inside diameter of flanges where
exposed to the fluids.
RCB-1.516 NONPRESSURE PARTS

ESEDA
Nonpressure parts such as tie-rods, spacers, baffles and support plates are not
required to have corrosion allowance.
RCB-1.517 TUBES, BOLTING AND FLOATING HEAD BACKING DEVICES
Tubes, bolting and floating head backing devices are not required to have corrosion
allowance.
RCB-1.518 PASS PARTITION PLATES AND WELDED-IN LONG BAFFLES
Pass partition plates and welded-in long baffles are not required to have corrosion
allowance.
RCB-1.52 ALLOY PARTS
Alloy parts are not required to have corrosion allowance.
R-1.53 CAST IRON PARTS
Cast iron pressure parts shall have a corrosion allowance of 1/8"(3.2 mm).
CB-1.53 CAST IRON PARTS
Cast iron pressure parts shall have a corrosion allowance of 1/16" (1.6 mm).
RCB-1.6 SERVICE LIMITATIONS
RB-1.61 CAST IRON PARTS
Cast iron shall be used only for water service at pressures not exceeding 150 psi (1034
kPa).
C-1.61 CAST IRON PARTS
Cast iron shall not be used for pressures exceeding 150 psi (1034 kPa), or for lethal or
flammable fluids at any pressure.
RCB-1.62 EXTERNAL PACKED JOINTS
Packedjoints shall not be used when the purchaser specifies that the fluid in contact with
the joint is lethal or flammable.

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

RCB-1.7 ANODES
Selection and placement of anodes is not the responsibility of the heat exchanger manufacturer. If
a heat exchanger is to be furnished with anodes, when requesting a quotation, the purchaser is
responsible for furnishing the heat exchanger manufacturer the following information:
(1) Method of anode attachment.
(2) Quantity of anodes required.
(3) Size and manufacturer of the anodes.
(4) Anode material.
(5) Sketch of anode locations and spacing.
If the heat exchanger manufacturer chooses to install anodes for a customer, the manufacturer is
not responsiblefor the suitability of the anodes for the service it is installed in, the life of the
anodes, the corrosion protection provided by the anode, or any subsequent damage to the heat
exchanger attributed to the anode, the method of anode installation, or the installed location of the
anode in the heat exchanger.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

*RCB-2 TUBES
RCBQ.l TUBE LENGTH
The following tube lengths for both straight and U-tube exchangers are commonly used: 96 (2438),
120 (3048), 144 (3658), 192 (4877) and 240 (6096) in. (mm). Other lengths may be used. Also
see Paragraph N-1.12.
RCB-2.2 TUBE DIAMETERS AND GAGES
RCB-2.21 BARE TUBES
Table RCB-2.21 lists common tube diameters and gages for bare tubes of copper, steel
and alloy. Other diameters and gages are acceptable.
TABLE RCB-2.21
BARE TUBE DIAMETERS AND GAGES
O.D. Copper and Copper Alloys Carbon Steel, Aluminum and Other Alloys
In. Aluminum Alloys
(mm)
B.W.G. B.W.G. B.W.G.
114 27 - 27
(6.4) 24 24
22 22
318 22 22
(9.5) 20 20
18 18
1I2 20 20

ESEDA
(12.7) 18 18
518 20 18 20
(15.9) 18 16 18
16 14 16
314 20 16 18
(19.1) 18 14 16
16 12 14
718 18 14 16
(22.2) 16 12 14
14 10 12
12
1 18 14 16
(25.4) 16 12 14
14 12
1-114 16 14 14
(31.8) 14 12 12
1-112 16 14 14
(38.1) 14 12 12
2 14 14 14
(50.8) 12 12 12
Notes:
1. Wall thickness shall be specified as either minimum or average.
2. Characteristics of tubing are shown in Tables 0-7 and D-7M.
RCB-2.22 INTEGRALLY FINNED TUBES
The nominal fin diameter shall not exceed the outside diameter of the unfinned section.
Specified wall shall be based on the thickness at the root diameter.

@TubularExchanger ManufacturersAssociation, Inc. 5.2-1

SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

RCB-2.3 U-TUBES
RCB-2.31 U-BEND REQUIREMENTS
When U-bends are formed, it is normal for the tube wall at the outer radius to thin. The
minimum tube wall thickness in the bent portion before bending shall be:

where
to = Required tube wall thickness prior to bending, in. (mm)

t, = Minimum tube wall thickness calculated by Code rules for a straight tube subjected
to the same pressure and metal temperature, in. (mm)
do = Outside tube diameter, in. (mm)
R = Mean radius of bend, in. (mm)
More than one tube gage, or dual gage tubes, may be used in a tube bundle.
When U-bends are formed from tube materials which are relatively non-work-hardening
and of suitable temper, tube wall thinning in the bends should not exceed a nominal 17% of
original tube wall thickness.
Flattening at the bend shall not exceed 10% of the nominal tube outside diameter.
U-bends formed from tube materials having low ductility, or materials which are susceptible
to work-hardening, may require special consideration. Also refer to Paragraph RCB-2.33.
RCB-2.32 BEND SPACING
RCB-2.321 CENTER-TO-CENTER DIMENSION

ESEDA
The center-to-center dimensions between parallel legs of U-tubes shall be such that
they can be inserted into the baffle assembly without damage to the tubes.
RCB-2.322 BEND INTERFERENCE
The assembly of bends shall be of workmanlike appearance. Metal-to-metal contact
between bends in the same plane shall not be permitted.
RCB-2.33 HEAT TREATMENT
Cold work in forming U-bends may induce embrifflement or susceptibility to stress corrosion
in certain materials andlor environments. Heat treatment to alleviate such conditions may
be performed by agreement between manufacturer and purchaser.
RCB-2.4 TUBE PATTERN
Standard tube patterns are shown in Figure RCB-2.4.
FIGURE RCB-2.4

Triangular Rotated Square

Triangular Rotated
Square
Note: Flow arrows are perpendicular to the baffle cut edge.
RCB-2.41 SQUARE PATTERN
In removable bundle units, when mechanical cleaning of the tubes is specified by the
purchaser, tube lanes should be continuous.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-2.42 TRIANGULAR PAlTERN

Triangular or rotated triangular pattern should not be used when the shell side is to be
cleaned mechanically.
R-2.5 TUBE PITCH
Tubes shall be spaced with a minimum center-to-center distance of 1.25 times the outside diameter
of the tube. When mechanical cleaning of the tubes is specified by the purchaser, minimum
cleaning lanes of 1/4" (6.4 mm) shall be provided.
C-2.5 TUBE PITCH
Tubes shall be spaced with a minimum center-to-center distance of 1.25 times the outside diameter
of the tube. Where the tube diameters are 5/8"(15.9 mm) or less and tube-to-tubesheet joints are
expanded only, the minimum center-to-center distance may be reduced to 1.20 times the outside
diameter.
8-2.5 TUBE PITCH
Tubes shall be spaced with a minimum center-to-center distance of 1.25 times the outside diameter
of the tube. When mechanical cleaning of the tubes is specified by the purchaser and the nominal
shell diameter is 12 in. (305 mm) or less, minimum cleaning lanes of 3/16" (4.8 mm) shall be
provided. For shell diameters greater than 12 in. (305 mm), minimum cleaning lanes of 114" (6.4
mm) shall be provided.

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C 6

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-3 SHELLS AND SHELL COVERS

RCB9.1 SHELLS
RCB9.11 SHELL DIAMETERS
It shall be left to the discretion of each manufacturer to establish a system of standard shell
diameters within the TEMA Mechanical Standards in order to achieve the economies
peculiar to his individual design and manufacturingfacilities.
RCB-3.12 TOLERANCES
RCB-3.121 PIPE SHELLS
The inside diameter of pipe shells shall be in accordance with applicable ASTMIASME
pipe specifications.
RCB-3.122 PLATE SHELLS
The inside diameter of any plate shell shall not exceed the design inside diameter by
more than 118" (3.2 mm) as determined by circumferential measurement.
RCB3.13 MINIMUM SHELL THICKNESS
Shell thickness is determined by the Code design formulas, plus corrosion allowance, but
in no case shall the nominal thickness of shells be less than that shown in the applicable
table. The nominal total thickness for clad shells shall be the same as for carbon steel
shells. 1
TABLE R-3.13
MINIMUM SHELL THICKNESS
I
Dimensions in Inches (mm)
Minimum Thickness

~
Nominal Shell Diameter Carbon Steel Alloy *

ESEDA
Pipe Plate
6 (152) SCH. 40 1I 8 (3.2)
8-12 (203-305) SCH. 30 118 (3-2)
13-29 (330-737) SCH. STD 318 (9.5) 3116 (4.8)
30-39 (762-991) 7/16 (11.1) 114 (6-4)
40-60 (1016-1524) 112 (12.7) 5116 (7.9)

~
61-80 (1549-2032) 112 (12.7) 5116 (7.9)
81-100 (2057-2540) 112 (12.7) . 318 (9.5)

TABLE CB-3.13
MINIMUM SHELL THICKNESS
Dimensions in Inches (mm)
Minimum Thickness
Nominal Shell Diameter Carbon Steel Alloy *
Pipe Plate
6 (152) SCH. 40 1I8 (3.2)
8-12 (203-205) SCH. 30 1I 8 (3-2)
13-23 (330-584) SCH. 20 5/16 (7.9) 118 (3-2)
24-29 (610-737) 5/16 (7.9) 3116 (4.8)
30-39 (762-991) 318 (9.5) 114 (6.4)
40-60 (1016-1524) 7/16 (11.1) 114 ('3.4)
61-80 (1549-2032) 112 (12.7) 5116 (7-9)
81-100 (2057-2540) 112 (12.7) 318 (9.5)

*Schedule 5s is permissible for 6 inch (152 mm) and 8 inch (203 mm) shell diameters.
RCB-3.2 SHELL COVER THICKNESS
Nominal thickness of shell cover heads, before forming, shall be at least equal to the thickness of
the shell as shown in the applicable table.

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R c B

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-4 BAFFLES AND SUPPORT PLATES

RCB-4.1 TYPE OF TRANSVERSE BAFFLES
The segmental or multi-segmentaltype of baffle or tube support plate is standard. Other type
baffles are permissible. Baffle cut is defined as the segment opening height expressed as a
percentage of the shell inside diameter or as a percentage of the total net free area inside the shell
(shell cross sectional area minus total tube area). The number of tube rows that overlap for multi-
segmental baffles should be adjusted to give approximately the same net free area flow through
each baffle. Baffles shall be cut near the centerline of a row of tubes, of a pass lane, of a tube lane,
or outside the tube pattern. Baffles shall have a workmanlike finish on the outside diameter.
Typical baffle cuts are illustrated in Figure RCB-4.1. Baffle cuts may be vertical, horizontal or
rotated.
FIGURE RCB4.1
BAFFLE CUTS FOR SEGMENTAL BAFFLES

cw3e Horizontal Vertical Rotated

a+>
BAFFLE CUTS FOR MULTI-SEGMENTAL BAFFLES

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8

DOUBLE SEGMENTAL

@ I III ::I

RCB-4.2 TUBE HOLES

#+ TRIPLE SEGMENTAL
48-Q
Where the maximum unsupported tube length is 36 in. (914 mm) or less, or for tubes larger in
diameter than 1-114 in. (31.8 mm) OD, standard tube holes are to be 1/32 inch (0.8 mm) over the
OD of the tubes. Where the unsupportedtube length exceeds 36 in. (914 mm) for tubes 1-114 in.
(31.8 mm) diameter and smaller, standard tube holes are to be 1/64 inch (0.4 mm) over the OD of
the tubes. For pulsating conditions, tube holes may be smaller than standard. Any burrs shall be
removed and the tube holes given a workmanlike finish. Baffle holes will have an over-tolerance of
0.010 inch (0.3 mm) except that 4% of the holes are allowed an over-tolerance of 0.015 inch (0.4
mm).
RCB-4.3 TRANSVERSE BAFFLE AND SUPPORT CLEARANCE
The transverse baffle and support plate clearance shall be such that the difference between the
shell design inside diameter and the outside diameter of the baffle shall not exceed that indicated in
Table RCB-4.3. However, where such clearance has no significant effect on shell side heat
transfer coefficient or mean temperature difference, these maximum clearances may be increased
to twice the tabulated values. (See Paragraph RCB-4.43.)

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

TABLE RCB-4.3
Standard Cross Baffle and Support Plate Clearances
Dimensions In Inches (mm) ,
Nominal Shell ID Design ID of Shell Minus Baffle OD
6-17 (152-432) 118 (3.2)
18-39 (457-991) 3/16 (4.8)
40-54 (1016-1372) 114 (6.4)
55-69 (1397-1753) 5/16 (7.9)
70-84 (1778-2134) 318 (9.5)
85-100 (2159-2540) 7/16 (11.1)

The design inside diameter of a pipe shell is defined as the nominal outside diameter of the pipe,
minus twice the nominal wall thickness. The design inside diameter of a plate shell is the specified
inside diameter. In any case, the design inside diameter may be taken as the actual measured
shell inside diameter.
RCB-4.4 THICKNESS OF BAFFLES AND SUPPORT PLATES
RCB-4.41 TRANSVERSE BAFFLES AND SUPPORT PLATES
The following tables show the minimum thickness of transverse baffles and support plates
applying to all materials for various shell diameters and plate spacings.
The thickness of the baffle or support plates for U-tube bundles shall be based on the
unsupported tube length in the straight section of the bundle. The U-bend length shall not
be considered in determining the unsupported tube length for required plate thickness.
TABLE R-4.41

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BAFFLE OR SUPPORT PLATE THICKNESS
Dimensioris in Inches (mm)
Plate Thickness
Nominal Shell ID Unsupported tube length between central baffles. End spaces between tubesheets
and baffles are not a consideration.
24 (610) and Over 24 (610) Over 36 (914) Over 48 (1219) Over 60
Under to 36 (914) to 48 (1219) to 60 (1524) (1524)
Inclusive Inclusive Inclusive
6-14 (152-356) 118 (3.2) 3/16 (4.8) 114 (6.4) 318 (9.5) 318 (9.5)
15-28 (381-711) 3/16 (4.8) 114 (6.4) 318 (9.5) 318 (9.5) 112 (12.7)
29-38 (737-965) 114 (6.4) 5/16 (7.5) 318 (9.5) 112 (12.7) 518 (15.9)
39-60 (991-1524) 114 (6.4) 318 (9.5) 112 (12.7) 518 (15.9) 518 (15.9)
61-100 (1549-2540) 318 (9.5) 112 (12.7) 518 (15.9) 314 (19.1) 314 (19.1)

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C 6 SECTION 5

TABLE CB-4.41
BAFFLE OR SUPPORT PLATE THICKNESS
Dimensions in Inches(mm)
Plate Thickness
Nominal Shell ID Unsupportedtube length between central baffles. End spaces between
tubesheets and baffles are not a consideration. I

12 (305) Over 12 (305) Over 24 (610) Over 36 Over 48 Over 60

and Under to 24 (610) to 36 (914) (914) to 48 (1219) to 60 (1524)
Inclusive Inclusive (1219) (1524)
lnclusive lnclusive
6-14 (152-356) 1/16 (1.6) 118 (3.2) 3/16 (4.8) 114 (6.4) 318 (9.5) 318 (9.5)
15-28 (381-711) 118 (3.2) 3/16 (4.8) 114 (6.4) 318 (9.5) 318 (9.5) 112 (12.7)
29-38 (737-965) 3/16 (4.8) 114 (6.4) 5/16 (7.5) 318 (9.5) 112 (12.7) 518 (15.9)
39-60 (991-1524) 114 (6.4) 114 (6.4) 318 (9.5) 112 (12.7) 518 (15.9) 518 (15.9)
61-100 (1549-2540) 114 (6.4) 318 (9.5) 112 (12.7) 518 (12.7) 314 (19.1) 314 (19.1)

R-4.42 LONGITUDINAL BAFFLES

R-4.421 LONGITUDINAL BAFFLES WITH LEAF SEALS
Longitudinal baffles with leaf (or other type) seals shall not be less than 114" (6.4 mm)
nominal metal thickness.
R-4.422 WELDED-IN LONGITUDINALBAFFLES
The thickness of longitudinal baffles that are welded to the shell cylinder shall not be
less than the thicker of %" (6.4mm) or the thickness calculated using the following

ESEDA
formula:

l = 1.5s
q/z
where
t = Minimum baffle plate thickness, in. (mm)
B = Table value as shown in Table RCB-9.132 (linear interpolation may be used)
q = Maximum pressure drop across baffle, psi (kPA)
S= Code allowable stress in tension, at design temperature, psi (kPa)
b = Plate dimension. See Table RCB-9.132, in. (mm)
a = Plate dimension. See Table RCB-9.132, in. (mm)

The designer shall consider the effects of pressure drop and unsupported span and
perform a calculation for the portion of the long baffle that will require the greatest
thickness. The longitudinal baffle shall be considered fixed along the two sides where it
is welded to the shell cylinder. It shall be considered simply supported along the sides
where it is supported by the tubesheet groove or transverse baffle.
R-4.423 LONGITUDINAL BAFFLE WELD SIZE
Welded-in longitudinal baffles shall be attached with fillet welds on each side with a
minimum leg of ?4t from Paragraph R-4.422. Other types of attachments are allowed
but shall be of equivalent strength.
CB-4.42 LONGITUDINAL BAFFLES
CB4.421 LONGITUDINAL BAFFLES WITH LEAF SEALS
Longitudinal carbon steel baffles with leaf (or other type) seals shall not be less than
114" (6.4 mm) nominal metal thickness.

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

CB4.422 WELDED-IN LONGITUDINALBAFFLES

The thickness of longitudinalbaffles that are welded to the shell cylinder shall be
determined as shown in Paragraph R-4.422.
CB4.423 LONGITUDINALBAFFLE WELD SIZE
Welded-in longitudinal baffles shall be attached with fillet welds on each side with a
minimum leg of ?4 t from Paragraph CB-4.422. Other types of attachments are allowed
but shall be of equivalent strength.
RCB-4.43 SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS
Special consideration should be given to:
(I) Baffles and support plates subjected to pulsations.
(2) Baffles and support plates engaging finned tubes.
(3) Longitudinal baffles subjected to large differential pressures due to high shell side fluid
pressure drop.
(4) Support of tube bundles when larger clearances allowed by RCB-4.3 are used.
RCB4.5 SPACING OF BAFFLES AND SUPPORT PLATES
RCB4.51 MINIMUM SPACING
Segmental baffles normally should not be spaced closer than 115 of the shell ID or 2 in. (51
mm), whichever is greater. However, special design considerations may dictate a closer
spacing.
RCB-4.52 MAXIMUM SPACING
Tube support plates shall be so spaced that the unsupportedtube span does not exceed
the value indicated in Table RCB-4.52 for the tube material used.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

TABLE RCB-4.52
MAXIMUM UNSUPPORTED STRAIGHT TUBE SPANS
Dimensions in Inches (mm)
Tube Materials and Temperature Limits " F ( " C)
Tube OD Carbon Steel & High Alloy Steel, 750 Aluminum &Aluminum Alloys, Copper &
(399) Copper Alloys, Titanium Alloys At Code
Low Alloy Steel, 850 (454) Maximum Allowable Temperature I
Nickel-Copper, 600 (316)
Nickel, 850 (454)
Nickel-Chromium-Iron, 1000 (538)
114 (6.4) 26 (660) 22 (559)
318 (9.5) 35 (889) 30 (762)
112 (12.7) 44 (1118) 38 (965)
518 (15.9) 52 (1321) 45 (1143)
314 (19.1) 60 (1524) 52 (1321)
7/8 (22.2) 69 (1753) 60 (1524)
1 (25.4) 74 (1880) 64 (1626)
1-114 (31.8) 88 (2235) 76 (1930)
1-112 (38.1) 100 (2540) 87 (2210)
2 (50.8) 125 (3175) 110 (2794)
2-112 (63.5) 125 (3175) 110 (2794)
3 (76.2) 125 (3175) 110 (2794)

ESEDA
Notes:
(1) Above the metal temperature limits shown, maximum spans shall be reduced in direct
proportion to the fourth root of the ratio of elastic modulus at design temperature to
elastic modulus at tabulated limit temperature.
(2) In the case of circumferentially finned tubes, the tube OD shall be the diameter at the
root of the fins and the correspondingtabulated or interpolated span shall be reduced
in direct proportion to the fourth root of the ratio of the weight per unit length of the
tube, if stripped of fins to that of the actual finned tube.
(3) The maximum unsupported tube spans in Table RCB-4.52 do not consider potential
flow induced vibration problems. Refer to Section 6 for vibration criteria.
RCB-4.53 BAFFLE SPACING
Baffles normally shall be spaced uniformly, spanning the effective tube length. When this
is not possible, the baffles nearest the ends of the shell, andlor tubesheets, shall be located
as close as practical to the shell nozzles. The remaining baffles normally shall be spaced
uniformly.
RCB4.54 U-TUBE REAR SUPPORT
The support plates or baffles adjacent to the bends in U-tube exchangers shall be so
located that, for any individual bend, the sum of the bend diameter plus the straight lengths
measured along both legs from supports to bend tangents does not exceed the maximum
unsupported span determined from Paragraph RCB-4.52. Where bend diameters prevent
compliance, special provisions in addition to the above shall be made for support of the
bends.
RCB4.55 SPECIAL CASES
When pulsating conditions are specified by the purchaser, unsupported spans shall be as
short as pressure drop restrictions permit. If the span under these circumstances
approaches the maximum permitted by Paragraph RCB-4.52, consideration should be
given to alternative flow arrangements which would permit shorter spans under the same
pressure drop restrictions.

