Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation and Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

The implementation of wood waste ash as a partial cement replacement material

in the production of structural grade concrete and mortar: An overview
Cheah Chee Ban ∗ , Mahyuddin Ramli
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The timber manufacturing and power generation industry is gradually shifting towards the use of biomass
Received 7 September 2010 such as timber processing waste for fuel and energy production and to help supplement the electri-
Received in revised form 3 February 2011 cal energy demand of national electric gridlines. Though timber processing waste is a sustainable and
Accepted 10 February 2011
renewable source of fuel for energy production, the thermal process of converting the aforementioned
biomass into heat energy produces significant amounts of fine wood waste ash as a by-product material
Keywords:
which, if not managed properly, may result in serious environmental and health problems. Several cur-
Cement replacement material
rent researches had been carried out to incorporate wood waste ash as a cement replacement material in
Wood waste ash
Blended cement
the production of greener concrete material and also as a sustainable means of disposal for wood waste
Hazardous waste management ash. Results of the researches have indicated that wood waste ash can be effectively used as a cement
Green concrete material replacement material for the production of structural grade concrete of acceptable strength and durabil-
Reuse and recycling ity performances. This paper presents an overview of the work carried out by the use of wood waste ash
as a partial replacement of cement in mortar and concrete mixes. Several aspects such as the physical
and chemical properties of wood waste ash, properties of wood waste ash/OPC blended cement pastes,
rheological, mechanical and the durability properties of wood waste ash/OPC concrete mix are detailed
in this paper.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
1.1. Factors influencing the quantity and quality of wood waste ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
1.2. Uses of wood waste ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
2. Physical properties of wood waste ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
3. Chemical properties and leachate of wood waste ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
3.1. Chemical composition and phases of wood waste ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
3.2. Chemical properties of leachate from wood waste ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
4. Properties of wood waste ash blended cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
4.1. Standard consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
4.2. Initial and final setting time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
4.3. Soundness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
4.4. Calorimetric and heat evolution characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
4.5. Microstructure of cement paste matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
5. Rheological properties of wood waste ash/OPC concrete and mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
6. Bulk density and mechanical strength of hardened wood waste ash/OPC concrete and mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
6.1. Bulk density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
6.2. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
6.3. Split tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
6.4. Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 0164846502; fax: +60 046576523.

E-mail addresses: volrath15@hotmail.com, ccb09 hbp2@student.usm.my (C.B. Cheah).

0921-3449/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.02.002
670 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685

7. Durability properties of wood waste ash/OPC concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681

7.1. Resistance against acid attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
7.2. Water absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
7.3. Chloride permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
7.4. Alkali silica reaction (ASR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
7.5. Corrosion current and electrical resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
8. Resistance of wood waste ash concrete against freeze–thaw action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
9. Drying shrinkage of concrete containing wood ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
10. Reuse and recycling of wood waste ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
10.1. Use of wood waste ash in the production of controlled low strength material (CLSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
10.2. Use of wood ash for improvement of soil alkalinity and as fertilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
10.3. Use of wood ash as a pollution control agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
11. Conclusions and summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685

1. Introduction for the production of every 600 kg of cement, approximately 400 kg

of carbon dioxide gas is released. The increased demand of cement
In the current trend of power generation, emergence of biomass implies a higher rate of environmental deterioration due to the
(forestry and agricultural waste) fuelled power plant seems to be limestone extraction activities, a higher requirement of fossil fuels
a promising source of renewable energy with low operational cost and higher rate of green house gas discharge.
coupled with continuously renewable fuel. Additionally, the use of Recent research (Udoeyo and Dashibil, 2002; Elinwa and Ejeh,
forestry and timber product manufacturing waste such as sawdust, 2004; Udoeyo et al., 2006; Naik et al., 2003) was performed
woodchips, wood bark, sawmill scraps and hard chips as fuel source to investigate the feasibility of the use of wood waste ash as
for production of electrical power offers a highly efficient method a partial replacement material for the energy intensive process
of disposal for the aforementioned waste materials. In Portugal, of hydraulic cement for concrete production. The tests showed
two units of pilot biomass fuelled power plants have been con- promising results in that wood waste ash can suitably used as
structed for production of electricity in order to supplement the constituent material in during the production of structural grade
power demand of the national electric gridlines alongside with concrete with acceptable mechanical and durability properties.
other conventional power plants which use fossil fuels. Both instal- These findings provide a solution for the waste management prob-
lations implement forestry biomass as the main fuel for production lems of wood waste ash and also contribute towards minimizing
of heat energy to operate steam turbine systems for subsequent the consumption of energy intensive hydraulic cement production
production of electric power (Rajamma et al., 2009). Moreover, it of greener concrete material supplying the ever growing demand
has been a common practice in the timber product manufacturing of the construction industry. Hence, incorporation of wood waste
industry to develop small scale boiler units that utilize wood waste ash as cement replacement material in blended cement and con-
as their main source of fuel as a cost effective means to recover crete will be beneficial not only in environmental terms for concrete
heat energy for the industrial processes especially for drying timber material but also in production costs of the aforesaid materials.
products. Wood wastes are the more preferable fuels for biomass
furnaces because the incineration of wood waste produces rela- 1.1. Factors influencing the quantity and quality of wood waste
tively less fly ash and other residual materials in comparison to ash
other biomasses such as herbaceous and agricultural wastes.
A major problem arising from the widespread use of forestry There are several factors which have a significant effect on the
biomass and timber processing waste as fuel is related to the ash qualitative and quantitative aspects of wood waste ash produced
produced in significant quantities as a by product from the incin- from the incineration of raw wood waste. This mandates the proper
eration of such biomasses. A major portion (approximately 70%) of characterisation of wood waste ash prior to being used as con-
the wood waste ash produced is land-filled as a common method stituent material in production of concrete and blended cement
of disposal (Campbell, 1990; Etiegni and Campbell, 1991; NCASI, paste. These factors include heat treatment temperature, types and
1993). As wood waste ash consists of highly fine particulate mat- the hydrodynamics of the furnace and the species of trees from
ters, which can be easily rendered airborne by winds, such a means which the wood wastes were derived.
of waste disposal may result in subsequent problems, namely, res- Combustion temperature of raw wood waste inside the fur-
piratory health problems to residents dwelling near the disposal nace strongly governs both yield and chemical compositions of
site of the ash material. Moreover, contamination of ground water resulting wood waste ash. In terms of ash yield, the combustion of
resources can also be expected to occur from leaching of heavy wood waste at higher temperatures generally resulted in a lower
metal contents of ash or by seepage of rain