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

RCB4.56 TUBE BUNDLE VIBRATION

Shell side flow may produce excitation forces which result in destructive tube vibrations.
Existing predictive correlations are inadequate to insure that any given design will be free
of such damage. The vulnerability of an exchanger to flow induced vibration depends on
the flow rate, tube and baffle materials, unsupported tube spans, tube field layout, shell
diameter, and inletloutlet configuration. Section 6 of these Standards contains information
which is intended to alert the designer to potential vibration problems. In any case, and
consistent with Paragraph G-5, the manufacturer is not responsible or liable for any direct,
indirect, or consequential damages resulting from vibration.
RCB-4.6 IMPINGEMENT BAFFLES AND EROSION PROTECTION
The following paragraphs provide limitationsto prevent or minimize erosion of tube bundle
components at the entrance and exit areas. These limitations have no correlation to tube vibration
and the designer should refer to Section 6 for information regarding this phenomenon.
RCB-4.61 SHELL SlDE IMPINGEMENT PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS
An impingement plate, or other means to protect the tube bundle against impinging fluids,
shall be provided when entrance line values of p~ exceed the following: non-abrasive,
single phase fluids, 1500 (2232); all other liquids, including a liquid at its boiling point, 500
(744). For all other gases and vapors, including all nominally saturated vapors, and for
liquid vapor mixtures, impingement protection is required. V is the linear velocity of the fluid
in feet per second (meters per second) and p is its density in pounds per cubic foot
(kilograms per cubic meter). A properly designed diffuser may be used to reduce line
velocities at shell entrance.
qCB-4.62 SHELL OR BUNDLE ENTRANCEAND EXIT AREAS
In no case shall the shell or bundle entrance or exit area produce a value of p v in excess

ESEDA
of 4,000 (5953) where V is the linear velocity of the fluid in feet per second (meters per
second) and p is its density in pounds per cubic foot (kilograms per cubic meter).
qCB-4.621 SHELL ENTRANCE OR EXIT AREA WITH IMPINGEMENT PLATE
When an impingement plate is provided, the flow area shall be considered the
unrestricted area between the inside diameter of the shell at the nozzle and the face of
the impingement plate.
*RCB-4.622 SHELL ENTRANCE OR EXIT AREA WITHOUT IMPINGEMENT PLATE
For determining the area available for flow at the entrance or exit of the shell where
there is no impingement plate, the flow area between the tubes within the projection of
the noule bore and the actual unrestricted radial flow area from under the nozzle or
dome measured between the tube bundle and shell inside diameter may be considered.
*RCB-4.623 BUNDLE ENTRANCE OR EXIT AREA WITH IMPINGEMENT PLATE
When an impingement plate is provided under a nozzle, the flow area shall be the
unrestricted area between the tubes within the compartments between baffles and/or
tubesheet.
*RCB-4.624 BUNDLE ENTRANCE OR EXIT AREA WITHOUT IMPINGEMENT PLATE
For determining the area available for flow at the entrance or exit of the tube bundle
where there is no impingement plate, the flow area between the tubes within the
compartments between baffles and/or tubesheet may be considered.
RCB-4.63 TUBE SlDE
Consideration shall be given to the need for special devices to prevent erosion of the tube
ends under the following conditions:
(1) Use of an axial inlet nozzle.
(2) Liquid p v 2 is in excess of 6000 (8928), where V is the linear velocity in feet per
second (meter per second), and p is its density in pounds per cubic foot (kilograms per
cubic meter).

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-4.7 TIE RODS AND SPACERS

Tie rods and spacers, or other equivalent means of tying the baffle system together, shall be
provided to retain all transverse baffles and tube support plates securely in position.
R4.71 NUMBER AND SlZE OF TIE RODS
Table R-4.71 shows suggested tie rod count and diameter for various sizes of heat
exchangers. Other combinations of tie rod number and diameter with equivalent metal area
are permissible; however, no fewer than four tie rods, and no diameter less than 318" (9.5
mm) shall be used. Any baffle segment requires a minimum of three points of support.
TABLE R4.71
TIE ROD STANDARDS
Dimensions in Inches (mm)
Nominal Tie Rod Minimum
Shell Diameter Diameter Number of Tie
Rods
6 - 15 (152-381) 318 (9.5) 4
16-27 (406-686) 318 (9.5) 6
28 - 33 (711-838) 112 (12.7) 6
34 - 48 (864-1219) 112 (12.7) 8
49 - 60 (1245-1524) 112 (12.7) 10
61 - 100 (1549-2540) 518 (15.9) 12

CB4.71 NUMBER AND SlZE OF TIE RODS

Table CB-4.71 shows suggested tie rod count and diameter for various sizes of heat
exchangers. Other combinations of tie rod number and diameter with equivalent metal

ESEDA
area are permissible; however, no fewer than four tie rods, and no diameter less than 318"
(9.5 mm) shall be used above 15 inch (381) nominal shell diameter. Any baffle segment
requires a minimum of three points of support.
TABLE CB4.71
TIE ROD STANDARDS
Dimensions in Inches (mm)
Nominal Tie Rod Minimum
Shell Diameter Diameter Number of Tie
Rods
6- 15 (152-381) 114 (6.4) 4
16-27 (406-686) 318 (9.5) 6
28 - 33 (711-838) 1P (12.7) 6
34 - 48 (864-1219) 112 (12.7) 8
49 - 60 (1245-1524) 112 (12.7) 10
61 - 100 (1549-2540) 518 (15.9) 12
RCB4.8 SEALING DEVICES
In addition to the baffles, sealing devices should be installed when necessary to prevent excessive
fluid by-passing around or through the tube bundle. Sealing devices may be seal strips, tie rods
with spacers, dummy tubes, or combinations of these.

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I
 SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

RCB-4.9 KETTLE TYPE REBOILERS

For kettle type reboilers, skid bars and a bundle hold-down may be provided. One method is
shown in Figure RCB-4.9. Other methods which satisfy the intent are acceptable. Bundle hold-
downs are not required for fixed tubesheet kettles.
FIGURE RCB-4.9

ESEDA
1 CROSS-SECTION END VIEW OF TUBE BUNDLE AND SHELL

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

TABLE RB-5.31
MAXIMUM DESIGN PRESSURE FOR EXTERNALLY SEALED
FLOATING TUBESHEETS
Nominal Shell Inside Diameter Maximum Design Pressure
Inches (mm) PSI (kPa)
6-24 (152-610) 300 (2068)
25 - 42 (635-1067) 150 (1034)
43 - 60 (1 092-1524) 75 (517)
61 - 100 (1549-2540) 50 (345)

C-5.31 LANTERN RING

The externally sealed floating tubesheet shall be used only for water, steam, air, lubricating
oil, or similar services. Design temperature, pressure and shell diameter shall be limited by
the service, joint configuration, packing material and number of packing rings, to a
maximum design pressure of 600 psi (4137 kPa).
RCB-5.32 LEAKAGE PRECAUTIONS
The design shall incorporate provisions in the lantern ring so that any leakage past the
packing will leak to atmosphere. When endless packing rings are used, one ring of packing
shall be used on each side of the lantern ring. For braided packing materials with a seam,
a minimum of two rings of packing shall be used on each side of the lantern ring, with the
seams staggered during assembly.
RCB-5.33 PACKING MATERIAL
Purchaser shall specify packing material which is compatible with the process conditions.

ESEDA
RCB-5.34 SPECIAL DESIGNS
Special designs incorporatingother sealing devices may be used for the applications in
Paragraph RB-5.31 and C-5.31 or other special service requirements. Provisions for leak
detection shall be considered.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

C-7.24 TUBE HOLE GROOVING

For design pressures over 300 psi (2068 kPa) and/or temperatures in excess of 350 OF (177 OC),
the tube holes for expanded joints for tubes 518" (15.9mm) OD and larger shall be machined with
annular ring groove(s) for additional longitudinal load resistance. For strength welded tube to
tubesheet joints, ring grooves are not required.
(1) For roller expanded tube joints, when tubesheet thickness exceeds 1" (25.4mm), at least two
grooves shall be used, each approximately 1/8" (3.2mm) wide by 1/64" (0.4mm) deep.
Tubesheets with thickness less than or equal to 1" (25.4mm) may be provided with one
groove.
(2) For hydraulic or explosive expanded tube joints, when tubesheet thickness exceeds
3" (76mm), at least two grooves shall be used. Minimum groove width shall be calculated as
w = 1.56fi where R = mean tube radius and t = tube wall thickness, except groove width
need not exceed 112" (12.7mm). Groove depth to be 1/64" (0.4mm). Tubesheets with
thickness less than or equal to 3" (76mm) may be provided with one groove.
When integrally clad or applied tubesheet facings are used, all grooves should be in the base
material unless otherwise specified by the purchaser. Other groove configurations may be used
based on the exchanger manufacturer's experience or the recommendationsof the expansion
equipment manufacturer.

I *RCB-7.3 TUBE-TO-TUBESHEET JOINTS

I RCB-7.31 EXPANDEDTUBE-TO-TUBESHEET JOINTS

I Expanded tube-to-tubesheetjoints are standard.

RB-7.311 LENGTH OF EXPANSION
Tubes shall be expanded into the tubesheet for a length no less than 2" (50.8 mm) or the

ESEDA
tubesheet thickness minus 118" (3.2 mm), whichever is smaller. In no case shall the
expanded portion extend beyond the shell side face of the tubesheet. When specified by
the purchaser, tubes may be expanded for the full thickness of the tubesheet.

I C-7.311 LENGTH OF EXPANSION

Tubes shall be expanded into the tubesheet for a length no less than two tube diameters,
2" (50.8 mm), or the tubesheet thickness minus 118" (3.2mm), whichever is smaller. In no
case shall the expanded portion extend beyond the shell side face of the tubesheet. When
specified by the purchaser, tubes may be expanded for the full thickness of the tubesheet.
I RCB-7.312 CONTOUR OF THE EXPANDED TUBE
The expanding procedure shall be such as to provide substantially uniform expansion
throughout the expanded portion of the tube, without a sharp transition to the unexpanded
portion.
RCB-7.313 TUBE PROJECTION -
Tubes shall be flush with or extend by no more than one half of a tube diameter beyond the
face of each tubesheet, except that tubes shall be flush with the top tubesheet in vertical
exchangers to facilitate drainage unless otherwise specified by the purchaser.

I RCB-7.32 WELDED TUBE-TO-TUBESHEET JOINTS

When both tubes and tubesheets, or tubesheet facing, are of suitable materials, the tube joints may
be welded.
I RCB-7.321 SEAL WELDED JOINTS
When welded tube joints are used for additional leak tightness only, and tube loads are
carried by the expanded joint, the tube joints shall be subject to the rules of Paragraphs
RCB-7.2 through RCB-7.31.

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

RCB-7.322 STRENGTH WELDED JOINTS

When welded tube joints are used to carry the longitudinaltube loads, consideration may
be given to modification of the requirements of Paragraphs RCB-7.2 through RCB-7.31.
Minimum tubesheet thicknesses shown in Paragraphs R-7.11, C-7.11 and 8-7.1 1 do not
apply.
RCB-7.323 FABRICATION AND TESTING PROCEDURES
Welding procedures and testing techniques for either seal welded or strength welded tube
joints shall be by agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser.
RCB-7.33 EXPLOSIVE BONDED TUBE-TO-TUBESHEET JOINTS
Explosive bonding andlor explosive expanding may be used to attach tubes to the tubesheets
where appropriate. Consideration should be given to modifying the relevant parameters (e.g., tube-
to-tubesheet hole clearances and ligament widths) to obtain an effective joint.
R-7.4 TUBESHEET PASS PARTITION GROOVES
Tubesheets shall be provided with approximately 3/16"(4.8mm) deep grooves for pass partition gaskets.
CB-7.4 TUBESHEET PASS PARTITION GROOVES
For design pressures over 300 psi (2068 kPa), tubesheets shall be provided with pass partition grooves
approximately 3/16" (4.8 mm) deep, or other suitable means for retainingthe gaskets in place.
RCB-7.5 TUBESHEET PULLING EYES
In exchangers with removable tube bundles having a nominal diameter exceeding 12" (305 mm) andlor a
tube length exceeding 96" (2438 mm), the stationary tubesheet shall be provided with two tapped holes in
its face for pulling eyes. These holes shall be protected in service by plugs of compatible material.
Provision for means of pulling may have to be modified or waived for special construction, such as clad
tubesheets or manufacturer's standard, by agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser.

ESEDA
RB-7.6 CLAD AND FACED TUBESHEETS
The nominal cladding thickness at the tube side face of a tubesheet shall not be less than 5/16" (7.8 mm)
when tubes are expanded only, and 118" (3.2 mm) when tubes are welded to the tubesheet. The nominal
cladding thickness on the shell side face shall not be less than 318" (9.5 mm). Clad surfaces, other than in
the area into which tubes are expanded, shall have at least 118" (3.2 mm) nominal thickness of cladding.
C-7.6 CLAD AND FACED TUBESHEETS
The nominal cladding thickness at the tube side face of a tubesheet shall not be less than 3/16"(4.8 mm)
when tubes are expanded only, and 118" (3.2 mm) when tubes are welded to the tubesheet. The nominal
cladding thickness on the shell side face shall not be less than 318" (9.5 mm). Clad surfaces, other than in
the area into which tubes are expanded, shall have at least 118" (3.2 mm) nominal thickness of cladding.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-8 FLEXIBLE SHELL ELEMENTS (FSE)

This section shall apply to fixed tubesheet exchangers, which require flexible elements to reduce shell and
tube longitudinal stresses and/or tube-to-tubesheet joint loads. Light gauge bellows type expansion joints
within the scope of the Standards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association (EJMA) are not
included within the purview of this section. The paragraphs contained within this section provide rules and
guidelines for determining the spring rate and stresses using a two-dimensionalAxisymmetric Finite
Element Model (FEA) for the FSE or FSE combinations. Flanged-only and flanged-and-flued types of
expansion joints are examples of flexible shell element combinations. The designer shall consider the most
adverse operating conditions specified by the purchaser. (See Paragraph E-3.2.)
Historic calculation methods for flexible shell elements were based on classical analysis using plate and
beam theory. Classical theory utilized square joints between annular and cylindrical components of the
flexible element. To account for knuckles between components, modifying parameters were incorporated
into the calculations and were verified by comparison with experimental measurements of stress and force.
While these historic calculation methods have been used for over 50 years, modern engineering tools and
methods provide for a more accurate analysis of a flexible shell element. Modem tools allow the designer to
model actual geometries and directly calculate stiffness and stresses associated with a specified geometry.
The need to utilize curves and correction factors to mimic experimental results is no longer necessary or
appropriate.
The Finite Element Method has been adopted for the design of flexible elements due to the limitations of
plate and beam theory utilized on the S. Kopp and M.F. Sayer equivalent geometry. These limitations not
only result in an incomplete analysis, they also result in overestimated stresses at the knuckle to annular
plate discontinuity. This results in increasedthickness, thus stiffness of the flexible element, which
counteracts the FSE's purpose. The flexible element lends itself nicely to finite element design due to the
geometry and the axisyrnmetric shape. In addition, well defined boundary conditions and loading conditions
promote uniform results. The classical plate and beam theory used for flexible elements does not predict a

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state of stress at the knuckles or corners of the flexible element and no reliable analytical method to
evaluate stress at the knuckle and knuckle to annular plate junction exists.
The intent is to provide an approach whereby reproducible results can be obtained regardless of the finite
element method or the computer program used. The paragraphsthat follow provide the guidelines and
methods of modeling techniques and interpretation that allow standardized results. These techniques are
based on research and knowledge for this type of geometry and finite element analysis. In some cases an
accepted approach can be specified to the exclusion of another, and in other cases modeling methods can
be recommendedthat could be readily improved. In all of these cases, the objective is to provide a lowest
common denominator whereby any finite element user could produce similar, reasonable, and accurate
results with a minimum amount of effort and expertise. The overall analytical goal is to provide a level of
accuracy superior to the shell theory solutions typified in the method of Kopp and Sayer. The benefit
derived from this use is that much experience with bending and membrane stresses of this type exists. Use
of the finite element method is advantageous since that level of experience can now be confidently used
with all geometries.

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

RCB-8.1 APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONSAND LIMITATIONS

The analysis contained in the following paragraphs is applicable based upon the following
assumptions:
Applied loadings are axial.
Torsional loads are negligible.
There is no consideration of stresses due to thermal gradients or mechanicallthermal
transients.
The flexible elements are sufficiently thick to avoid instability.
The flexible elements are axisyrnmetric.
Material is isotropic and the response is linearly elastic.
RCB-8.11 ANALYSIS SEQUENCE
The sequence of the analysis shall be as fallows:
(1) Select a geometry for the flexible element per Paragraph RCB-8.21.
(2) Construct a two-dimensional Axisymmetric FEA model.
(3) Develop the mesh throughout the thickness per Paragraph RCB-8.3.
(4) Apply the boundary conditions per Paragraph RCB-8.41.
(5) Apply axial load for spring rate analysis per Paragraph RCB-8.42.
(6) Perform FEA for displacement and determine spring rate.
(7) Determine the induced axial displacement as required for the conditions as
shown in Table RCB-8.4.
(8) Apply appropriate loads and displacements to the model per Paragraph RCB-
8.42.
(9) Perform FEA to determine stresses.
(10) Compute the membrane and bending stresses along Stress Classification
Lines by using stress linearization per Paragraph RCB-8.6.

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(11) If necessary, perform a fatigue analysis per Paragraph RCB-8.7 .
(12) Compare the flexible element stresses to the appropriate allowable stresses
per the Code for the load conditions, as noted in step 7 above.
(13) Repeat steps 1 through 12 as necessary.
RCB-8.12 CORROSION ALLOWANCE
The flexible elements shall be analyzed in both the corroded and uncorroded conditions.
RCB-8.13 DIMENSIONAL VARIANCES
The FSE is analyzed using an idealized model, as is the case with other heat exchanger
components. There will be fabrication and material tolerances that will cause the actual
FSE to differ slightly from the idealized model. The designer shall determine if these
deviations from the as-ordered condition warrant additional design analysis.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-8.2 GEOMETRY DEFINITION

The geometry may be made up of any combination of cylinders and annular plates with or without
knuckle radii at their junctions.
RCB-8.21 PHYSICAL GEOMETRY CONSTANTS
Figure RCB-8.21 defines the nomenclature used in the following paragraphs based upon
nominal dimensions of the flexible elements.
FIGURE RCB-8.21

lo , lo

f=a
0

where

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I, and li are the lengths of the cylinders welded to single flexible shell elements.
When two flexible shell elements are joined with a cylinder, the applicable cylinder length, I,
or I,
used for calculation with the FSE shall be half the actual cylinder length. The cylinder
length, li shall not be less than 3.6&. These procedures assume that the FSE is far
removed from any gross discontinuities. The minimum length of 3.6& assures that
there is no interaction of boundary conditions with the FSE.
RCB-8.22 AXISYMMETRIC MODEL
The FSE shall be modeled as two-dimensional axisymmetric. Models that are three-
dimensional axisymmetric and that are subjected to axisymmetric loading are reduced to
two-dimensional axisymmetric models for our analysis. The symmetry about one axis
results in all deformations and stresses to be independent of a rotational angle, 8.
Reference Figures RCB-8.22 and RCB-8.23.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

FIGURE RCB-8.41
FLEXIBLE ELEMENT LOADING
AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
SHOWN IN FIGURE RCB-8.42

6= TOTAL AXIAL DISPLACEMENT BETWEEN TUBES AND SHELL

= 6* (1 / 2 NFSE)(APPLIED AXIAL DISPLACEMENT)

SAPPLIED
WHERE: NFSE = TOTAL NUMBER OF FLEXIBLE ELEMENTS (1 SHOWN)
6
= DISPLACEMENT FROM RCB-8.42

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FLEXIBLE ELEMENT
AXIAL PLANE OF1.
FIGURE RCB-8.42

1- RESTRAINED AXIAL TRANSLATION

(EDGE FIXED IN 'Y" DIRECTION)

SYMMETRY ---. ,<

'1,

NOT INCLUDED

SHELL SIDE
APPLY AXIAL DISPLACEMENT ( 0)
FOR STRESS DETERMINATION

Y CENTERLINE OF HEAT EXCHANG

4--.-------- UNRESTRAINED
(AXIS OF SYMMETRY) AXIAL TRANSLATION

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

RCB-8.5 DETERMINATION OF SPRING RATE

The flexible element spring rate shall be determined as follows:
(1) The FSE shall be modeled and meshed as described in RCB-8.2 and RCB-8.3.
(2) An axial load, F, as described in RCB-8.42 shall be applied at the small end diameter.
This load shall be equal to (n14) * G2 * 100 lbflin2
(3) The FEA shall be performed and the displacement in the axial direction, 6,, shall be
noted for the given applied force.
F
(4) The spring rate of the axisymmetric FSE, K,, shall be computed by a .
The spring
~,,L
1
rate for the entire FSE, K, is -KAS .
2
(5) When only one FSE is present, the spring rate is given by K , above. When multiple
FSE's are present, the spring rate is given by
1
K, = 1 I 1
+- + ......------
Kl,, I K,,i2 K,,,
where K , is the equivalent spring rate for the entire system, K, , K,,,, ... K,,, are
the respective spring rates of each of n flexible shell elements, calculated individually from
(4) above.

ESEDA
FIGURE RCB-8.51

FSEl FSE 1 .,
\FsE2

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-8.6 STRESS EVALUATION

The FEA shall be performed after the FSE has been modeled, meshed, constrained and loaded. The FEA
component stresses shall be separated through the FSE section into constant (membrane) and linear
(bending) stresses. The stresses shall be linearized based upon computation of P I A (membrane) and
6* M It2(bending). Table RCB-8.61 defines the formulas involved for the stress linearization for each type
of stress and also the corresponding numerical integration as applicable, performed within a computer
application.
RCB-8.61 STRESS EVALUATION ANALYSIS SEQUENCE
(1) The FSE shall be modeled and meshed as described in RCB-8.2 and RCB-8.3.
(2) Apply pressure and axial displacements as described in RCB-8.42 for each load case in
Table RCB-8.4 or the governing design code.
(3) Perform and validate the finite element analysis.
(4) Establish the minimum number of stress classification lines as described in RCB-8.62 and
as shown in Figure RCB-8.62.
(5) Compute linearized membrane and membrane plus bending stress intensities at each SCL
in accordance with the recommendations of WRC 429. Element stresses shall not be
averaged. Stresses for any SCL shall be taken from the elements on the thinnest side of
any section where there is a change in thickness or direction.
(6) Compare the stresses computed in (5) with the allowable stress limits defined in Code.
(7) RCB-8.7 shall be used when a fatigue analysis is required.

ESEDA

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~ SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B
RCB-8.62 REQUIRED STRESS CLASSIFICATION UNES
As a minimum, the following stress classification lines are required for the design and analysis of
flexible elements. The guidelines of WRC 429 shall be followed.

1 Stress Classification Lines shall be placed at the following locations.

1) Any change in model thickness that is not an artificial boundary condition, such as section A-B
in Figure RCB 8-62. An example of an artificial boundary condition is the solid end cap as
shown in Figure RCB-8.42.
2) Any model boundary condition that represents a symmetric plane, such as at boundary R-S in
Figure RCB-8.62.
3) Any closed or open comer, such as sections C-D and C-E in Figure RCB-8.62.
4) On either side of a curved section, such as sections H-M and Q-L in Figure RCB-8.62.
5) At three equidistant points along any curved section removed from the ends, such as sections
N-I, 0 - J and P-K in Figure RCB-8.62.
6) At the middle of any annular plate section, such as section F-G in Figure RCB-8.62.
FIGURE RCB-8.62

GEOMETRY USED FOR

AXIAL PLANE OF ) F G STRESS EVALUATION

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SYMMETRY IS SHOWN FOR STRESS
CLASSlFlCATlON LINE 0 - J F ct
#b G
IN FIGURE RCB 8.61

E I' *,C

l FLANGED AND FLUED FLANGED ONLY

RCB-8.7 FATIGUE ANALYSIS (OPTIONAL)

When specified by the purchaser, a fatigue analysis shall be performed when an FSE is subject to cyclic
operation. The fatigue analysis shall be in accordance with ASME Sec, VIII, Div. 2 and is subject to the
following restrictions:
(1) Where accessible, all welds in cyclic service shall have a minimum of VT and PTIMT
inspection on 100% of both sides. When one or both sides are inaccessible, the Fatigue
Strength Reduction Factor (FSRF) shall be in accordance with 4b.
(2) The smooth bar design fatigue curve for the material of construction shall be used.
(3) The design fatigue stress to be used with the design fatigue curve shall be the product of
the linearized membrane plus bending stress and the FSRF. The peak stress to be used in
the fatigue curves shall be one-half of the product of the linearized membrane plus bending
stress and the FSRF. The user must verify that the loading cases considered adequately
address the full range of membrane plus bending stresses that will exist in the FSE.
(4) FSRF shall be determined as follows:
a. For the inspection as defined in (I), the FSRF shall not be less than 1.7 for welded
regions or 1.Ifor unwelded regions of the FSE.
b. The FSRF may be based on the weld type and inspection level in accordance with
WRC 432 for each SCL evaluated, but in no case shall the FSRF be less than 1.l.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-8.8 FEA METHODS

The design procedures and methods described in this section have been researched and verified for these
specific geometries. Finite element models have been chosen to represent the possible FSE geometries.
They have been examined using these procedures, and testing has been performed in order to verify these
procedures. It is recommended that these procedures are followed, however alternate FEA techniques may
be employed if the following conditions are met:
The FSE geometries are as described in RCB-8.2.
(1)
The loading conditions are analyzed as described in RCB-8.4.
(2)
The proper boundary conditions are applied for the FEA technique utilized.
(3)
The membrane and bending stresses may be determined from the finite element stresses.
(4)
(5) The finite element analysis technique has been verified. If requested by the purchaser, the
method of verification shall be submitted for approval.
(6) Results are consistent among various geometries.
RCB-8.9 REFERENCES
(1) ASME Sec. VIII, D i i . 2 2007 Edition
(2) Hechmer, J.L., and Hollinger, G.L., "3D Stress Criteria - Guidelines for Application", WRC
Bulletin 429, February 1998
(3) Chandrupatla, T.R., and Belegundu, A.D., "Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering",
Prentice Hall, Second Edition (1997)
(4) Jaske, C.E., "Interpretive Review of Weld Fatigue-Strength-Reductionand Stress-
Concentration Factors", WRC Bulletin 432, June 1998
(5) Hechmer, J.L., and Kuhn, E. J., "Fatigue-Strength-ReductionFactors for Welds Based on
NDE", WRC Bulletin 432, June 1998

ESEDA
(6) Tony Paulin, Chris Hinnant, Paulin Research Group, 11211 Richmond Ave., Suite 109,
Houston, TX 77082, www.paulin.com

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

This page intentionally blank

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-9 CHANNELS, COVERS, AND BONNETS

RCB-9.1 CHANNELS AND BONNETS
R-9.11 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF CHANNELS a~BONNETS
Channel and bonnet thickness is determined by the Code design formulae, plus corrosion
allowance, but in no case shall the nominal thickness of channels and bonnets be less than
the minimum shell thicknesses shown in Table R-3.13. The nominal total thickness for clad
channels and bonnets shall be the same as for carbon steel channels.
CB-9.11 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF CHANNELS AND BONNETS
Channel and bonnet thickness is determined by the Code design formulae, plus corrosion
allowance, but in no case shall the nominal thickness of channels and bonnets be less than
the minimum shell thicknesses shown in Table CB-3.13. The nominal total thickness for
clad channels and bonnets shall be the same as for carbon steel channels.
RCB-9.12 MINIMUM INSIDE DEPTH
For multipass channels and bonnets the inside depth shall be such that the minimum
cross-over area for flow between successive tube passes is at least equal to 1.3 times the
flow area through the tubes of one pass. When an axial nozzle is used, the depth at the
nozzle centerline shall be a minimum of one-third the inside diameter of the nozzle.
RCB-9.13 PASS PARTITION PLATES
RCB-9.131 MINIMUM THICKNESS
The thickness of pass partiions shall not be less than the greater of that shown in Table
RCB-9.131 or calculated in Paragraph RCB-9.132. Pass partition plates may be
tapered to gasket width at the contact surface.

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TABLE RCB-9.131

NOMINAL PASS PARTITION PLATE THICKNESS

Dimensions are in Inches (mm)
Nominal Size Carbon Steel Alloy Material
Less than 24 318 114
(610) (9.5) (6.4)
24 to 60 112 318
(610-1524) (12.7) (9.5)
61 to 100 518 112
(1549-2540) (15.9) (12.7)

RCB-9.132 PASS PARTITION PLATE FORMULA

l=p 1.5s

where
t = Minimum pass partition plate thickness, in. (mm)
B= Table value (linear interpolation may be used)
q= Pressure drop across plate, psi (kPA)
S= Code allowable stress in tension, at design metal temperature, psi (kPa)
b= Plate dimension. See Table RCB-9.132, in. (mm)

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

TABLE RCB-9.132
PASS PARTITION DIMENSION FACTORS

Short sides fixed

Three sides fixed Long sides fixed Long sides simply supported
One side simply supported Short sides simply
supported
an, B B I alb B,
0.25 0.020
0.50 0.081
.0.75 0.173
1.O 0.307
1.5 0.539
2.0 0.657
3.0 0.718

RCE9.133 PASS PARTITION WELD SIZE

The pass partition plate shall be attached with fillet welds on each side with a minimum
leg of 314 t from Paragraph RCB-9.132. Other types of attachments are allowed but
shall be of equivalent strength.
RCE9.151 SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS
Special consideration must be given to reinforcement or thickness requirementsfor
internal partitions subjected to pulsating fluids, extreme differential pressures and/or

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temperatures, undue restraints or detrimental deflections under specified operating
conditions or unusual start-up or maintenanceconditions specified by the purchaser.
Consideration may also be given to special design configurations and/or methods of
analysis which may justify reduction of pass partition plate thickness requirements.
Also, consideration should be given to potential bypass of tubeside fluid where the pass
partition might pull away from the gasket due to deflection.
RCB-9.14 POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT
Fabricatedchannels and bonnets shall be postweld heat treated when required by the
Code or specified by the purchaser.
RCB-9.2 FLAT CHANNEL COVER
-
RCB-9.21 FLAT CHANNEL COVER DEFLECTION MULTIPASS UNITS
The effective thickness of a flat channel cover shall be the thickness at the bottom of the
pass partition groove (or the face if there is no groove) minus corrosion allowance in
excess of groove depth. The thickness is to be at least that required by the appropriate
Code formula and thicker if required to meet proper deflection criteria.
The recommended limit for channel cover deflection is:
0.03" (0.8 mm) for nominal diameters thru 24" (610 mm)
0.125% of nominal diameter (nominal diameterl800) for larger sizes
A method for calculation of channel cover deflection is:

where
y = Channel cover deflection at the center, inches (mm)
G = Gasket load reaction diameter as defined by the Code, inches (mm)
E = Modulus of elasticity at design temperature, psi(kPa)

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

T = Thickness under consideration, inches (mm)

p = Design pressure, psi (kPa)
sB= Allowable bolting stress at design temperature, psi (kPa)
= Actual total cross-sectional root area of bolts, square inches (mm2)
h, = Radial distance from diameter G to bolt circle, inches (mm)

If the calculated deflection is greater than the recommended limit, the deflection may be
reduced by acceptable methods such as:
Increase channel cover thickness by the cube root of the ratio of calculated deflection to
the recommended limit. .

Use of strong backs.

Change type of construction.
Note: For single pass channels, or others in which there is no pass partition gasket seal
against the channel cover, no deflection criteria need be considered.

The recommended limit for channel cover deflection is intended to prevent excessive leakage
between the cover and the pass partition plate. Many factors govern the choice of design deflection
limits. Some of these factors are: number of tube side passes; tube side pressure drop; size of
exchanger; elastic springback of gasket material; effect of interpass leakage on thermal
performance; presence or absence of gasket retaining grooves; and leakage characteristics of the

ESEDA
tube side fluid.
The method shown in Paragraph RCB-9.21 for calculating deflection does not consider:
(I) The restraint offered by the portion of the cover outside the gasket load reaction diameter.
(2) Additional restraint provided by some types of construction such as full face gasket controlled
metal-to-metalcontact, etc.
(3) Cover bow due to thermal gradient across the cover thickness.
The recommended cover deflection limits given in Paragraph RCB-9.21 may be modified if other
calculation methods are used which accomodate the effect of reduced cover thickness on the
exchanger performance.
Reference:
Singh, K.P. and Soler, A.I., "Mechanical Design of Heat Exchangers and Pressure Vessel
Components", First Edition (1984), Chapter 12, Arcturus Publishers, Inc.
R-9.22 CHANNEL COVER PASS PARTITION GROOVES
Channel covers shall be provided with approximately 3/16" (4.8 mm) deep grooves for pass
partitions. In clad or applied facings, all surfaces exposed to the fluid, including gasket
seating surfaces, shall have at least 118" (3.2 mm) nominal thickness of cladding.
CB-9.22 CHANNEL COVER PASS PARTITION GROOVES
For design pressures over 300 psi (2068 kPa), channel covers shall be providedwith
approximately 3/16" (4.8 mm) deep grooves for pass partitions, or other suitable means for
holding the gasket in place. In clad or applied facings, all surfaces exposed to fluid,
including gasket seating surfaces, shall have at least 118" (3.2mm) nominal thickness of
cladding.

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 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B SECTION 5

RCB-11 END FLANGES AND BOLTING

Flanges and bolting for external joints shall be in accordance with Code design rules, subject to the
limitations set forth in the following paragraphs.
R-11.lMINIMUM BOLT SlZE
The minimum permissible bolt diameter is 314" (M20). Sizes 1"and smaller shall be Coarse Thread
Series, and larger sizes shall be 8-Pitch Thread Series. Dimensionalstandards are included in
Section 9, Table 0-5. Metric thread pitch is shown in Section 9, Table D-5M.
C-11.lMINIMUM BOLT SlZE
The minimum recommended bolt diameter is 112" (M12). If bolting smaller than 112" (M12) is used,
precautions shall be taken to avoid overstressingthe bolting. Dimensional standards are included
in Section 9, Table D-5. Metric bolting is shown in Section 9, Table D-5M.
8-1 1.1 MINIMUM BOLT SlZE
The minimum permissible bolt diameter shall be 518" (M16). Dimensional standards are included in
Section 9, Table D-5. Metric bolting is shown in Section 9, Table D-5M.
RCB-11.2 BOLT CIRCLE LAYOUT
RCB-11.21 MINIMUM RECOMMENDED BOLT SPACING
The minimum recommended spacing between bolt centers is given in Section 9, Table D-5
or D-5M.
RCB-11.22 MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED BOLT SPACING
The maximum recommended spacing between bolt centers is:
6t
B,, = 2dB+

ESEDA
(m+ 0.5)
where
B= Bolt spacing, centerline to centerline, inches (mm)
dB= Nominal bolt diameter, inches (mm)
t= Flange thickness, inches (mm)
m= Gasket factor used in Code flange calculations
RCB-11.23 LOAD CONCENTRATION FACTOR
When the distance between bolt centerlines exceeds recommended, the total flange
moment determined by Code design methods shall be multiplied by a correction factor
equal to:

where
E
B is the actual bolt spacing as defined by Paragraph RCB-11.22.
RCB-11.24 BOLT ORIENTATION
Bolts shall be evenly spaced and normally shall straddle both natural centerlines of the
exchanger. For horizontal units, the natural centerlines shall be considered to be the
horizontal and vertical centerlines of the exchanger. In special cases, the bolt count may
be changed from a multiple of four.
RCB-11.3 MlNlMUM RECOMMENDED WRENCH AND NUT CLEARANCES
Minimum recommended wrench and nut clearances are given in Section 9, Table D-5 and
Table D-5M.

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SECTION 5 MECHANICAL STANDARDS TEMA CLASS R C B

*RCB-11.5 LARGE DIAMETER LOW PRESSURE FLANGES

See "Recommended Good Practice" section.
RCB-11.6 BOLTING-ASSEMBLY AND MAINTENANCE
The following references may be used for assembly and maintenance of bolted flanged
joints. See Paragraphs E-3.24 and E-3.25.
References:
(1) Torque Manual. Sturtevant-RichrnontDivision of Ryeson Corp.
(2) Crane Engineering Data, VC-19008, Crane Company.

RCB-11.7 PASS PARTITION RIB AREA

Gasket pass partition rib area contributes to the required bolt load, therefore, its effects should be
considered in the design of flanges. One acceptable method to include rib area is shown below.
Other methods are acceptable.

Y' = Y value of pass partition rib(s)*

m' = m factor of pass partition rib(s)*
b, = Effective seating width of pass partition
rib(s)* Pass Partition
rl = Total length of pass partition rib@)*
WmIand Wm2=AS definedin ASME Code and
Section VIII, Division 1Appendix 2
and modifiedbelow.

ESEDA
Seating width of
Partition Rib (N)

*Note:
(1) m and Y values for peripheral portion of gasket may be used if greater than m'& Y'.
(2) m and Y values are listed in ASME Code Section Vlll Div. 1, Appendix 2 Table 2-5.1 or
as specified by gasket manufacturer.
*RCB-12 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS GUIDELINES
See "RecommendedGood Practice" section.

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~ SECTION 6 FLOW INDUCED VIBRATION
I
V-6 AXIAL TUBE STRESS
V-6.1 AXIAL TUBE STRESS MULTIPLIER
By the very function of a heat exchanger, the tubes are subjected to axial loads. Compressive axial
loads decrease the tube natural frequency, and tensile loads tend to increase it. The resulting tube
axial stress multiplier for a given tube unsupported span is determined by the tube end support
conditions.

where
F = S,A,
St = Tube longitudinal stress, psi (for fixed tubesheet exchanger, St may be
calculated from Paragraph A.23)
A, = Tube metal cross sectional area, inches2(see Table D-7)

K = n for both ends simply supported

K = 4.49 for one end fixed, other end simply supported
K = 221for both ends fixed
E = Elastic modulus of tube material at the tube metal temperature, psi (see
Paragraph RCB-1.43)
1= Tube unsupported span, inches

ESEDA
I = Moment of inertia of the tube cross-section, inches4(see Paragraph V-5.3
and Table D-7)

V-6.2 U-TUBES
For some applications U-tubes may develop high levels of axial stress. A method to compute the
tube axial stresses in the legs of U-tube exchangers is given in Paragraph V-14, Reference (1).
V-7 EFFECTIVETUBE MASS
To simplify the application of the formulae, the constants have been modified to enable the use of weight
instead of mass.
V-7.1 EFFECTIVE TUBE WEIGHT
Effective tube weight is defined as:
wo = w, + wfi + H,
where
w, = Total metal weight per unit length of tube, Iblft (see Table D-7)
wfi = 0.00545 pi di2= Weight of fluid inside the tube per unit length of tube, Ibfft
H, = Hydrodynamic mass from Paragraph V-7.11
where
pi = Density of fluid inside the tube at the local tube side fluid bulk temperature, lb/ft3
di = Inside diameter of tube, inches

V-7.11 HYDRODYNAMIC MASS

Hydrodynamic mass is an effect which increases the apparent weight of the vibrating body due to
the displacement of the shell side fluid resulting from:
(1) Motion of the vibrating tube
(2) The proximity of other tubes within the bundle

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 FLOW INDUCED VIBRATION SECTION 6

(3) The relative location of the shell wall

Hydrodynamic mass is defined as:
H m = C m wfo
where
Cm= Added mass coefficient from Figure V-7.11
wfo = 0.00545 = Weight of fluid displaced by the tube per unit length of tube, Ib/ft
where
po = Density of fluid outside the tube at the local shell side fluid bulk
temperature, lb/ft3(For two phase fluids, use two phase density.)
do = Outside diameter of tube, inches
For integrally finned tubes:
do = Fin root diameter, inches

ESEDA

@TubularExchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.

 THERMAL RELATIONS SECTION 7

(Note: This section is not metricated.)

T-I SCOPE AND BASIC RELATIONS
T-I .ISCOPE
This section outlines the basic thermal relationships common to most tubular heat transfer
equipment. Included are calculation procedures for determining mean temperature difference and
overall heat transfer coefficient, and discussions of the cause and effect of fouling, and procedures
for determining mean metal temperatures of shell and tubes. Recommendationsfor the calculation
of shell side and tube side heat transfer film coefficients and pressure losses are considered to be
outside the scope of these Standards. It should be noted, however, that many of the standard
details and clearances can significantly affect thermal-hydraulic performance, especially on the
shell side. Particularly relevant in this respect is the research conducted by the University of
Delaware Engineering Experiment Station under the joint sponsorship of ASME, API, TEMA, and
other interested organizations. The results are summarized in their "Bulletin No. 5 (1963) Final
Report of the Cooperative Research Program on Shell and Tube Exchangers."
T-1.2 BASIC HEAT TRANSFER RELATION

Ao=
Q
-
UAt",
where
A. Required effective outside heat transfer surface, ft2
=
Q = Total heat to be transferred, BTUlhr
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, referred to tube outside surface BTUlhr ft2 OF

ESEDA
At,,, = Corrected mean temperature difference, O
F

T-1.3 DETERMINATION OF OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

The overall heat transfer coefficient, including fouling, shall be calculated as follows:
1

($) $($1
U=
[[i +r o ) [ i )+ rw + 5 +

where
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (fouled)
h, = Film coefficient of shell side fluid
h, = Film coefficient of tube side fluid
ro = Fouling resistance on outside surface of tubes
r, = Fouling resistance on inside surface of tubes
rw = Resistance of tube wall referred to outside surface of tube wall, including extended
surface if present

- = Ratio of outside to inside surface of tubing

A,
E' = Fin efficiency (where applicable)
The units of U,h, , and h, are BTUlhr ft2 OF and the units of r,,q , and rw are hr ft2 "FIBTU

@TubularExchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc. 7-1

SECTION 7 THERMAL RELATIONS

T-1.4 TUBE WALL RESISTANCE

T-1.41 BARE TUBES

T-1.42 INTEGRALLY FINNED TUBES

where
d = OD of bare tube or root diameter if integrally finned, inches
o = Fin height, inches
t = Tube wall thickness, inches
N = Number of fins per inch
k = Thermal conductivity, BTUIhr ft O F
T-1.5 SELECTED REFERENCE BOOKS
(1) A. P. Fraas and M. N. Ozisik, "Heat Exchanger Design", John Wiley & Sons, 1965.
(2) M. Jacob, "Heat Transferu,Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1949.
(3) D. Q. Kern, "Process Heat Transfer", McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1950.
(4) J. G. Knudsen and D. L. Katz, "Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer", McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1958.

ESEDA
(5) W. H. McAdarns, "Heat Transmission", McGraw-Hill Book Co., Third Ed., 1954.
(6) Chemical Engineers' Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Fifth Ed., 1973.
T - 2 FOULING
T-2.1 TYPES OF FOULING
Several unique types of fouling mechanisms are currently recognized. They are individually
complex, can occur independentlyor simultaneously, and their rates of development are governed
by physical and chemical relationships dependent on operating conditions. The major fouling
mechanisms are:
Precipitation fouling
Particulate fouling
Chemical reaction fouling
Corrosion fouling
Biological fouling
T-2.2 EFFECTS OF FOULING
The calculation of the overall heat transfer coefficient (see ParagraphT-1.3) contains the terms to
account for the thermal resistances of the fouling layers on the inside and outside heat transfer
surfaces. These fouling layers are known to increase in thickness with time as the heat exchanger
is operated. Fouling layers normally have a lower thermal conductivity than the fluids or the tube
material, thereby increasing the overall thermal resistance.
In order that heat exchangers shall have sufficient surface to maintain satisfactory performance in
normal operation, with reasonable service time between cleanings, it is important in design to
provide a fouling allowance appropriate to the expected operating and maintenance condition.
T-2.3 CONSIDERATIONS IN EVALUATING FOULING RESISTANCE
The determination of appropriate fouling resistance values involves both physical and economic
factors, many of which vary from user to user, even for identical services. When these factors are
known, they can be used to adjust typical base values tabulated in the RGP section of these
standards.

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 THERMAL RELATIONS SECTION 7

T-2.31 PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Typical physical factors influencing the determination of fouling resistances are:
Fluid properties and the propensity for fouling
Heat exchanger geometry and orientation
Surface and fluid bulk temperatures
Local fluid velocities
Heat transfer process
Fluid treatment
Cathodic protection
T-2.32 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Typical economic factors influencing the determination of appropriate fouling resistances
are:
Frequency and amount of cleaning costs
Maintenancecosts
Operating and production costs
Longer periods of time on stream
Fluid pumping costs
Depreciation rates
Tax rates
Initial cost and variation with size
Shut down costs
Out-of-service costs

ESEDA
V-2.4 DESIGN FOULING RESISTANCES
The best design fouling resistances, chosen with all physical and economic factors properly
evaluated, will result in a minimum cost based on fixed charges of the initial investment (which
increase with added fouling resistance) and on cleaning and down-time expenses (which decrease
with added fouling resistance). By the very nature of the factors involved, the manufacturer is
seldom in a position to determine optimum fouling resistances. The user, therefore, on the basis of
past experience and current or projected costs, should specify the design fouling resistances for his
particular services and operating conditions. In the absence of specific data for setting proper
resistances as described in the previous paragraphs, the user may be guided by the values
tabulated in the RGP section of these standards. In the case of inside surface fouling, these values
must be multiplied by the outsidelinside surface ratio, as indicated in Equation T-1.3.
T-3 FLUID TEMPERATURE RELATIONS
T-3.1 LOGARITHMICMEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
For cases of true countercurrent or cocurrent flow, the logarithmic mean temperature difference
should be used if the following conditions substantially apply:
Constant overall heat transfer coefficient
Complete mixing within any shell cross pass or tube pass
The number of cross baffles is large
Constant flow rate and specific heat
Enthalpy is a linear function of temperature
Equal surface in each shell pass or tube pass
Negligible heat loss to surroundings or internally between passes
The following references contain relevant information on the above items:
(1) K. Gardner and J. Taborek, "Mean Temperature Difference -A Reappraisal", AlChE Journal,
December, 1977
(2) A. N. Caglayan and P. Buthod, "Factors Correct Air-Cooler and S & T Exchanger LMTD", The
Oil & Gas Journal, September 6, 1976

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SECTION 7 THERMAL RELATIONS

For cases where the above conditions do not apply, a stepwise calculation of temperature
difference and heat transfer surface may be necessary.
Excessive fluid leakage through the clearance between the cross baffles and the shell or between a
longitudinal baffle and the shell can significantly alter the axial temperature profile. This condition
may result in significant degradation of the effective mean temperature difference. The following
references may be used for further information on this subject:
(1) J. Fisher and R. 0.Parker, "New Ideas on Heat Exchanger Design", Hydrocarbon Processing,
Vol. 48, No. 7, July 1969
(2) J. W. Palen and J. Taborek, "Solution of Shellside Flow Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer by
Stream Analysis", CEP Symposium No. 92, Vol. 65, 1969
T-3.2 CORRECTION FOR MULTIPASS FLOW
In multipass heat exchangers, where there is a combination of cocurrent and countercurrent flow in
alternate passes, the mean temperature difference is less than the logarithmic mean calculated for
countercurrent Row and greater than that based on cocurrent flow. The correct mean temperature
difference may be evaluated as the product of the logarithmic mean for countercurrent flow and an
LMTD correction factor, F. Figures T-3.2A to T-3.2M inclusive give values for F as a function of the
heat capacity rate ratio R and the required temperature effectiveness P. These charts are based
on the assumption that the conditions listed in Paragraph T-3.1 are applicable. Caution should be
observed when applying F factors from these charts which lie on the steeply sloped portions of the
curves. Such a situation indicatesthat thermal performancewill be extremely sensitive to small
changes in operating conditions and that performance prediction may be unreliable.
Pass configurations for Figures T-3.2A through T-3.2H are stream symmetric; therefore, t and T
may be taken as the cold and hot fluid temperatures, respectively, regardless of passage through
the tube side or shell side. For non-stream symmetric configurations represented by Figures T-3.21
through T-3.2M, t and T must be taken as the tube side and the shell side fluid temperatures,
respectively.
The following references may be useful in determining values of F for various configurations and

ESEDA
conditions.
Configuration Reference
(1) General W. M. Rohsenow and J. P. Hartnett, "Handbook
of Heat Transfer", McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1972
(2) Three tube passes per shell pass F. K. Fischer, Ynd. Engr. Chem.", Vol. 30,377
(1938)
(3) Unequal size tube passes K. A. Gardner, Ynd. Engr. Chem.", Vol. 33, 1215
(1941)
(4) Weighted MTD D. L. Gulley, "Hydrocarbon Proc.", Vol. 45, 116
(1966)
T-3.3 TEMPERATURE EFFECTIVENESS
The temperature effectiveness of a heat exchanger is customarily defined as the ratio of the
temperature change of the tube side stream to the difference between the two fluid inlet
temperatures, thus:

where P is the effectiveness. Figures T-3.3A, T-3.38, and T-3.3C show the temperature
effectiveness of counterflow, single-pass shell and two-pass tube, and two-pass shell and four-pass
tube exchangers respectively, in terms of overall heat transfer coefficient, surface, fluid flow rates,
and specific heats.
In all cases, the lower case symbols (tl, tz, w, and c) refer to the tube side fluid and upper case
(TI, T2 W, and C) to the shell side fluid. (This distinction is not necessary in the case of
counterflow exchangers, but confusion will be avoided if it is observed.) These charts are based on
the same conditions listed in ParagraphT-3.1.

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 THERMAL RELATIONS SECTION 7

T-4 MEAN METAL TEMPERATURES OF SHELL AND TUBES

T-4.1 SCOPE
This paragraph outlines the basic method for determination of mean shell and tube metal
temperatures. These temperatures have a pronounced influence in the design of fixed tubesheet
exchangers. Knowledge of mean metal temperatures is necessary for determining tubesheet
thickness, shell and tube axial stress levels, and flexible shell element requirements. This
paragraph provides the basis for determining the differential thermal expansion term, AL , required
for the calculation of equivalent differential expansion pressure, P, (see Paragraph RCB-7.161).
T-4.2 DEFINITIONS
4.21 MEAN METAL TEMPERATURE
The mean metal temperature of either the shell or tubes is the temperature taken at the
metal thickness midpoint averaged with respect to the exchanger tube length. For the case
of integrally finned tubes, the temperature at the prime tube metal thickness midpoint
applies. The fin metal temperature should not be weighted with the prime tube metal
temperature.
T-4.22 FLUID AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
The shell or tube fluid average temperature is the bulk shell or tube fluid temperature
averaged with respect to the exchanger tube length.
T-4.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEAN METAL TEMPERATURES AND FLUID AVERAGE
TEMPERATURES
T-4.31 SHELL MEAN METAL TEMPERATURE

ESEDA
The shell mean metal temperature, generally assumed to be equal to the shell fluid
average temperature, is given by:
-
TM= T
where
TM=Shell mean metal temperature, OF
-
T = Shell fluid average temperature, OF
This assumption is valid for cases without abnormal rates of heat transfer between the shell
and its surroundings. If significant heat transfer to or from the shell could occur,
determination of the effect on the shell metal temperature should be made. In general,
most high or low temperature externally insulated exchangers and moderate temperature
non-insulated exchangers meet the above assumption.
T-4.32 TUBE MEAN METAL TEMPERATURE
The tube mean metal temperature is dependent not only on the tube fluid average
temperature, but also the shell fluid average temperature, the shell and tube heat transfer
coefficients, shell and tube fouling resistances, and tube metal resistance to heat transfer,
according to the following relationship

tM= T -

where
- I ;[ .)[$) $
+

+;)*[
[ i + r o ) ( + ) + r w +[i

t, =Tube mean metal temperature, OF

-
+

I[' - 1'

t = Tube side fluid average temperature, OF (see Paragraph T-4.4)

l

All other terms are as defined by Paragraphs T-1.3 and T-4.31.

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1 SECTION 7 THERMAL RELATIONS

T4.33 TUBESHEET MEAN METAL TEMPERATURE

Untubed portion of tubesheet:

Tubed portion of tubesheet:

I
~I
where
T,. = Tubeside fluid temperature, OF
T, = Shellside fluid temperature, OF
~~ h, = Tubeside heat transfer coefficient, ~ ~ ~ l ~-OrF - f t *
h, = Shellside heat transfer coefficient, ~ ~ u 1 ~- OrF- e

ESEDA
where k = tubesheet metal thermal conductivity, BTUIHr-ft "F
L = tubesheet thickness, inches

for triangular pitch

A = ndL12
a =0 . 4 3 3 -
~ n~d 2I8
for square pitch
A = ndL
a= p2-nd2/4
where
d =tube ID, inches
P =tube pitch, inches
T4.4 ESTIMATION OF SHELL AND TUBE FLUID AVERAGE TEMPERATURES
The methods presented in this paragraph are based on equipment operating under steady-state
conditions.
T4.41 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Fluid average temperatures in shell and tube heat exchangers are affected by the
following:
(1) Shell and tube fluid terminal temperatures
(2) Shell and tube fluid temperature profiles with respect to enthalpy (the following
methods assume linear profiles)
(3) Variable heat transfer rates with respect to exchanger length (the following methods
assume a constant heat transfer rate through the length of the unit)

@TubularExchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc. www.tema.org

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 5. TANK - LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Storage tanks had been widely used in many industrial established particularly in
the processing plant such as oil refinery and petrochemical industry. They are used to
store a multitude of different products. They come in a range of sizes from small
to truly gigantic, product stored range from raw material to finished products, from
gases to liquids, solid and mixture thereof.

There are a wide variety of storage tanks, they can be constructed above ground, in
ground and below ground. In shape, they can be in vertical cylindrical,
horizontal cylindrical, spherical or rectangular form, but vertical cylindrical are the most

ESEDA
usual used.

In a vertical cylindrical storage tank, it is further broken down into various

types, including the open top tank, fixed roof tank, external floating roof and internal
floating roof tank.

The type of storage tank used for specified product is principally determined by
safety and environmental requirement. Operation cost and cost effectiveness are
the main factors in selecting the type of storage tank.

Design and safety concern has come to a great concern as reported case of fires and
explosion for the storage tank has been increasing over the years and these accident cause
injuries and fatalities. Spills and tank fires not only causing environment pollution, there
would also be severe financial consequences and significant impact on the future business
due to the industry reputation. Figure 1.1 shows the accident of the tanks that caught on
fire and exploded. Lots of these accidents had occurred and they are likely to
continue unless the lessons from the past are correctly learnt.

5
 ESEDA

Figure 1.1 Fire and explosion incidents in the tanks

6
2.2 Types of Storage Tank

Figure 1.2 illustrates various types of storage tank that are commonly used in the industry
today.

Type of Storage Tank

Open Top Tank Fixed Roof Tank Floating Roof Tank Other Types
(Atmospheric) (Atmospheric, Low
Pressure, High
Pressure)

Cone Roof (Supported/ External Floating Roof Bullet Tank

self supported)

ESEDA Dome Roof (Supported/

self supported)
Internal Floating Roof Bolted Tank

Internal Floating Roof

(Supported/ self Sphere Tank
supported)

Figure 1.2 Types of storage tank

2.2.1 Open Top Tanks

This type of tank has no roof. They shall not be used for petroleum product but may be
used for fire water/ cooling water. The product is open to the atmosphere; hence it is an
atmospheric tank.

7
2.2.2 Fixed Roof Tanks

Fixed Roof Tanks can be divided into cone roof and dome roof types. They can be self
supported or rafter/ trusses supported depending on the size.

Fixed Roof are designed as

Atmospheric tank (free vent)

Low pressure tanks (approx. 20 mbar of internal pressure)

High pressure tanks (approx. 56 mbar of internal pressure)
Figure 1.3 shows the three types of Fired Roof Tanks.

ESEDA

Figure 1.3 Types of Fixed Roof Tanks [EEMUA 2003, vol.1, p.11]

8
2.2.3 Floating Roof Tanks

Floating roof tanks is which the roof floats directly on top of the product.

There are 2 types of floating roof:

Internal floating roof is where the roof floats on the product in a fixed roof tank.

External Floating roof is where the roof floats on the product in an open tank and the
roof is open to atmosphere.

Types of external floating roof consist of:

Single Deck Pontoon type ( Figure 1.4)

Double deck ( Figure 1.5)

ESEDA

Special buoy and radially reinforced roofs

Floating roof tank will be further discussed in details in later chapter.

Figure 1.4 Single Deck Pontoon Type Floating Roof [Bob. L & Bob. G, n.d, p.155]

9
 Figure 1.5 Double Deck Type Floating Roof [Bob. L & Bob. G, n.d, p.155]

2.3 Design Codes and Standards

•
•
ESEDA
The design and construction of the storage tanks are bounded and regulated by various
codes and standards. List a few here, they are:
American Standards API 650 (Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage)
British Standards BS 2654 (Manufacture of Vertical Storage Tanks with Butt-
welded Shells for the Petroleum Industry
• The European Standards
- German Code Din 4119 – Part 1 and 2 (Above Ground Cylindrical Flat
Bottomed Storage Tanks of Metallic Materials)
- The French Code, Codres – (Code Francais de construction des reservoirs
cylindriques verticauz en acier U.C.S.I.P. et S.N.C.T.)
• The EEMUA Standards (The Engineering Equipments and Materials Users
Association)
• Company standards such as shell (DEP) and Petronas (PTS)

10
2.4 Floating Roof Tanks

2.4.1 History and Introduction

Floating roof tank was developed shortly after World War I by Chicago Bridge & Iron
Company (CB & I). Evaporation of the product in fixed roof caused a great lost of
money; this led to research to develop a roof that can float directly on the surface of
product, reducing the evaporation losses.

2.4.2 Principles of the Floating Roof

The floating roof is a circular steel structure provided with a built-in buoyancy which
allowing it to sit/ float on top of the liquid product in a close or open top tank.

ESEDA
The overall diameter of the roof is normally 400 mm smaller than the inside diameter of
the tank, which has about 200 mm gap on each side between the roof and the inside tank
wall. This is due to the limitation on the accuracy of dimension during construction for
the large diameter tank. The gaps allow the floating roof to rise and fall without binding
on the tank wall.

To protect the product inside the tank from evaporation to the atmosphere and
contamination from the rain water through the gaps between the outer rim of the floating
roof and the tank wall, the gaps will be closed or sealed up by mean of flexible sealing
system.

Due to environmental issue, selection of the roof seal is one of the major concerns in the
floating roof tank design.

11
In single deck roof which shown in Figure 1.6, is also called pontoon roof, the buoyancy
is derived in the pontoon, an annular circular pontoon radially divided into liquid tight
compartments.

The center deck which is formed by membrane of thin steel plates are lap welded
together and connected to the inner rim of the pontoons.

Double deck roof (Figure 1.7) consists of upper and lower steel membranes separated by
a series of circumferential bulkhead which is subdivided by radial bulkhead. The outer
ring of the compartments is the main liquid tight buoyancy for the roof.

Double deck roof is much heavier than single deck one, hence it is more rigid. The air
gap between the upper and bottom plates of the deck has insulation effect which helps
against the solar heat reaching the product during the hot climate and preventing heat loss

ESEDA
of the product during cold climate.

Figure 1.6 Single Deck Floating Roof Tank [EEMUA 2003, vol.1, p.15]

12
 Figure 1.7 Double Deck Floating Roof Tank [EEMUA 2003, vol.1, p.15]

2.4.3 Advantages of the floating roof storage tank

As the roof floats directly on the product, there is no vapour space and thus eliminating
any possibility of flammable atmosphere. It reduces evaporation losses and hence
reduction in air pollution. Vapour emission is only possible from the rim seal area and

ESEDA
this would mainly depend on the type of seal selected and used.

Despite of the advantages of the floating roof, to design and construct a floating roof tank
will be much more complicated and costly than the fixed ones. In term of tank stability
and design integrity, floating roof tank is never better than the fixed roof tank as there are
still many unknown parameters and factors in designing the floating roof.

2.5 Design Data Overview

Site geometric data are:

The plant is located in Kiyanli, Balkanabad District in Turkmenistan located onshore by

Caspian Sea.

The climate is sub tropical with hot dry summer and cold wet winter. The climate
condition is as follow:

13
a. Temperature:
• Ambient: Mean annual = 14.6ºC
Extreme low = -17.0ºC (January 1969)
Extreme high = +44.0ºC (July 1983)
• Design temperature change = +30ºC

b. Rainfall Intensity:
Maximum daily rainfall (4th May 1972) : 68 mm
Maximum rain density once in 100 years : 0.69 mm/min
Maximum rain density once in 50 years : 0.59 mm/min
Maximum rain density once in 2 years : 0.3 mm/min

c. Humidity:
Summer : 50% at 34ºC

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Winter : 74% at 7ºC

d. Wind Speed at 10 m above Ground level:

Operating 1 yr 10 yr 50 yr 100 yr
1 hour mean m/s 12 17 21 24 25
10 minutes mean m/s 13 19 23 26 27
1 minute mean m/s 14 21 25 28 29
3 second gust m/s 15 23 27 31 32

e. Earthquake (MSK 64):

Earth Tremor Intensity (severe damage to building) : 9

Index of Earth Tremor Category (once in 1000 years) : 2

Equivalent to Uniform Building Code (UBC) Zone 4

f. Design Snow Loading : 56 kg/m²

14
2.6 Process Description and Requirements

Capacity determination is the one of the first steps in designing the tank. Only after the
capacity is known, the tank can be sized up.

The definition of the maximum capacity can be explained easily in Figure 1.8.

Top of shell
Overfill height
Design liquid
level
Overfill protection level

Normal fill level

ESEDA
(HLL)

Maximum capacity Net working capacity

Minimum fill
level
Minimum operating volume
remaining in the tank
Top of bottom plate at
shell
Figure 1.8 Storage Tank Capacities and Levels

The maximum or total capacity is the sum of the inactive capacity (minimum operating
volume remaining volume in tank), actual or net working capacity and the overfill
protecting capacity.

15
The net working capacity is the volume of available product under normal operating
conditions, which is between the low liquid level (LLL) and the high liquid level (HLL).

The storage tank capacity is sized in accordance with 85, 000 barrel tanker and 3 days of
unavailability of the off loading system at production rate 51 000 barrels per day.

2.7 Process Description and Design Considerations

This storage tank is designed to store the stabilised condensate which runs down from the
condensate stabiliser column. The stabilised condensate processed in the stabilsed system
is pumped to Stabilsed Condesate Tank prior to export via underwater pipeline to the
Single Buoying Mooring for ship loading.

Due to the waxy nature of the condensate, the liquid is heated above the wax dissolution

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temperature (WDT) of 39°C to prevent wax precipitation and formation in the pipeline.

The condensate in the tank is circulated in an external heating circuit to maintain the
operating temperature at 44°C.

The stabilised condensate storage tanks are also equipped with motorized side entry tank
stirrers to blend the storage fluid to ensure uniform temperature distribution in the tanks.
It helps to prevent localized cooling that will result in wax formation in the storage tank.

The schematic sketch of the stabilized condensate tank is shown in Figure 1.9 with the
process design data and nozzle data in Tables 1.1 and 1.2 respectively.

16
 N8 M2 N6 N7 N12

N1
N15

D2

D3

N5
M1

N13 M3 N4

N2

ESEDA
D1

Figure 1.9 Schematic Sketch of the Stabilised Condensate Tank

Service Stabilised Condensate Tank

Tank Type Floating Roof
Number Required Two ( 2)
Working Capacity 20000 m³
Nominal Capacity 24278 m³
Diameter 39000 mm
Height 20700 mm
Design Pressure Atmospheric
Operating Temperature 44 °C
Design Temperature 70 / -17 °C
Specific Gravity at 15°C/ at T 0.7903/ 0.7804
Normal Filling Flow Rate 338 m³/h
Maximum Filling Flow Rate 427 m³/h
Normal Draw-Off Flow Rate 660 m³/h
MaximumHole
Gauging Draw-Off Flow Rate 792
No m³/h
Heater Type
Level Indicator/ Alarms External
YesHeater
Vent
Mixing Propeller Yes
Drain
Manhole/ Inspection Hatches Yes (RoofYesand shell)
Thermowell
Insulation Yes
Yes (Shell and roof)

17
 Category of Product Hydrocarbon Condensate

Table 1.1 Process Design Data

Nozzle Data
Tag No. Req. Size (DN) Service Remark
N1 1 250 Inlet
N2 1 450 Pump Suction
N4 1 200 Recirculation Inlet
N5 1 300 Recirculation Inlet
N6 1 Note 2 Auto Bleeder Vent
N7 1 100 Level Indicator
N8 1 200 Level Transmitter
N12 1 50 Temperature Transmitter
N13 3 600 Mixing Propeller Note 3
N15 1 200 Minimum Flow
D1 1 100 Drain
D2/ D3 2 100 Roof Drain Note 1

ESEDA
M1 1 600 Shell Manway
M2 1 600 Roof Manway
M3 1 1200 x 1200 Clean Out Door Note 4

Table 1.2 Nozzle Data

The following points are to be included in design considerations:

1) Quantity and size of the roof drain shall be designed and size up accordance to the
rainfall intensity.

2) Auto Bleeder vent is required as per API 650 code, quantity and size to be
designed accordance to the maximum filling and draw off rate [API650, 2007].

3) Tanks are fixed with 3 mixing propellers, they shall remain submerged below the
low liquid level during operation.

4) Clean out door shall be suitable for wheel barrow access for facilitating sediment/
sludge cleaning process.

5) Tank bottom to be cone-up toward center.

18
 Figure 1.11 Tank Exploding [Bob.L & Bob.G, n.d, p.26]

ESEDA
2.11 Tank Shell Design Method as Per API 650

2.11.1 Calculation of thickness by 1-Foot Method

The 1-foot method calculates the thickness required at design points 0.3 m (1 ft) above
the bottom of each shell course.

The formula for the minimum required thickness is as followed:

For design shell thickness,
4.9( H − 0.3)G
td = + C. A
Sd

For hydrostatic test shell thickness,

4.9( H − 0.3)
tt =
St

26
Where
td = Design shell thickness, in mm

tt = Hydrostatic test shell thickness, in mm

D = Nominal Tank Diameter, in m

H = Design liquid level, in m
G = Design specific gravity of the liquid to be stored
C.A = Corrosion allowance, in mm
Sd = Allowable stress for the design condition, in MPa
St = Allowable stress for the hydrostatic test condition, in MPa

This method is shall not be used for tanks larger than 60 m in diameter.

2.11.2 Calculation of thickness by Variable-Design-Point Method

ESEDA
Design using variable-design-point method gives shell thickness at design points that in
the calculated stressed being relatively closed to the actual circumferential shell stress.

This method normally provides a reduction in shell-course thickness and total material
weight, but more important is its potential to permit construction of large diameter tanks
within the maximum plate thickness limitation.

This method may only be used when 1-foot method is not specified and when the
following is true:

L 1000
≤
H 6

27
2.11.3 Calculation of thickness by Elastic Analysis

For tanks where L / H is greater than 1000/6, the selection of shell thickness shall be
based on an elastic analysis that shows the calculated circumferential shell stress to be
below the allowable stress.

2.12 Mechanical Design Consideration

The principal factors in determine the shell thickness is the loads, the primary loading to
determine the basic shell thickness is as follow:

The internal loading due to the head of liquid

The pressure in the vapour space

(This factor is not applicable for floating roof tanks as the roof sit directly on the

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liquid, there is no vapour space.)

Other external loading shall be taken into consideration are:

External pressure – Vacuum condition

Wind loading

Seismic Loading

Localized loads resulting from nozzles, attachments, ladder/ stair and platform
etc.

The primary loadings exerted to the tank shell are illustrated in Figure 1.12:

28
 Wind & Seismic uplift load

Wind load on shell

Seismic force on shell

Moment about shell to Internal
bottom joint Pressure
Dead Load due to
liquid static
head
Liquid hold down weight

Figure 1.12 Loading Diagram on a Tank Shell

ESEDA
The internal pressure exerted on the tank shell is the product liquid head; the pressure is
at the highest at the tank shell bottom and decreases linearly along its height. External
loading of wind and seismic act on the tank shell and create an overturning moment about
the shell to bottom joint, this results in the uplift reaction of the tank and affected the tank
stability.

The various stresses to which the shell of a tank is subjected are

• Hoop tension which is caused by the head of product in the tank, together with
any overpressure in the roof space of a fixed roof tank.
• Axial compression which comes from the tank self-weight, internal vacuum,
wind and seismic loading acting on the shell which causes an overturning effect.
• Vertical bending due to the expansion of shell under normal service loading

29
2.13 Bottom Plate Design

API 650 has a very straight forward requirement on the bottom plate thickness and width
requirement.

2.13.1 Vertical Bending of Shell

When the tank is filled with product, the shell will expand radially due to the elasticity of
the shell plate material. This natural expansion is restricted at the point where the shell is
welded to the bottom plate.

The shell-to-bottom joint is very rigid and it rotates as a unit when the tank is under
hydrostatic load.

ESEDA

Figure 1.13 Rotation of the shell-to-bottom connection [Bob.L & Bob.G, n.d, p.47]

The shell tends to rotate in an outward direction about the rigid joint as depicted in Figure
1.13, the bottom plate will also rotate and cause it to lift off the foundation for a distance

30
inside the tank until the pressure of the product acting on the floor, balances the lifting
effect.

This action causes high bending stresses in the bottom plate and the toe of the internal
fillet weld. Due to the continual filling and emptying of the tank, the load is cyclic and
this area is subject to low cycle fatigue.

2.14 Floating Roof Design

Flooded

Center Deck Sagged

Figure 1.14 Single Deck Roof Sagged with Flooding Rain Water

ESEDA
In API 650 (2007), the external floating roof is covered in Appendix C, it gives guidance
and provides minimum requirement on the external floating roof design. Similar
minimum requirement were also provided in the BS 2654 where they both stated that the
pontoon volume shall be designed to have sufficient buoyancy to remain afloat on the
liquid with specific gravity of the lower of the product specific gravity or 0.7 with the
primary drain inoperative for the following conditions:

• the deck plate and any two adjacent pontoon compartments punctured and
flooded the single deck or double deck pontoon roof.

• Rainfall of 250 mm (10 in.) in 24 hour period over the entire horizontal roof
area.

These two codes also provide some minimum requirements on the roof fittings and
accessories to optimize the floating roof design ensuring the roof is functioning
effectively.

31
Though the codes addressed the minimum requirement on the pontoon volume, there is
no mention on the structural adequacy. There is no proper procedure or standard and firm
rules stated in any code or engineering handbook in designing the floating roof, as in
structural integrity and buoyancy stability. It is always left to the designer or
manufacturer to develop their own approaches to meet the minimum requirement stated
in API 650 (2007) or BS 2654. Industry or purchaser will have to rely on the tank and
roof manufacturer for the safe design.

Hence, there is a wide variation in the floating roof design approach, wide variation in the
durability and reliability of the tank, in which there are also many tank failure due to
various design problem in each different approach.

If the floating roofs are inadequately designed or wrong approaches were applied to the
design, the roof will fail, pontoon will buckled and damaged. The most common failure

ESEDA
on the floating roof is the sinking of the floating roof. The floating roof overtopped by the
liquid inside the tank and the roof sunk. To the worst case, the tank will catch fire due to
the spark generated during the unstable movement of the roof.

32
2.18 Typical Fitting and Accessories For Floating Roof

2.18.1 Roof Seal System

As mentioned early in the principal of floating roof, roof seal is used to prevent the
escape of vapour from the rim gap and to minimise the amount of rain water entering the
product. The sealing system has to be flexible enough to allow for any irregularities on
the construction of the roof and shell when the roof moves up and down and for any
radial or lateral movement of the roof due to wind and seismic.

There are several types of roof sealing system which consists of primary seal and
secondary seal. Primary seals may comprise metallic shoes having flexible seals with a
weight or spring-operated pusher mechanism, or be non-metallic tube seal, a fabric seal.

ESEDA

Figure 1.21 Mechanical Seal Figure 1.22 Liquid-filled fabric seal

37
Primary seals were only used when floating roofs were first devised; secondary seals
were the recent innovation to suit the new legislation in which the new limits of vapour
emission was set. Secondary seals were mounted above the primary seal in which it can
further reduce the vapour and odour losses from the floating roof tank.

The seals showing in Figure 1.21 and Figure 1.22 had been used for many years since
floating roof were developed. The most recent innovation on the primary seal is the
compression plate type and most of the tank owners are moving toward this new sealing
system.

2.18.2 Support Leg

Support leg is the supporting element for the floating roof when the tank is empty where
the roof fall to its lowest position. The roof needed to be supported at a certain height

ESEDA
above the floor not only that the roof will not foul with any internal accessories that
installed at the lowest shell such as heating coil, mixing propeller, it also provide access
room for maintenance personnel. As stated in API 650 (2007), the supporting legs can be
either removable or non- removable type. The area of the tank floor in which the legs
land shall be reinforced with a fully welded doubler plate which can distribute the leg
loads into the floor plating.

More careful consideration will be required for the supporting requirement for the single
deck pontoon roof as this type of roof is less rigid. Figure 1.23 shows that the deck is
weak in bending and allows lateral deflection of the support leg.

38
 Applied Force

Figure 1.23 Lateral Deflection of Supporting Leg

There is minimum requirement stated in API 650 (2007) where the legs and attachments
shall be designed to the roof and a uniform live load of at least 1.2kPa. The legs thickness
shall be Schedule 80 minimum and sleeves shall be schedule 40 minimum.

2.18.3 Roof Drain System

ESEDA
Roof drainage is one of the concerns in the roof designing; a reliable drainage system is
indispensable for floating roof storage tanks. Improper roof drainage system would
impair tank operation and threatens the safety of the stored product.

As addressed in API 650, the roof drains shall be sized and positioned to accommodate
the rainfall rate while preventing the roof from accumulate a water level greater then
design, without allowing the roof to tilt excessively or interfere with its operation.

The rain water which accumulates on the floating roof is drained to the sump which
normally set in the low point of the deck. The sump will then be drained through a closed
pipe work system inside the tank and drained out though the shell nozzle at the bottom
side of the shell wall. A check valve is installed at the inlet of the drain.

39
The pipe work system which operates inside the tank has to be flexible to allow for the
movement of the roof. The two most common used systems are the articulated piping
system and the flexible pipe system.

Articulated piping system uses solid steel pipe with a series of articulated knuckle joints
or flexible swing joint. Figure 1.24 shows the articulated piping system in a floating tank.

ESEDA
Figure 1.24 Articulated Piping System

Flexible pipe system is installed in a single continuous length without ballasting or other
devices. It maintains constant repeatable lay-down pattern on the tank floor, expanding
and contracting with the rise and fall of the roof, not interfere with the equipment of
accessories inside the tank.

Flexible pipe system consists of flexible rubber hose or steel pipe. However rubber is not
recommended for oil industry. As stated in API 650 (2007), siphon type and non-armored
hose-type are not acceptable as primary roof drain. Figure 1.25 shows photo of a flexible
steel pipe system installed in a floating roof tank.

40
 Figure 1.25 Flexible Steel Pipe System Inside the Tank

Emergency roof drain shall be installed, but only to double deck roof. Its purpose is to
allow natural drainage of rainwater in case of malfunction of the primary drain.

ESEDA
Emergency roof drains are prohibited by API 650 (2007) on the single deck pontoon
roofs as the product level in the tank is always higher than the rainwater level in the
centre deck, this would cause the product to discharge through the drain onto the roof
rather than allow water to drain into the tank. It will also allow vapour to escape from the
tank as it is an open drain. Even though emergency drain was addressed in the API 650
(2007) for double deck roof, some company had already banned the usage of the
emergency drain.

Figure 1.26 and Figure 1.27 were taken in November 1993 at one of the refinery plant in
Singapore where it showed an articulated drain system installed in the tank. This system
had only in service for approximately 2.5 years; however considerable corrosion was
observed on the end connector and the galvanized side plate.

41
Figure 1.26 Articulated drain pipe system installed inside the tank

ESEDA

Figure 1.27 Flexible Swing Joint

42
2.18.4 Vent – Bleeder Vents

Automatic bleeder vents shall be furnished for venting the air to or from the underside of
the deck when filling and emptying the tank. This is to prevent overstress of the roof deck
or seal membrane. These vent only come to operate when the floating roof landed, and
the tank is drained down or being filled.

Figure 1.28 shows the operation of the valve. The length of the push rod is designed in a
way that as the tank is emptied, the rod touches the tank floor before the roof support leg
landed and the will open automatically, freely venting the space beneath the deck.
Similarly, when the tank is filling up, the valve closes after all the air beneath the deck
has been expelled and the roof floats.

The number and size of the bleeder vent shall be sized accordance to the maximum filling
and emptying rates.

ESEDA

Roof on support legs Roof floating Roof on support legs

Tank filling Tank emptying

Figure 1.28 Bleeder vents [EEMUA 2003, vol.1, p.15]

43
2.18.5 Centering and Anti-Rotation Device

Anti-rotation devices also called guide pole is required as stated in API 650 (2007) to
maintain the roof in central position and prevent it from rotation. It shall be located near
to the gauger platform and capable of resisting the lateral forces imposed by the roof
ladder, unequal snow load and wind load.

2.18.6 Rolling Ladder and Gauger Platform

Rolling ladder is the mean of access on to the floating roof. The upper end of the ladder is
attached to the gauger platform and the lower end is provided with an axle with a wheel
on side of ladder which runs on a steel track mounted on a runway structure supported off
the roof. This is so that as the roof moves up and down, the ladder can slide along and

ESEDA
take up vary angle as required. This is why the floating roof is always sized up in such a
way that the tank diameter shall at least be equal to its height to enable the use of the
rolling ladder for access to the roof.

There will be a reaction at the lower end of the ladder causing a localized and eccentric
load on the roof, this has to be taken into consideration while designing the roof. Gauger
platform is a small access area overhangs the shell to allow the guide pole, and some
other instrument to pass through providing access for the maintenance personnel.

2.19 Fire Fighting System and Foam Dam

A fire detection system shall be installed when required, fires in floating roof tanks are
usually in the area between the shell and the rim of the floating roof. The floating roof
tanks shall be equipped with the fire fighting system, the foam system, which the system
is designed to deliver a flame smothering expanded foam mixture into the tank rim space
to extinguish the fire. A foam dam which consists of a short vertical plate is to welded to

44
the top pontoon plate at a short distance from the seal, with the height higher than the
upper tip of the seal, to allow the whole seal area to flooded with the foam and
extinguishes the fire effectively.

Figure 1.29 shows a typical arrangement of the foam system which it consists of a foam
generated and pourer, installed around the tank periphery.

ESEDA
Figure 1.29 Foam Fire Fighting System

45
 TANK DESIGN

3.1 Introduction

Storage tank design consists of 2 main sections – Shell Design and Roof Design. The
shell design include the shell stress design which is to size up the shell wall thickness, top
and intermediate stiffener ring, stability check against the wind and seismic load and
sizing up the anchor bolt. The roof design will consist of roof stress design, and the roof
accessories and fitting design.

3.2 Shell Design

The tank shell is designed accordance to the API 650 (2007) and the design

ESEDA
considerations had been stated in the literature review under Chapter 2.12, Mechcanical
Design Consideation. It was also mentioned in the literature review that there are several
methods stated in API 650 (2007) to determine the shell wall thickness. Based on the tank
size of 39 m diameter, 1-Foot Method was the most appropriate method to be used. The
1-foot method calculates the thickness required at design points 0.3 m (1ft) above the
bottom of each shell course.

The required minimum thickness of shell plates shall be the greater of the value
computed as followed [API 650, 2007]:

Design shell thickness:

4.9 D( H − 0.3).G
td = + C. A
Sd

Hydrostatic test shell thickness:

4.9 D( H − 0.3)
tt =
St

46
Where

td = design shell thickness, mm

tt = hydrostatic test shell thickness, mm
D= nominal tank diametr, m
H= design liquid level, m
G= design specific gravity of the liquid stored
C.A = corrosion allowance, mm
Sd = allowable stress for the design condition, MPa
St = allowable stress for the hydrostatic test condition, MPa

The equation in the API 650 (2007) 1-Foot Method can be derived from the basic
membrane theory, the two main stresses exerting on the cylindrical shell due to the
internal pressure are longitudinal stress and circumferential stress. Let’s look into each
stress individually by analyzing the stresses in the thin-walled cylindrical shell which an

ESEDA
internal pressure exerted on it.

3.2.1 Longitudinal Stress

Figure 2.1 show a thin walled cylindrical in which the longitudinal force FL resulted from
the internal pressure, Pi, acting on the thin cylinder of thickness t, length L, and diameter
D.

FL FL t

Pi D

Figure 2.1 Longitudinal forces acting on thin cylinder under internal pressure

47
Longitudinal force, FL = Pi x π/4 x D2

Area resisting FL, a = π x D x t

(Shade area)

Longitudinal Force, FL
Longitudinal Stress, SL = Resisting Area, a
Pi. D
SL = 4. t

In term of thickness, Pi. D

tL =
4. SL

We call this equation as Longitudinal Stress Thickness Equation.

3.2.2 Circumferential Stress

ESEDA
Similarly Figure 2.2 considers the circumferential stresses caused by internal pressure, Pi,
acting on the thin cylinder of thickness t, length L, and diameter D.

½ FC ½ FC

D Pi

½ FC ½ FC
t

Figure 2.2 Circumferential l forces acting on thin cylinder under internal pressure

48
Circumferential force, FC = Pi x D x L

Area resisting FC, a = 2. L x t

(Shade area)

Circumferential Force, FC
Circumferential Stress, SC =
Resisting Area, a
Pi. D
SC =
2. t
In term of thickness, Pi. D
tC =
2. SC

We call this equation as Circumferential Stress Thickness Equation.

3.2.3 Longitudinal Stress versus Circumferential Stress

ESEDA
Comparing the both thickness equations due to the longitudinal stress and circumferential
stress, with a specific allowable stress, pressure and fixed diameter, the required wall
thickness to withstand the internal pressure, Pi, for circumferential stress will twice that
required for the longitudinal stress. Circumferential stress in the thin wall will be the
governing stress and hence the Circumferential Stress Thickness Equation (tC) is used.

3.2.4 Circumferential Stress Thickness Equation and 1-Foot Method

From the Circumferential Stress Thickness Equation, replace the internal pressure, pi to
the hydrostatic pressure due to product liquid head (ρgh), consider the effective head at
0.3 m height (H – 0.3), and consider the corrosion allowance (C.A) by adding in to the
equation as per Figure 2.3. The minimum required thickness from the 1-Foot method can
be now be derived.

49
 (H – 0.3)
ϕgh

Pi . D
t = + C.A 4.9D(H − 0.3).G
2 . Sc t= + C.A
Sd

Allowable design stress, Sd

Figure 2.3 Circumferential Stress Thickness equation to 1-Foot method equation

3.2.5 Shell Design Thickness Calculation

The design calculation for the shell wall thickness is attached in Appendix B. The

ESEDA
calculation result for the shell wall thickness is summaries in Table 2.1 and Figure 2.4.

Table 2.1 Shell wall design thickness summary

Where,

t.design = Minimum required thickness due to design condition,

t.hydo. = Minimum required thickness due to hydrostatic test,

t.min = The greater value of t,design and t.hydro., and

tsc = Actual thickness used.

50
 Excessive Thickness

2440
(11t) 1715.2

2440
(11t) 3,735.2
2440
(11) 5,755.2

2440
(13t) 8,195.2
20,700

2440
(16t) 10,635.2
2440
(19t) 13.075.2

2440
(22t) 15,515.2

ESEDA
2440
(25t) 17,955.2
2440 304.8
(28t) 20,395.2

Shell Hydrostatic
Pressure Shell Thk Static head
Course
Diagram @ 1 ft
ρgh)
(ρ

Figure 2.4 Diagrammatic sketch of shell wall with design thickness

From the 1-Foot equation, it can be seen that the minimum required shell thickness is
directly proportional to the liquid static height; hence the shell thickness diagram shall
follow the same shape profile with the hydrostatic pressure due to the design liquid height
as shown in Figure 2.4. However it is impractical to construct the tank with the taper
thickness, therefore different shell course with different thickness is used. The use of
courses with diminishing thickness will has the effect that, at the joint between two
adjacent courses, the thicker lower course provides some stiffening to the top, thinner
course and this cause an increase in stress in the upper part of the lower course and a
reduction in stress in the lower part of the upper course. API 650 (2007) assumes that the

51
reduction in stress in the upper course reaches a maximum value at one foot (300 mm)
above the joint and it is at this point, on each course from which the effective acting head
is measured [Bob, 2004]. This shows how the 1-Foot method was employed.

3.2.6 Top Stiffener and Intermediate Wind Girder Design

3.2.6.1 Top Stiffener/ Top Wind Girder

Stiffener rings of top wind girder are to be provided in an open-top tank to maintain the
roundness when the tank is subjected to wind load. The stiffener rings shall be located at
or near the top course and outside of the tank shell. The girder can also be used as an
access and maintenance platform. There are five numbers of typical stiffener rings
sections for the tank shell given in API 650 (2007) and they are shown in Figure 2.5 [API
650, 2007].

ESEDA

Figure 2.5 Typical stiffener ring section for ring shell

52
The requirement in API 650 (2007) stated that when the stiffener rings or top wind girder
are located more than 0.6 m below the top of the shell, the tank shall be provided with a
minimum size of 64 x 64 x 4.8 mm top curb angle for shells thickness 5 mm, and with a
76 x 76 x 6.4 mm angle for shell more than 5 mm thick. A top wind girder in my tank is
designed to locate at 1 m from the top of tank and therefore for a top curb angle of size 75
x 75 x 10 mm is used in conjunction with the stiffener detail a) in Figure 2.5. The top
wind girder is designed based on the equation for the minimum required section modules
of the stiffener ring [API 650, 2007].

2
D2H2  V 
Z=  
17  190 

Where

Z= Minimum required section modulus, cm³

D= Nominal tank diameter, m

ESEDA
H2 = Height of the tank shell, in m, including any freeboard provided above the
maximum filling height

V= design wind speed (3-sec gust), km/h

D2H
The term 17 on the equation is based on a wind speed of 190 km/h and therefore the
 V 2
 
term  190  is included in the equation for the desire design wind speed. The design
calculation for the top wind girder is attached in Appendix B section 4.0. From the design
calculation, a fabricated Tee-girder of size T 825 x 250 x 8 x 10 with toe plate length 250
mm, web plate length 825 mm, toe plate thickness 10 mm and web plate thickness 8mm
is used. The detail of the Tee-girder used for the top wind girder is shown in Figure 2.6.

53
 10 mm

Web plate

250 mm
Shell plate

8 mm

825 mm
Toe plate

Figure 2.6 Fabricated Tee Girder for Top Wind Girder

With the design wind speed of 140 km/h, nominal tank diameter of 39,000 mm and
height of tank shell 20,700 mm, the minimum required section modulus for the top wind
girder was found to be 1,007,140 mm³ and the available section modulus for Tee girder T
825 x 250 x 8 x 10 is 2,655,662 mm³. Therefore the selected girder size is sufficient.

ESEDA
Accordance to API 60 (2007) clause 5.9.5, support shall be provided for all stiffener rings
when the dimension of the horizontal leg or web exceeds 16 times the leg or web
thickness [API 650, 2007]. The supports shall be spaced at the interval required for the
dead load and vertical live load. The web length of 825 mm had exceeded the 16 times of
its thickness (16 x 8 = 128 mm), supports for the girders will be provided.

3.2.6.2 Intermediate Wind Girder

The shell of the storage tank is susceptible to buckling under influence of wind and
internal vacuum, especially when in a near empty or empty condition. It is essential to
analysis the shell to ensure that it is stable under these conditions. Intermediate stiffener
or wind girder will be provided if necessary.

To determine whether the intermediate wind girder is required, the maximum height of
the un-stiffened shell shall be determined. The maximum height of the un-stiffener shell
will be calculated as follows [API 650, 2007]:

54
 3 3
 t   190 
H 1 = 9.47t    
D  V 

Where

H1 = Vertical distance, in m, between the intermediate wind girder and top wind girder

t= Thickness of the top shell course, mm

D= Nonimal tank diameter, m

V= design wind speed (3-sec gust), km/h

As stated in earlier section 3.25, the shell is made of up diminishing thickness and it
makes the analysis difficult. The equivalent shell method is employed to convert the
multi-thickness shell into an equivalent shell having the equal thickness as to the top shell
course. The actual width of each shell course in changed into a transposed width of each
shell course having the top shell course thickness by the following formula [API 650,

ESEDA
2007]:

5
 t uniform 
Wtr = W  

 t actual 

Where

Wtr = Transposed width of each shell course, mm

W = Actual width of each shell course, mm

tuniform = Thickness of the top shell course, mm

tactual = Thickness of the shell course for which the transpose width is being

calculated, mm

The sum of the transposed width of the courses will be the height of the transformed shell
(H2). The summary of transform shell height is shown in Figure 2.7.

55
 Figure 2.7 Height of transform shell

ESEDA
If the height of transformed shell is greater than the maximum height of un-stiffened
shell, intermediate wind girder is required. The total number intermediate wind girder
required can be determined by simply divide the height of transformed shell with the
maximum un-stiffened shell height. The maximum un-stiffened shell height is calculated
to be 9,182 mm which is less then the transformed shell height; hence an intermediate
wind girder is required. The detail calculation is the intermediate wind girder is attached
in Appendix B section 5.0.

Similarly, minimum required section modulus of the intermediate wind girder has to be
determined. The same equation in the top wind girder can be used, but instead of the total
shell height H2, the vertical distance between the intermediate wind girder and top wind
girder is used. The equation will become [API 650, 2007]:

2
D 2 H1  V 
Z=  
17  190 

56
Where

Z= Minimum required section modulus, cm³

D= Nominal tank diameter, m

H2 = Height of the tank shell, in m, including any freeboard provided above the
maximum filling height

V= design wind speed (3-sec gust), km/h

The minimum required section modulus for the intermediate wind girder was calculated
to be 225,812 mm³ and a fabricated Tee-girder of size T 405 x 150 x 8 x 8 with toe plate
length 150 mm, web plate length 405 mm, toe plate thickness 8 mm and web plate
thickness 8 mm is used. The available section modulus for intermediate Tee girder is
863,143 mm³ and proven that the selected girder size is sufficient. The detail of the
selected intermediate Tee-girder is shown in Figure 2.8.

ESEDA 8 mm

Web plate
150 mm

Shell plate
8 mm

405 mm
Toe plate

Figure 2.8 Fabricated Tee Girder for Intermediate Wind Girder

3.2.7 Overturning Stability against Wind Load

The overturning stability of the tank shall be analyzed against the wind pressure, and to
determine the stability of the tank with and without anchorage. The wind pressure used in
the analysis is given as per API 650 (2007). The design wind pressure on the vertical
projected areas of cylindrical surface area (ws) shall be 0.86 kPa (V/190)² and 1.44 kPa
(V/190)² uplift on horizontal projected area of conical surface (wr). These design wind

57
pressure are in accordance with American Society of Civil Engineer - ASCE 7 for wind
exposure Category C [ASCE 7, 2005]. The loading diagram due to the wind pressure on
the floating roof tank is shown in Figure 2.9.

Wind uplift load

Internal pressure load

D/2

Wind load on
shell, Fs
Moment about
H/2 shell to bottom
joint

ESEDA
Dead Load (WDL)

Liquid hold down weight (Wa)

Figure 2.9 Overturning check on tank due to wind load

The wind load (Fs) on the shell is calculated by multiplying the wind pressure ws to the
projected area of the shell, and the wind load (Fr) on the roof will be zero as the roof will
be floating on the liquid into the tank, where there will be no projected area for the roof.

As per API 650 (2007), the tank will be structurally stable without anchorage when the
below uplift criteria are meet [API 650, 2007].

i. 0.6 Mw + Mpi < MDL / 1.5

ii. Mw + 0.4 Mpi < (MDL + MF) / 5

58
Where

Mpi = moment about the shell-to-bottom from design internal pressure (Pi) and it can be

calculated by the formula  π × D 2 × Pi  × D .

1 1
4  2

Mw = Overturning moment about the shell-to-bottom joint from horizontal plus vertical
wind pressure and is equal to Fr.Lr + Fs.Ls. Fr and Fs is the wind load acting on the roof
and shell respectively and Lr and Ls is the height from tank bottom to the roof center and
shell center respectively.

MDL = Moment about the shell-to-bottom joint from the weight of the shell and roof
supported by the shell and is calculated as 0.5 D. WDL. The weight of the roof is zero
since the roof is floating on the liquid.

MF = Moment about the shell-to-bottom joint from liquid weight and is equal

to 
wa × π × D  D

ESEDA
× .
 1000  2

The liquid weight (wa) is the weight of a band of liquid at the shell using a specific
gravity of 0.7 and a height of one-half the design liquid height H. Wa will be the lesser of
0.90 H.D or 59 × tb Fby × H . Fby is the minimum specified yield stress of the bottom

plate under the shell and tb is the thickness of Bottom plate under the shell.

The detail calculation for the overturning stability against wind load is in Appendix B
section 6.0. The calculation had shown that both the uplift criteria are met and the tank
will be structurally stable even without anchorage. A summarized result is shown in
Figure 2.10.

0.6 Mw + Mpi = 4,345,020,578 < MDL / 1.5

Mw + 0.4 Mpi = 7,241,700,964 < (MDL +MF) / 2

Figure 2.10 Summary Result for Overturning Stability against wind load

59
3.2.8 Seismic Design

The seismic design of the storage tank is accordance to API 650 (2007) – Appendix E.
There are three major analyses to be performed in the seismic design, and they are:

i) Overturning Stability check - The overturning moment will be calculated and

check for the anchorage requirement. The number of anchor bolt required and
the anchor bolt size will also be determined based on the overturning moment.

ii) Maximum base shear

iii) Freeboard required for the sloshing wave height – It is essential for a floating
roof tank to have sufficient freeboard to ensure the roof seal remain within the

ESEDA
height the tank shell.

Uplift force due to seismic

Free board

Convective

Impulsive
Base Shear, V
Overturning Moment, Mrw

Figure 2.11 Seismic Diagram for a Floating Roof Tank

60
The behavior of liquid in a vertical cylindrical container when subjected to an earthquake
was clarified by G.W. Houser in his paper “Earthquake Pressures on Fluid Containers”
and the theory is now widely used and also applied in API 650 (2007). The seismic
design addressed in API 650 (2007) Appendix E is based on the Allowable Stress Design
(ASD) Method with the specific load combination and the ground motion requirements
are derived from ASCE 7, which is based on a maximum considered earthquake ground
motion defined as the motion due to an event with a 2% probability of exceed within a
50-year period [API 650, 2007]. The pseudo-dynamic design procedures are based on the
response spectra analysis methods and two response modes of the tank and its content –
impulsive and convective are considered.

The impulsive component is the part of the liquid in the lower part of the tank which
moves with the tank as though it were a solid. It experiences the same accelerations and

ESEDA
displacement as the tank. The convective component is the part of the liquid in the upper
part of the tank which is free to form waves or to slosh. It has a much longer natural
frequency time than the impulsive portion. The detail of the convective frequency is
discussed in section 3.2.8.4. The impulsive mode is based on a 5% damped response
spectral and 0.5% damped spectral for the convective mode. Impulsive and convective
shall be combined by the direct sum or the square roof of the sum of the squares (SRSS)
method.

The tank is presumed to be rigid but this is not exactly true. This presumption is normally
made for the ambient tanks and it provides answers of sufficient accuracy, but only to the
tank shell. This seismic design is only apply to the tank shell, seismic design of floating
roofs is beyond the API 650 (2007) scope and it will be a challenge for engineer to
analyses the seismic effect on the floating roof.

61
3.2.8.1 Site Geometry Design Data for Seismic Design

The site geometry design data for seismic design to be used in the analysis are as follow:

i) Seismic Peak Ground Acceleration, Sp = 0.3g

ii) Importance Factor, I = 1.50

iii) Site Class = D

iv) Seismic Group, SUG = III

This tank is to be built and installed in Turkmenistan, which is outside the U.S.A region
and not defined in ASCE 7. For site not defined in ASCE 7, API 650 (2007) defined the
following substitution [API 650, 2007]:

• For 5% damped spectral response acceleration parameter at short period of 0.2

ESEDA
sec, Ss = 2.5 Sp

• For 5% damped spectral response acceleration parameter at period of 1.0 sec,

S1 = 1.25 Sp

3.2.8.2 Overturning Stability

The seismic overturning moment at the base of the tank shall be the SRSS summation of
the impulsive and convective components multiply by the respective moment arms to the
center of action of the forces.

For tanks supported by the concrete ring wall, the equation for calculating the ringwall
moment, Mrw is as follow [API 650, 2007]:

62
 Mrw = [Ai(WiXi + WsXs + WrXr )]2 + [Ac(WcXc)]2

Where

Ai = Impulsive design response spectrum acceleration coefficient, %g

Ac = Convective design response spectrum acceleration coefficient, %g

Wi = Effective impulsive portion of liquid weight, N

Ws = Total weight of the tank shell and appurtenances, N

Wr = Total weight of fixed tank roof including framing, knuckles, any permanent
attachments and 10% of the roof design snow load, N

Wc = Effective convective (sloshing) portion of liquid weight, N

Xi = Height from the bottom of the tank shell to the center of action of the lateral

ESEDA
seismic force related to the impulsive liquid force for ring wall moment, m

Xs = Height from the bottom of the tank shell to the shell’s center of gravity, m

Xr = Height from the bottom of the tank shell to the roof and roof appurtenances center
of gravity, m

Xc = Height from the bottom of the tank shell to the center of action of the lateral
seismic force related to the convective liquid force for ring wall moment, m

This overturning moment is important for the mechanical to design the anchorage
requirement and determine the minimum the number and size of the anchor bolt for the
storage tank. It is also important to the civil engineer to design the tank foundation in
which the tank is being supported.

63
3.2.8.3 Design Spectral Accelerations

The spectral acceleration parameters are given in the equation below and they are based
on the response spectrum pictured in Figure 2.12. The parameter in equation are defined
the section 8.2.8.4.

• Impulsive spectral acceleration parameter, Ai [API650, 2007]:

 I  I
Ai = S DS   = 2.5Q.Fa.So
 Rwi  Rwi

But, Ai ≥ 0.007

And, site class E and F only,:

ESEDA
 I  I
Ai = 0.5S1   = 0.875Sp
 Rwi  Rwi

• Convective spectral acceleration parameter, Ac[API650, 2007]:

For Tc ≤ TL,

 1  I   Ts  I 
Ac = KS D1   = 2.5K .Q.Fa.So  
T  Rwc   T  Rwc 
 c   c

For Tc > TL,

T   Ts.T 
 L  I   L  I 
Ac = KS   
D1 2  Rwc 
= 2.5K .Q.Fa.So  Rwc 
T   Tc 2  
 C  

64
Figure 2.12 Design Response Spectral for Ground-Supported Liquid Storage Tanks [API650, 2007]

3.2.8.4 Parameter Required for Seismic Design

i)

ESEDA
Convective (Sloshing) Period, Tc

The first mode sloshing wave period (Tc), in second is calculated by the following
equation [API650, 2007].

Tc = 1.8Ks. D

Where Ks = sloshing period coefficient and is defined as

0.578
Ks =
 3.68H 
tanh 
 D 

Or it can also be determined from the figure 2.13.

65
 Figure 2.13 Sloshing Period Coefficient, Ks [API650, 2007]

ii) Regional-dependent transition period for longer period ground motion, TL

It was defined in API 650 (2007) that for regions outside U.S.A, TL shall be taken as

ESEDA
4 seconds [API650, 2007].

iii) Scaling Factor, Q

The scaling factor, Q was defined to be taken as 1.0 in API 650 (2007) unless it was
otherwise defines in the regulatory requirement where ASCE 7 does not apply
[API650, 2007].

iv) Acceleration-based site coefficient (at 0.2 sec period), Fa

The acceleration- based site coefficient at 0.2 second period, Fa was determined
directly from the Table 2.2.

66
 Mapped Maximum Considered Earthquake Spectral Response Acceleration at Short Periods
Site Class Ss ≤ 0.25 Ss = 0.50 Ss = 0.75 Ss = 1.0 Ss ≥ 1.25
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0
D 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0
E 2.5 1.7 1.2 0.9 0.9
F a a a a a
a
Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis is required.
Table 2.2 Value of Fa as a Function of Site Class [API650, 2007]

For site class of D and Ss as 2.5 Sp, where Sp = 0.3g, Ss = 0.75, therefore Fa is taken
as 1.2.

v) Velocity-based site coefficient (at 1.0 sec period), Fv

ESEDA
Similarly, the velocity-based site coefficient at 1.0 second period, Fv was determined
directly from the Table 2.3.

Mapped Maximum Considered Earthquake Spectral Response Acceleration at 1 Sec Periods

Site Class S1 ≤ 0.1 S1 = 0.2 S1= 0.3 S1 = 0.4 S1 ≥ 0.5
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3
D 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.5
E 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.4
F a a a a a
a
Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis is required.
Table 2.3 Value of Fv as a Function of Site Class [API650, 2007]

For site class of D and S1 as 1.25 Sp, where Sp = 0.3g, S1 = 0.375, Fa is to be

interpolate between the value in S1 = 0.3 and S1 = 0.4. The interpolated value for Fv
is 1.65.

67
 vi) Response modification factors for ASD Methods, Rw

The ASD response modification factors, Rwi for impulsive and Rwc for convective
are normally defined by the regulations, and if these value are not defined by the
regulations, the values defined in API 650 (2007) shall be used. There is no value
defined by the regulation for this project, therefore value from API 650 (2007) will be
used. The response modification factors for ASD method defined in API 650 (2007)
as shown in Table 2.4.

Anchorage System Rwi (Impulsive) Rwc (Convective)

Self-anchored 3.5 2
Mechanically - anchored 4 2

Table 2.4 Response Modification Factors for ASD Methods [API650, 2007]

ESEDA
The tank was designed to be mechanically anchored, therefore the response modification
factors for Impulsive (Rwi) is 4 and for Convective (Rwc) is 2.

The design parameters are summarized in the Table 2.5 and the spectral accelerations can
be calculated.

Impulsive Convective
Q 1
Fa 1.2
Fv 1.65
I 1.5
Rw 4 2
Tc 6.63 s
TL 4s
So 0.3
SDS 0.9
SD1 0.6187

Table 2.5 Summary of design parameter

68
Impulsive Spectral Acceleration,

 I  I
Ai = S DS   = 2.5Q.Fa.So = 0.34% g
 Rwi  Rwi

Convective Spectral Acceleration,

(Tc > TL)

 T  I   Ts.T  I 
Ac = KS D1  L2   = 2.5 K .Q.Fa.So 2 L   = 0.0633% g
 C 
T Rwc   Tc  Rwc 

And the response spectrum curve is plotted as shown in Figure 2.14.

Spectral Response Acceleration, Sa

ESEDA
0.8
0.7 Sai (Impulsive)
0.6
Sac (Convective)
0.5
0.4 Ai = 0.34%g
0.3 SD
0.2 Ac = 0.0633%g
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ts = 0.69s Periods, T (sec)
T0 = 0.138s Tc = 6.63

Figure 2.14 Response Spectrum Curve

3.2.8.5 Effective Weight of Product

The effective weights Wi and Wc are determine by multiplying the total product weight,
Wp by the weight ratio (Wi / Wp) and (Wc / Wp) respectively as per equation below.
These equations are originally developed by Housner and it is now employed by the API
650 (2007). The relationships between the equations are also graphically illustrated in
Figure 2.15. The proportion of the product liquid in the impulsive and convective

69
portions is a function of the tank shape and the calculation methods will be different for
short tanks with D/H greater than 1.333 and for tall tanks with D/H less than 1.333.

• For effective impulsive weight,

When D/H ≥ 1.333,

 D 
tanh  0 . 866 
 H 
Wi = 0 . 866
.Wp

When D/H < 1.333,

 D
Wi = 1.0 − 0.218 .Wp
 H

• For effective convective weight,

ESEDA
Wc = 0.230
D
H
 0.367 H
tanh
 D

.Wp


Figure 2.15 Effective weight of Liquid ratio [API650, 2007]

70
3.2.8.6 Center of Action for Effective Lateral Forces

The moment arm from the base of the tank to the center of action for the equivalent
lateral forces from the liquid has to be defined for the overturning moment. The center of
action for the impulsive lateral forces for the tank shell, roof and appurtenances is
assumed to act through the center of gravity of the component.

The heights from the bottom of the tank shell to the center of action of the lateral force
seismic force applied to the effective weights Wi and Wc, Xi and Xc are determine by
multiplying the maximum design liquid height H by the ratio (Xi / H) and (Xc / H)
respectively as per equation below [API 650, 2007]. The relationships between the
equations are also graphically illustrated in Figure 2.16.

ESEDA
• For impulsive force,

When D/H ≥ 1.333,

Xi = 0 . 375 H

When D/H < 1.333,

 D
Xi = 0.5 − 0.094 .H
 H

• For convective force,

  3.67 H  
 cosh  −1 
Xc = 1.0 −  D  .H
 3.67 H  3.67 H 
 sinh  
 D  D 

71
 X/H

Xc /H

Xi /H

Figure 2.16 Center of Action for Effective Forces [API650, 2007]

3.2.8.7 Ring Wall Moment

ESEDA
The ring wall moment, Mrw now can be determine after all the parameters in 3.2.8.3 to
3.2.8.6 are defined, this moment is the portion of the total overturning moment that acts
at the base of the tank shell perimeter and is used to determined loads on a ring wall
foundation, the tank anchorage forces, and to check the longitudinal shell compression.

3.2.8.8 Base Shear Force

The seismic base shear is defined as the SRSS combination of the impulsive and
convective components with the following equation [API 650, 2007].

V = Vi 2 + Vc 2

Where

Vi = Impulsive force and is defined as

Vi = Ai ( Ws + Wr + Wf + Wi),

72
Vc = Convective force and is defined as

Vc= Ac.Wc

And

Wi = Effective impulsive portion of liquid weight, N

Ws = Total weight of the tank shell and appurtenances, N

Wr = Total weight of fixed tank roof including framing, knuckles, any permanent
attachments and 10% of the roof design snow load, N

Wf = Total weight of the tank bottom, N

Wc = Effective convective (sloshing) portion of liquid weight, N

Not that the tank is a floating roof tank, therefore Wr = 0 and the total weight of the tank
roof is added to the weight of the tank content, as the roof is floating on the liquid.

ESEDA
The base shear force and the ring wall moment due to the seismic effect is summarized
the seismic moment and force diagram in Figure 2.17.

Wc = 100,998 KN
Convective

Xc =12.7 m Wi =
137,636 KN Impulsive

V = 48,327 KN
Mrw = 381,453
Xi = 7.8 m
KNm

Figure 2.17 Seismic Moment and Force Diagram

73
3.2.8.9 Resistance to Overturning

There are three resisting components to resist against the overturning due to the seismic;
they are the i) anchorage, ii) annular plate width which sits directly under the first shell
course and iii) the shell compression at the bottom of the shell.

i) Anchorage requirement

The resistance to the design ring wall overturning moment at the base of the shell will be
provided by the weight of the tank shell, weight of the roof reaction, Wrs, by the weight
of a portion of the tank contents adjacent to the shell for unanchored tanks or provided by
the mechanical anchorage devices.

ESEDA
The anchorage requirement is checked by the Anchorage Ratio, J, and the anchorage ratio
criteria in Table 2.6 will determine whether the tank can be self-anchored or
mechanically anchored.

Anchorage Ratio,
Criteria
J

No calculated uplifted under the design seismic overturning

J ≤ 0.785
moment. The tank is self-anchored.

Tank is uplifting, but the tank is stable for the design load providing
0.785 < J ≤ 01.54 the shell compression requirements are satisfied. Tank is self-
anchored.

Tank is not stable and cannot be self-anchored for the design load.
J > 1.54 Modify the annular plate if L < 0.035D is not controlling or add
mechanical anchorage.

Table 2.6 Anchorage Ratio Criteria [API650, 2007]

74
The anchorage ratio, J is determined as follow [API650, 2007]:

Mrw
J=
D [wt (1 − 0.4 Av ) + wa − 0.4 wint ]
2

Where

wt = Weight of tank shell & portion of roof supported by shell and is define as

Ws
wt = + wrs
π .D
wa = Resisting force of annulus which is defined as

7 . 9 ta Fy . H .Ge ≤ 1 . 28 H . D .Ge

And Fy = Min. specified yield strength of bottom annulus, = 241 N/mm2

H= Maximum design product level, m

ESEDA
Ge = Effective specific gravity including vertical seismic effect
= G.(1 - 0.4 Av)

Av = Vertical earthquake acceleration coefficient

; G = 1, Specific gravity

= 0.7 (as defined in Site Design Data)

Wint = Uplift due to product pressure

= 0 (for floating roof tank )

wrs = Roof load acting on shell, including 10% of specified snow load
= 0 (for floating roof)

The anchorage ratio was found to be 2.19 which is more the 1.54; therefore the tank has
to be mechanically anchored. Anchor bolt will have to be design and sized up.

75
ii) Annular plate requirement

Before going into the anchor bolt design, annular plate width shall be check to the
stability due to the seismic. For the thickness of the bottom plate or annular plate (ta)
under the shell is thicker than the remainder, the minimum projection of the supplied
thicker annular plate inside the tank wall shall be at least equal to L and not more than
0.035 times the tank nominal diameter, and

Fy
L = 0.01723 ⋅ t a (450 ≤ L ≤ 0.035D)
H .Ge

The minimum annular width, L was calculated as 1,108.57 mm and the actual width used
in 1,200 mm. Hence the annular plate width is sufficient for the seismic loading.

ESEDA
Shell Bottom

ts= 28
Annular Plate
Bottom Plate
ta= 16 mm

L = 1,108.57 mm

Figure 2.18 Annular Plate Requirement

iii) Shell Compression

The maximum shell longitudinal compression stress at the bottom of the shell for the
mechanical-anchored tanks is determined by the below formula, and ts is the thickness
bottom shell course less corrosion allowance [API 650, 2007].

 1.273Mrw  1
σ c =  wt (1 + 0.4 Av ) + 
 D2  1000ts

76
The calculated maximum longitudinal shell compression stress has to be less than the
allowable stress Fc, which can be determined as follow [API 650, 2007]:

GHD 2 83ts
When ≥ 44, Fc =
t 2 D

GHD 2 83ts
When < 44, Fc = + 7.5 (G ⋅ H )
t 2 2.5 D

And Fc < 0.5Fty

The maximum longitudinal shell compression stress, σc is calculated to be 12.69 N/mm²,

GHD 2
is 40.22 which is less than 44; and Fc is found to be 57.94 N/mm² which is less
t2

ESEDA
than 0.5 time the minimum specific yield stress of the bottom shell, Fty. Therefore, the
tank is structurally stable.

3.2.8.10 Anchorage Design

As the tank was found to be structurally unstable and cannot be self-anchored for the
design load, the tank has to be anchored with the anchor bolts. The anchor bolts are sized
to provide the minimum anchorage resistance, the design uplift load on the anchor bolts
due to the seismic is determined by the following [API650, 2007]:

 1.273Mrw 
w AB =  2
− wt (1 − 0.4 Av)  + wint
 D 

And it calculated to be 36.796 KN. The tensile stresses in the anchor bolt which the uplift
load applied on have to be check against the allowable tensile strength, which is 0.8 time
its specify yield stress, Sy. The material used for the anchor bolts is the high strength bolt
SA 320 Gr.L7, with the minimum specific yield stress of 551.5 N/mm², and the allowable

77
tensile strength for the bolt will be 0.8Sy = 441.2 N/mm². Total 86 numbers of M64 bolts
are pre-selected for the design, and hence the tensile stress on each of the anchor bolt can
W AB
be is determine by σ b = and found to be 161.94 N/mm², hence proving that the
N ⋅ Ab
selected number (N) and the anchor bolt size (Ab) is sufficient.

3.2.8.11 Freeboard

The minimum freeboard required above the top capacity is determined by considering the
sloshing of the liquid inside the tank.

δs

ESEDA Convective

Impulsive

Figure 2.19 Sloshing Wave of Liquid Inside Tank

The sloshing wave height above the product design height can be estimated by the
following equation [API 650,2007]:

δs = 0.5 D. Af

Where, for Tc > TL in the seismic group SUG III,

TL T T 
A f = K .S D 1 = 2 . 5 K .Q . FaSo  s 2L 
T C2  T 
 C 

78
Af was found to be 0.08 and δs will be 1,647 mm. Accordance to API 650 (2007), the
minimum required freeboard for the SUG III tanks and shall be equal to the sloshing
wave height, δs [API 650, 2007].

3.2.8.12 Seismic Design Summary

The complete seismic design calculation can be found in Appendix B - section 7 at the
end of the report.

ESEDA

79
3.3 Roof Design

There is limited procedure and rules provided for the floating roof design as most of the
components; particularly the fitting and accessories in the floating roof are proprietary
design. The roof design consists of roof type selection, buoyancy design, roof stress
design and the fitting and accessories design and operation.

3.3.1 Roof Type Selection

Different types of floating roof had been discussed in the previous chapter – literature
review. Therefore it is not worth to repeat here. The pontoon type - single deck floating
roof was normally used for tank diameter less than 65 m due to flexibility of the deck
plate, double deck will be used for larger diameter tank as double is more rigid and

ESEDA
stable. In view of out tank diameter of 39 m, and the cost effectiveness, the single deck
floating roof was selected. Further consideration of the insulation effect of the double
deck roof was also considered. As our tanks are to be built in a country with extreme
winter and snow, the consideration of melting the snow from the product is essential,
where the insulation effect due to the air gap between the decks plate in the double deck
floating roof is not favorable.

Figure 3.1 Single deck Floating roof

80
3.3.2 Pontoon and Center Deck Design

The basic requirement as stated in API 650 (2007) for the pontoon design is that the
pontoon has to be designed to have sufficient buoyancy to remain on the product with the
design specific gravity of 0.7 or lower for the product and inoperative of roof drain for:

– Deck plate & any two adjacent pontoon compartments punctured and
flooded the center deck as per figure 3.2.

– Rainfall of 10” (250 mm) in 24 hour period over roof area.

Bulkhead Pontoon

ESEDA
2 adjacent pontoon & center deck flooded

Figure 3.2 Center deck and 2 adjacent compartments puncture

API 650 (2007) required all the deck plate to have a minimum nominal thickness of 5
mm and the deck of the single deck pontoon floating roof has to be designed to be in
contact with the liquid during normal operation. The design shall be able to accommodate
the deflection of the deck caused by trapped vapour. A nominal thickness of 8 mm was
used in my center deck design, and this thickness will be verified the design calculation.
Figure 3.3 shows the minimum requirement for the single deck pontoon floating roof

81
with the inoperative roof drain, compartments puncture and deck plate flooded and
holding of 250 mm of rainfall.

Figure 3.3 Minimum Requirement for Single Deck Pontoon Floating Roof [EEMUA 2003, vol.1,
p118]

3.3.2.1 Roof Stress Design

ESEDA
Roof stress design is performed on the center deck by studying the stresses and analyzing
the effects of the stresses on the roof. There are two load cases used,

i) Dead Load Only – No flooding in center deck

Buoyant force, Fb

Deck self weight,

W(deck)

Figure 3.4 Case 1 – Dead Load Only

82
 W (deck ) − Fb
Unit Lateral Pr essure =
Deck Area

ii) Dead load plus 250 mm of rain accumulation

Buoyant force, Fb

10" Rain

Rain weight

Deck self weight,

ESEDA
Figure 3.5 Case 2 – Dead Load + 10” Rain Accumulation

W ( deck) + W ( rain) − Fb
Unit Lateral Pr essure =
Deck Area

3.3.2.2 Effect of Large Deflection on Center Deck

When a flat plate deflects under the normal condition, the middle surface, halfway
between top and bottom surfaces will remains unstressed; at other points there will be
biaxial stressed in the plane of the plate. When the deflection becomes larger and exceeds
one-half the plate thickness, the middle surface will become appreciably strained and the
stresses in it would cause defect or failure and hence it should not be ignored. This will
be the case in the thin deck plate of 8 mm. Figures 3.6 (a) and (b) show the defection of
the center deck under the two cases.

83
 Fixed and held by pontoon
Unit lateral pressure

Bouyant Force

Figure 3.6 (a) Deck Deflection in Case 1

Fixed and held by pontoon

Unit lateral pressure

ESEDA Rain
δ

Bouyant Force

Figure 3.6 (b) Deck Deflection in Case 2

This middle surface stress is called the diaphragm stress, or direct stress, and it enables
the plate to carry part of the load as a diaphragm in direct tension. This tension may be
balanced by radial tension at the edges if the edges are held or by circumferential
compression if the edges are not horizontally restrained. This circumferential
compression may cause buckling in the thin plate.

84
In the large deflection of the thin plate, the plate is stiffer than indicated by the ordinary
theory and the load-deflection and load-stress relation become non-linear. For circular
plates, where the maximum deflection exceeded half the thickness, the below formula
shall be used for more accurate and precise result [Roark, 2002].
3
qα 4 y  y
= K 1 + K 2  
Et 4 t t
2
σα 2 y  y
2
= K3 + K 4  
Et t t
Where

t= Thickness of plate (deck plate), mm

α= Outer radius of deck plate, mm

q= Unit lateral pressure on deck, N/mm²

ESEDA
y= Maximum deflection, mm

σ= Maximum stress due to flexure and diaphragm tension combined

= σb + σd

σb = Bending stress, N/mm²

σd = Diaphragm stress, N/mm²

The K constants are determined in the Roark’s Formula for Stress and Strain for different
cases and edge condition. The center deck plate is fixed and held at its outer edge by the
pontoon, hence the condition is considered as case no. 3 – edge condition fixed and held
with uniform pressure q over entire plate. The constants will then be determined as
below, v is the poisson ratio which is equal to 0.3 [Roark, 2002].

5.33
K1 = = 5.86
1− v2

2.6
K2 = = 2.86
1− v2

85
At Center :
2
K3 = = 2.86
1− v

K4 = 2.86

At Edge :
4
K3 =
1− v2 = 4.40

K4 = 1.73

The maximum deflection and the stresses for the both cases are summarized the Table
3.1.

σ total (N/mm2)
σ bending (N/mm2)
ESEDA
Max. Deflection, y (mm)
LOAD CASE 1
Deck Center Deck Edge

35.92
3.52
215.81
62.84
5.41
LOAD CASE 2
Deck Center

33.94
3.34
Deck Edge
214.38
59.37
5.14
σ diaphragm (N/mm2) 32.40 57.43 30.0 54.38

Table 3.1 Summary Result for Maximum Deflection and Stresses in Center Deck

3.3.2.3 Pontoon Stability – Pontoon Ring Design

The diaphragm stresses at the deck edge caused the tension at the outer edge of the deck;
hence there will be radial force acting at the inner rim of the pontoon. The relationship
between the radial force and the diaphragm stress as shown below.

Rh = σ diaphgram x deck thickness

86
Rh acting on the Inner Rim is modeled as load point at each mm of circumference, with a
very small angle between load points approximated to uniform distributed load in the
circular ring design.

Rh
Number of point loads at each mm is,

mid-pt Nlp = π x Rim Diameter (Øir)

α
1 360
, and angle α = ⋅
2 Nlp

Figure 3.7 Radial Forces Acting on Pontoon Inner Rim

The pontoon stability due to the radial loads is designed with reference to the Roark’s
Formula for Stress and Strain, it is model as closed circular ring and regarded as a
statically indeterminate beam and analyzed by the use of Castigliano’s second theorem

ESEDA
[Roark, 2002]. Formulas used are taken directly from the Table 9.2 in Roark’s Formula
for Stress and Strain, and they are based on several assumptions as listed below [Roark,
2002].

i) The ring is of uniform cross section and has symmetry about the plane of
curvature.

ii) All loading are applied at the radial position of the centroid of the cross
section. This is not the case for our pontoon ring as the radial load acting on
the inner rim are in the lower position, however this assumption is of little
concern for thin ring.

iii) It is nowhere stressed beyond the elastic limit.

iv) It is not so severely deformed as to lose its essentially circular shape.

v) Its deflection is due primarily to bending.

87
Case 7 - Ring under any number of equal radial forces equally space from Table 9.2 in
Roark’s Formula for Stress and Strain is selected and the formulas for the bending
moment and circumferential tensile force between and at the load point are as follow
[Roark, 2002]:

i) At mid-point:

Rh.Do  1 1
Bending Moment, Mm =  − 
4  sin α α 

Rh
Cir. Tensile Force, Tm = 2 sin α

ii) At load-point:

Rh.Do  1 1 
Bending Moment, Mr =  − 
4  α tan α 

ESEDA
Rh
Cir. Tensile Force, Tr =
2 tan α

The pontoon ring stability is checked against the pontoon properties. Figure 3.8 shows
the basic geometry for the pontoon and the results are summarized in the Table 3.2. The
pontoon section modulus, Za is calculated to 27,019,626 mm³.

2160
525

12 Rh
900
9 α

2187

Figure 3.8 Sectional Detail of Pontoon

88
 LOAD CASE 1 LOAD CASE 2
RING STABILITY CHECK
MID - POINT LOAD- POINT MID - POINT LOAD- POINT
Bending Moment (Nmm) 19.14 -38.29 18.08 -36.15
Circ. Force (N) 7,867,429 7,867,429 7,429,209 7,429,209
Bending Stress (N/mm2) 0.0000007 -0.000001 0.0000007 -0.000001
Circ. Stress (N/mm2) 159.98 159.98 151.07 151.07
Allow. Bending Stress 183 183 183 183
(N/mm2)
Allow. Axial Stress (N/mm2) 165 165 165 165
Unity Check 0.97 0.97 0.92 0.92
Condition OK OK OK OK

Table 3.2 Summary Result for Pontoon Ring Stability

Where,

Unity =
ESEDA
Actual Bending Stress

Allow. Bending Stress

+
Actual Circ. Stress

Allow. Comp. Stress

The complete design calculation on the roof stress design in attached in Appendix B
section 5 of this thesis report.

3.3.3 Fitting and Accessories Design

Figure 3.9 shows the typical standard accessories and fitting for single deck floating roof
which are essential for the operation of the floating roof tank. Each of the fitting and
accessories has its own unique importance; malfunction of any one of the fitting would
cause roof failure and potentially leading to fatality. The minimum requirement for the
roof fitting had been outlined in the Table 1.8 discussed in the Literature Review chapter.

89
 Gauger
Rim Seal Platform
Gauge Hatch
Pontoon Deck Manway Roller Ladder
Manway
Bleeder Vent Support Rail Track
Leg

Deck

Liquid Drain Sump with isolation

valve
Drain Pipe

Figure 3.9 Standard Fitting and Accessories for Single Deck Roof

3.3.3.1 Roof Seal System

ESEDA
As discussed in the chapter 2.4.2 principles of the floating roof, there will be a 200 mm of
gap between the inside of tank shell and the outer rim of the floating roof pontoon. The
main purpose of the roof seals are to close up the gap between pontoon & shell wall,
hence preventing the escape of vapor from the tank product to the atmosphere and
minimize the amount of rain and pollutant entering the product. The seals are also to
allow irregularities of the tank and roof construction and to account any radial or lateral
movement of the roof due to the wind and seismic. Therefore the seal must be flexible
enough to take in all these purposes.

Normally there will be two types of seals installed in the floating roof tank; they are i)
primary seal and ii) secondary seal. There are several different types of primary seal
available in the market today, and the appropriate seal has to be selected for suit the tank
service. The seals design are the proprietary design by the seal company, the most that
the engineer or tank designer can do is to study on each of the different seal and based on
the previous experience to do the seal selection.

90
i) Primary Seal

The functions of the primary seal are to minimize vapour loss, centralize the floating
roof and exclude snow, rain form the rim gap. Primary seal could be in metallic
(Mechanical Shoe Seal) or non metallic (Resilient Filled Seal) type.

• Mechanical (Metallic) Shoe Seal

The Mechanical Shoe Seal which was recommended in API 650 (2007) has two
different kinds of seals, which are Pantograph Hanger and Scissor Hanger.

Pantograph Hanger as shown in Figure 3.10 is the convectional mechanical seals, it

consists of a galvanized steel or stainless steel sealing ring with the bottom located
below the liquid surface, a vapour tight fire-resistant continuous seal to close the rim

ESEDA
space, and stainless steel shunts for lighting protection. The sealing ring was
supported by the weighted pantograph system which the steel weights activate the
tank lever system, pressing the sealing ring against the tank shell, ensuring the sealing
ring is held in constant contact with the tank shell. The shoe plate is designed with
Flexures built into the sheet at intervals of approximately 550mm to ensure
conformity with the tank shell and allow expansion and contraction. This seal is able
to provide a rim space variation of ± 130 mm in a nominal 200 mm rim space.

Scissor Hanger as shown in Figure 3.11 was introduced to the market in the recent
years. Different seal supplier could have different name for it. The design principles
are basically similar to the Pantograph Hanger; it is the pusher bar to push the shoe
plate instead of the counter weight. Scissor Hanger is more much simple design and
economic compared to the Pantograph Hanger, also the easier installing and assembly
without any hot welding work.

91
 Figure 3.10 Pantograph Hanger Figure 3.11 Scissor Hanger

ESEDA
(Courtesy of VACONOSEAL) (Courtesy of HMT)

Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13 shows the complete assembled and the end section of the
Pantograph Hanger respectively.

Figure 3.12 Completed Assembled Pantograph Figure 3.13 End Section Pantograph
Hanger (Courtesy of WB) Hanger (Courtesy of WB)

92
 • Resilient Filled (Non-Metallic) Seal

The resilient filled seal can be of the foam filled or liquid filled. Figure 3.14 shows the
foam filled and Figure 3.15 shows the liquid filled.

In the foam filled seal, the mechanical force is obtained by taking a compressible foam
material and inserting it between the floating roof rim and the tank shell. Resistance to
the scuffing action of the roughened tank shell plates is achieved by wrapping the
resilient foam in an envelope of reinforced plastic sheet or rubber sheet. The foam and
envelope may be mounted in a number of variants, where the lower part of the seal
touches the stored liquid, the seal is said to be liquid mounted, and if it is mounted above
the liquid, it is vapour mounted. The liquid mounted seal has better vapour conservation
characteristics.

ESEDA

Figure 3.14 Foam-Filled Seal Figure 3.15 Liquid-Filled Seal

(Courtesy of VACONOSEAL) (Courtesy of VACONOSEAL)

93
In the liquid filled seal, a looped envelope of reinforced rubber sheet is supported in the
rim gap and the envelope is filled with a neutral liquid such kerosene. By virtue of its
depth and density the liquid spreads the envelope and exerts a force against the tank shell.
The envelope is normally ribbed and a tube may be fitted to contain the kerosene.

After the study of the above seal system, the Mechanical Shoe Seal Scissor type was
selected for its highly reputed performance, lower cost and simple installation. It was
recommended by the API 650 (2007) and the liquid filled resilient seal was prohibited by
some of the oil company.

ii) Secondary Seal

Secondary seal is mounted on top of the primary seal, it reduced vapour loss which in
turn cost saving, enhanced safety by protection against rim fires, environmental

ESEDA
protection with less odour and compliance with the air standards and it significantly
reduces the amount of rainwater entering the tank contents by running down the shell.
Figure 3.16 show one kind of the secondary seal.

Figure 3.16 Secondary Seal (Courtesy of VACONOSEAL)

94
3.3.3.2 Roof Seal Material

It is essential to select the correct material for the primary and secondary rim seals. The
basic requirement of the seal material is the chemical resistance, which is related to the
stored product, the ultraviolet resistance in which the seal expose to direct sunlight and
the material has to be flame retardant.

The primary seals should always be hydro-carbon resistance since they are in direct
contact with the product and product vapour and the top coat of the secondary seals shall
be ultraviolet resistant and flame retardant. The tip structure of the secondary seals which
slides along the tank shell would preferably be made of two kinds of material, which is
hydrocarbon resistance material at the bottom section and Ultraviolet resistance at the top
section. Some common materials for the selected product are listed in the Table 3.3 and

ESEDA
the properties of the common material are shown in Table 3.4.

Fluid Stored Seal Material

Crude Oil Fluoropolymers,urethane, nitrile

Refined Products Fluoropolymers, urethane, urethane laminate,
fluoroelastomers, or Buna-N-Vinyl

Gasoline/ MTBE blend Fluoropolymers, nitrile

Table 3.3 Common Material for Select Product

95
 Resistance Against
Material Flame
Hydrocarbons UV light Retardant?

Vition ® (FPM)/ nylon (PA) Very Good Very Good Yes

Teflon ® (PTFE)/ glass Very Good Very Good Yes
Neoprene (CR)/ calcium silicate Reasonable Good No
Polyurethane (EU)/ nylon (PA) or
Good Good No
polyester (TPE-E)
PVC-nitrile (PVC-NBR)/ nylon
(PA) or polyester (TPE-E) or Good Reasonable No
glass
Nitrile (NBR)/ Nylon (PA) or
Reasonable Poor No
polyester (TPE-E)

Table 3.4 Properties of Common Seal Material [EEMUA 2003, vol.1, p118]

3.3.3.3 Roof Support Leg

ESEDA
Roof support legs are provided in the floating roof tank to support the roof when landed
and keep the roof away from any tank appurtenances that locate at or near bottom of the
tank such as inlet and outlet connection, mixers, heating coil and drainage system. The
supports legs are adjustment in height to provide both a low operating position and a high
cleaning position.

The basic requirement for the roof support legs had been discussed in the Literature
Review in chapter 2.18.2. In designing the roof support legs, the number of support legs
required for a single deck roof can be roughly approximated before a structural check on
the legs is performed. There will be two type of roof support which is the pontoon
support leg and the deck support leg. For the pontoon support leg, one leg per 6 m of tank
circumference was approximated, and for the centre deck support leg, for tanks diameter
up to 60 m, one leg per 34 m² of center deck area and for tanks diameter larger than 60 m
one leg per 26 m² of center deck area was approximated.

96
The supports legs are to be designed to carry only the weight of the roof and a uniform
live load of 1.2 KN as specifed in API 650 (2007) [API 650, 2007], but not the weight of
any accumulated rain water on the deck. Therefore it is important to ensure that drain out
all the rain accumulation before landing the roof.

Numbers and location of the support legs for the floating roof was as shown in Figure
3.17. Standard pipe are used to design and fabricate the support legs and the pips size
used are 3” Schedule 80 which has a thickness of 7.62 mm.

15 Nos. at R 13,716
22 Nos. at R 18,541 10 Nos. at R 8839

Pontoon 5 Nos. at R 4267

Leg Deck
Leg

ESEDA
High Position
Low Position

Figure 3.17 Number and Location of Support Legs

The compressive stress in each support leg at each radius location was determined and
checked against the allowable stress as per AISC standard [ANSI/AISC 360, 2005] using
the slenderness ratio. The complete stress design calculation for the roof support leg is
attached in Appendix B Section 6. The summary stress result was tabulated in Table 3.5
and it shows that the actual stresses of all the legs are less than the allowable stress hence
proven that the pre-selected number and size of the support legs are sufficient.

97
 Actual Allowable
Leg at
No. of leg stress, stress, RESULT
radius
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)

4267.00 5.00 25.18 75.08 OK

8839.00 10.00 24.70 75.08 OK
13716.00 15.00 21.59 75.08 OK
18541.00 22.00 31.33 74.62 OK

Table 3.5 Summary Result for Roof Support Legs

3.3.3.4 Venting System

The venting system is designed to API 2000 (1998) – Venting Atmospheric and Low-
Pressure Storage Tanks [API 2000, 1998]. It should not be over design; venting
requirement shall be at minimal to prevent vapour loss. Automatic Bleeder Vent is the
only venting fitting installed on the floating roof. They only vent the air to and from

ESEDA
under of a floating roof during filling and emptying. The bleeder vent is simply a short
piece of steel pipe fabricated with a push rod inside attached to the top cover or stopper.

3.3.3.4.1 Operation of Bleeder Vent

Automatic bleeder vents/ valves only come into operation when the floating roof is
landed and tank is drained down or tank is filled up. It allows product movement, where
during in-breathing, it allows air to enter space under the roof as product drain out from
tank, hence avoid vacuum. Similarly during out-breathing, it allows the air under the roof
to escape when tank is filled up, hence avoid vapour pocket and pressure formation.

Operation of the automatic bleeder vent can be explained by the Figures 3.18 (a) and (b)
for emptying (In-Breathing) and Figures 3.19 (a) and (b) for filling in (Out-Breathing).

98
 Valve
closes

Start Emptying

Figure 3.18 (a) Operating of Bleeder Vent during In-Breathing (Starting)

In the case of emptying (In-breathing), the roof is floating on the product when the tank

ESEDA
start emptying and the valve is intially closed. The product continue flowing out of the
tank till the push rod in the valve touches the tank floor before the support legs, pushing
the valve opens and letting air flowing in freely, venting the space beneath the deck.

Valve opens

Air in Air in

Emptying
Push rod touches floor before roof legs

Figure 3.18 (b) Operating of Bleeder Vent during In-Breathing (Finishing)

99
In the case of filling in (Out-breathing), the roof is resting on the support legs and the
valve is initally opened. The product start filling in, taking up the air space underneath
the deck hence pushing the air/ vapour out through the valve. The valve will close after
all the air beneath the roof had been expelled and the roof start floating on the product.

Valve initially open

Air / Vapour out Air / Vapour out

Product

Filling In

ESEDA
Roof resting on support leg

Figure 3.19 (a) Operating of Bleeder Vent during Out-Breathing (Starting)

Valve closes

Roof floats

Product

Filling In

Figure 3.19 (b) Operating of Bleeder Vent during Out-Breathing (Finishing)

100
3.3.3.4.2 Bleeder Vent Design

The bleeder vent is to design accordance to API 2000 (1998) and sized up by using
general flow equation. The requirements for normal venting capacity specified in API
2000 (1998) is that the total normal venting capacity shall be at least the sum of the
venting requirements for oil movement and thermal effect [API 2000, 1998].

The design data for the venting design is as follow:

Nominal Capacity = 24,000 m³

Product Flash point = 67°C

Design Filling Rate, Vi = 427 m³/hr

Design Emptying Rate, Vo = 1,100 m³/hr

ESEDA
The venting capacity for both In-Breathing (Vacuum venting) and Out-Breathing
(Pressure venting) has to be determined as per API 2000 (1998) requirement before the
bleeder vent can be sized up. The maximum flow of the vacuum venting and pressure
venting will be used to determine the minimum size and number of the bleeder vent.

i) The vacuum venting (In-Breathing)

The requirement for venting capacity for maximum liquid movement out of a tank will be
15.86 m3/h of free air for each 15.9 m3/h of maximum empty rate at any flash point [API
2000, 1998], which is

Flow rate of free air for liquid movement, Vv1 = Vo/ 15.9 *15.86 = 1,097.23 m³/h

Thermal Breathing consideration is not requirement for the floating roof tank, therefore

101
 Flow rate of free air for thermal breathing, Vv2 = 0 m³/h

The total vacuum flow required will be,

Vv = Vv1 + Vv2 = 1,097 m³/h

ii) The pressure venting (In-Breathing)

The requirement for venting capacity for maximum liquid movement out of a tank will be
17 m³/h of free air for each 15.9 m³/h (100 Barrel) of maximum filling rate [API 2000,
1998], which is

Flow rate of free air for liquid movement, Vp1 = Vo/ 15.9 *17 = 457 m³/h

ESEDA
Thermal Breathing consideration is not requirement for the floating roof tank, therefore

Flow rate of free air for thermal breathing, Vv2 = 0 m³/h

The total pressure flow required will be,

Vp = Vp1 + Vp2 = 457 m³/h

Therefore the maximum flow, Q is the vacuum flow which is 1,097 m³/h.

The below general flow equation below will be used,

Q = K . A 2.g .H

102
Where

H= Head measures as pressure different, where

∆P ; ∆P = Pressure different
H=
γ γ = Specific weight of air

g= gravity of acceleration, 9.81 m²/s

A= Cross sectional area of vent

K= Discharge Coefficient, 0.62 for circular

Re-arranging it to have it in term of area required, the equation becomes

Q γ
Av _ req =
K 2.g.∆P

Based on the equation, the minimum required venting area for the maximum flow

ESEDA
capacity, Q was found to be 24,124 mm². A vent size of 8” was pre-selected and the
cross-sectional area available is 32, 251 mm². There fore, the minimum number of
bleeder vent required for the pre-selected size will be determine as

Av _ req
N vent = = 1 no. of vent required (Minimum)
Av

However, total of 2 numbers will be installed in case one of it was blocked or not able
function.

103
3.3.3.5 Roof Drain System

The roof drain system is to be installed in the floating roof tank to effectively drain the
rain water from the floating roof without causing rain water to enter & contaminate the
store product. The rainfall accumulated on the surface of the floating roof is drained to
center sump which set into the lower point of the roof deck. The sump is then drained
through a closed pipe work which operated with the tank. There is a non-return valve
fitted to the outlet of the sump, which is to prevent the roof from being flooded with
product in the event of a failure in the drain system. The drain pipe has to be removable
for maintenance purposes, if required.

As the floating roof moves along with the product height, the basic requirement of the
roof drain system has to be flexible to accommodate the roof movement. Figure 3.20 (a)

ESEDA
and (b) show the drain system within the tank with the roof movement.

Figure 3.20 (a) Roof Drain with Roof Rise Figure 3.20 (b) Roof Drain with Roof Fall

There are several different drain systems available such as Articulated Piping System,
Armoured Flexible Hose, Helical Flexible Hose or Pipe system. Rubber hose are strictly
prohibited to be use in the oil tank and the two common systems used in the oil industry
are the Articulated Piping System and Flexible Drain Pipe System. Therefore these two
systems are selected for the study and evaluate their pros and cons, and then final
selection of the system at the end of the evaluation.

104
3.3.3.5.1 Articulated Piping System

This drain system uses solid steel pipe with series of articulated knuckle joints such as
flexible swing joint/ swivel joint. It also requires chain, shackles and pad eyes. Figure
3.21 shows the typical arrangement of an articulated piping system inside a floating roof
tank.

Min. 8 flange connections

ESEDA
Flexible Swing Joint Rigid Pipe

90° bend

Figure 3.21 Articulated Drain Pipe System

The rigid pipes in the system caused the heavy weight to the system and may stress and
distort the deck plate in the floating roof. There is also possibility of causing horizontal
forces on to the roof which leads to wearing of the roof seal. The rigid pipes are
connected to the swing/ swivel joint by flange connection, as can be seen in Figure 3.21,
there will eight (8) connections, and two per each joints and each of these connections are
potential to leak and also causes effect on the flow rate. There is a short 90° bend in the
system and this short bend radius would able accumulate foreign material and blocked
the drain.

105
Although this drain system is cheaper as compared to the Flexible Pipe System, but the
installation of this system is considerably complicated and requires longer time which in
turn causes a higher labour cost. The swing/ swivel joints and the flange connections are
not easily accessible, which causes difficulties to perform any preventive maintenance.
Figure 3.22 (a) and (b) show a diagram of a typical swing joint and its assembly. The
actual articulated system and swing installed inside a floating tank can be seen in the
Figure 1.26 and 1.27 in the Literature Review Chapter.

ESEDA
Figure 3.22 (a) Typical Swing Joint in Articulated Drain Pipe System

Figure 3.22 (b) Swing Joint Assembly (Courtesy of WB)

106
3.3.3.5.2 Flexible Drain Pipe System

The flexible drain system consist only single continuous pipe which expands and
contracts with the rise and fall of the floating roof. Full length of the pipe is flexible and
uniform without any joint. Figure 3.23 shows typical arrangement of the flexible drain
system inside the floating roof tank.

End Fitting

ESEDA
Flexible Pipe

Rigid Pipe

Figure 3.23 Flexible Drain Pipe System

There are no joints in the full length of the flexible pipe, the only connection is at the end
fitting where it joins the flexible pipe to the top and bottom rigid pipe. The end fitting are
integral part of the flexible pipe and hence the possibility of leakage is eliminated. The
preventive maintenance is also eliminated. The flexible pipe is considerably much lighter
then rigid pipe in the articulated pipe system and the arrangement is much simple, hence
easy installation with lower installation and labour cost. However the material cost for the
flexible is expensive. The flexible pipe in the system is known as COFLEXIP Flexible

107
pipe which the structure composed of an articulated stainless steel grade 304, spiral
wound inner carcass covered by an outer extruded sheath of RILSAN Nylon 11. Figure
3.24 (a) shows the inner section of a COFLEXIP pipe and Figures 3.24 (b) shows the cut
section of several different size of flexible pipe.

1. Inner interlocked Stainless Steel carcass

(anti collapse) AISI 304.

2. External plastic sheath (RILSAN)

Figure 3.24 (a) Inner Section of COFLEXIP Pipe (Courtesy of TECHNIP-COFLEXIP)

ESEDA
The inner carcass is strong and flexes like hose but it will not kink or collapse. This inner
carcass is designed to prevent leakage, instead it is the thick outer protective
thermoplastic jacket made of RILSAN Nylon 11 which extruded over the inner carcass
and form the water tight seal. Figure 3.25 shows the end fitting which is swaged around
the drain pipe. A slip on Class 150 ANSI, rotating raised face flange is fitted behind the
neck.

Figure 3.24 (b) COFLEXIP Pipe of Figure 3.25 End fitting of COFLEXIP
different size (Courtesy of TECHNIP-COFLEXIP) Pipe (Courtesy of TECHNIP-COFLEXIP)

108
3.3.3.5.3 Drain System Selection

It is obvious that the flexible drain pipe system has more advantage over the articulate
piping system, except for the higher material cost. By looking into the cost saving of
future maintenance and the service life, the flexible drain pipe is selected for my roof
drain system. Figure 3.26 shows some example of actual flexible drain pipe system
installed in different tank. It can be seen that the flexible pipe gives repeatable lay pattern
which ensure no-fooling with the roof support leg.

ESEDA

Figure 3.26 Flexible Drain Pipe System Installed in Different Tank

109
3.3.3.5.4 Drain Pipe Design

The roof drain pipe is sized up using the general flow equation of Q = A. V. The drain
pipe size was pre-selected as 4” Schedule 80 and the minimum number of drain pipe
required is to be determined. The drainage design data is as follow:

• Design Rain Fall, RH = 50 mm/hr

• Design Drainage Required = RH x deck area = 46.01 m³/hr

• Design Drain Pipe = 4” Sch 80 (O.D 101.6 x 8.56t)

• Drain Pipe Inside Diametr, d = 84.48 mm

• Roof Lowest Height = 1500 mm

• Drain outlet nozzle elevation, z = 225 mm

H = h+
ESEDA
The total head equation is given as,
v2
2g
;

And the total head loss of drain,

v 2  K1 L1' K L' 
h= × + 2 2 ;
2 g  d d 

Then, the total head equation becomes

v2  K1 L1' K 2 L'2 
H =  + + 1 .
2g  d d 

Re-arrange the equation, the flow velocity can be determined as follow:

2 gH
V=
 K1L1' K 2 L'2 
 + + 1
 d d
 

110
Where

K= Flow Coefficient

- Rigid Pipe, K1 = 0.0168

- Flexible Pipe, K2 = 0.03

L’ = Total Equivalent Pipe Length

- Rigid Pipe, L1’

- Flexible Pipe, L2’

The equivalent pipe length of valve and fitting is determined accordance to Table 3.6
[NFPA 15, 2007]. The total equivalent pipe length will be the summation of the total
equivalent length of the valve, fitting and the rigid and flexible pipe lengths.

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Table 3.6 Equivalent Pipe Length Chart [NFPA 15, p15]

The flow velocity was calculated as 1.15m²/s, and substitute it into the flow equation of Q
= A.V, the drainage flow rate for one drain pipe is found to be 23.3 m³/h. Therefore the
minimum roof drain required are determined as

Drainage Flow Rate Req.

Nreq = = 1.97
Actual Flow Rate

Minimum two number of drain pipe with size of 4” schedule 80 will be used.

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3.3.3.6 Rolling Ladder & Gauger Platform

The rolling ladder installed on the floating roof tank is to provide safe access onto the
floating roof. The ladder consists of self-levelling treads and it slides along the track as
the roof move up and down. The track and ladder length are matched to maximum and
minimum roof height. The upper end of the ladder is attached to the gauger platform by
hinged brackets and the lower end is provided with an axle with a wheel at each side of
the ladder. The wheels run on a steel track mounted on a runway structure support off the
roof.

The gauger platform is a small access area which overhangs on the shell, allowing
instrumentation and guide pole to pass though. It also provides access for the
maintenance personnel. Figure 3.27 shows the sketch of the rolling ladder and the gauger
platform. Figure 3.28 shows some typical rolling ladder with the wheel and gauger

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platform installed in a floating roof tank.

Figure 3.27 Sketch of Rolling Ladder and Gauger Platform in a Floating Roof Tank

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 ESEDA
Figure 3.28 Rolling Ladder and Gauger Platform Installed in a Floating Roof Tank

3.3.3.7 Fire Fighting System and Foam Dam

Fire on the floating roof tanks are common and it usually happened in the rim space
where the vapour escaped, this was called as rim fires. The main cause of he the floating
roof rim fires is lighting. Most lighting ignited rim fires result from induced charges on
the roof and not direct strikes. Fire fighting system is to be designed and installed on the
floating roof to fight over and extinguishes the rim fire. There are several techniques
available for the fire fighting and multiples foam chamber method is one it which will be
discussed in detail here.

The multiple chamber method is which the foam is discharged by the foam chambers or
foam pourer which mounted at equal spaced around tank periphery as shown in Figure
3.29. The system is to be designed accordance to NFPA-11 (Standard for low-medium- &
high-expansion foam) [NFPA 11, 2005].

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Figure 3.29 General Arrangement of the Multiple Foam Chamber on the Floating Roof Tank [NFPA
11, P53]

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When the fires were detected, measures amounted of propriety foam making compound
will be injected into the fire water system leading to the foam generating point of the
tank. The foam generations are designed in such a way that to draw air into the mixture,
causing the foam to expand as it was injected to the tank via pourer. The pourer inject the
foam onto the internal surface of the extension of plate and hence onto the tank shell,
causing it to flow down to the shell and collect and spread around the rim space. Figure
3.30 (a) show a typical arrangement of the fire protection for a floating roof tank and
Figure 3.30 (b) show an actual foam dam installed on a floating roof tanks.

The foam is contained and concentrated within the rim space by a foam dam. Foam dam
is a short vertical plate welded to pontoon at short distance from the seal. It's height shall
be higher than upper tip of seal, allowing the whole seal area to be flooded with foam and
extinguish fire effectively.

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 ESEDA
Figure 3.30 (a) Fire Protection for Floating Roof Tank

Figure 3.30 (b) Foam Chamber Figure 3.31 Typical Foam Dam [NFPA 11, p20]

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 TANK CONSTRUCTION

4.1 Introduction

Just as most of the construction task, welded vertical tanks can be erected satisfactorily in
several ways, erector contractors normally have a particular method, which they have
adopted as the result of experience, and have developed the erection technique most
suitable for economical working and good workmanship by their field crews. Few
erection methods are illustrated in Figure 4.1 (a) and (b). The method discussed here are
simply the general method to give a basic idea on how a tank is built.

To build tanks which are of sound quality, good appearance and free from excessive

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buckles or distortion, correct welding sequences should be adhered to and adequate
supervision provided.

Figure 4.1 (a) Progressive Assembly & Welding and Complete Assembly Followed by Welding of
Horizontal Seam Method for Welded Vertical Tank [PTS, 1986]

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 Figure 4.1 (b) Jacking-Up and Flotation Method for Welded Vertical Tank [PTS, 1986]

4.2 Foundation
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Foundation has to be prepared well ahead before the tank construction start. A successful
construction and operation of the tank relies on the tank being built on a firm foundation.
API 650 (2007) Appendix B provides recommendations for design and construction of
Foundation for above ground storage tanks. The construction and design will not be
discussed in detail as our main concern is the tank itself.

One of the majar parameter in designing and construction the tank foundation is the
overturning moment and base shear force of the tank due to seismic and the anchor bolt
arrangement and size. The foundation was built in a height of 300 mm from the ground
level, anchor bolts are to be cast into the foundation as shown in Figure 4.2.

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 Anchor Bolt
Bottom Plate

Concrete Ring Foundation

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Figure 4.2 Tank Foundation with anchor bolt installed

4.3 Bottom Plate Placement

When the tank foundation is done and ready for the tank erection, bottom plate will start
laying on top of the foundation and welded in sequence. It is important to lay and weld
the bottom plate in correct sequence to avoid any weld distortion.

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 Figure 4.3 Bottom Plate Layout [PTS, 1986]

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The welding sequence for bottom plate layout with annular plates, with reference to
Figure 4.2 is as follow:

1. Lay plates and lightly tack –weld

2. Weld centre sump in position 1 and 2

3. Weld rectangular plates together commencing at centre, welding short seams

first 3 to 11, seams between rows of plates shall be free of tack-welds before
making final weld

4. Weld only outer part of radial seams of annular plates before erection of shell
plates at 12a

5. After complete assembly and welding of lower shell courses, weld lower shell
course to annular 12b for prevention of welding distortion.

6. Weld remaining part of radial weld of annulars at 12c

7. Weld rectangular and sketch plates together at 13 to 22 and finally to annulars

at 23.

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Figure 4.4 shows the actual bottom plate laying in top of the foundation on site, it shows
that the bottom plates are laid in the lapping way. Figure 4.5 shows the detail of lap joints
where three thicknesses occur.

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Figure 4.4 Bottom Plate Laid on Foundation

Figure 4.5 Typical Cross Joint in Three Plate Lap

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Requirement in API 650 (2007) stated that the three-plate laps in the tank bottoms shall
be at least 300 mm from each others, from the tank shell, from butt-welded annular plate
joints, and from joints between annular plates and the bottom [API 650, 2007]. And the
bottom plate need to be welded on the top side only, with continuous full-fillet weld on
all seams as shown in the welding detail in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6 Welding Detail for Bottom Plate

4.4 Shell Erection

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Shell plates will be erected when the bottom plates are done, the shell plates are held in
place, tacked and completely welded. This will be done course by course, working
upwards to the top curb angle. No course can be added as long as the previous course had
not been entirely welded.

For the floating roof tank, Flotation Method as shown in Figure 4.1 (b) might be used,
where upon completion of the bottom plating and erection of the two lower course of the
tank, the floating roof is assembled on the tank bottom and completed. The tank is then
filled with water and, using the floating roof as a working platform, the third and
subsequent course are erected and welded, water being pumped in as each course is
completed. However this method may only be used only at site where soil settlement is
very limited. Refer to Chapter 5 for the soil settlement topic. Figure 4.7 show the
complete erection of the first shell course and Figure 4.8 (a) and (b) show the erection of
the upper shell course from the inside and outer of the tank respectively.

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 Figure 4.7 Completed Erection of First Shell Course

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Figure 4.8 (a) Erection of Upper Shell Course – Inside Tank

Figure 4.8 (b) Erection of Upper Shell Course – Outside Tank

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4.5 Tank Testing

4.5.1 Tank Bottom Testing

After welding of the bottom plates has been completed, all welds will be tested to ensure
that the tank bottom is free from leaks. This can be done by using a vacuum box, which
enables any leaks in the seams to be positively located by visual examination. The test is
preferably be made as soon as possible after welding of the bottom but before any surface
coating is applied. The bottom plates has to be tested before water is put into the tank for
hydrostatic testing.

A typical vacuum box and pump is shown in Figure 4.9, where the vacuum box is fitted
with a glass viewing panel on its top and has an open bottom, around which a continuous
rubber seal and former are secured. The seal forms an airtight joint around the section of

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the weld to be tested when the box is pressed against the bottom plates. A partial vacuum
can be created by means of a hand or motor-driven vacuum pump. A vacuum gauge is
incorporated in the box which has two connections: one is the suction tap fitted with a
non-return valve; the other is a vacuum release valve.

4.5.2 Tank Shell Testing

The tank shells should be water tested/ hydrotested after completion of the wind girder.
The tank will be filled up with water to its design level. The water test not only to ensure
no leakage of the tank, it also tested the foundation for its capability of taking the filled
tank load. Settlement will also be measured during the water testing.

123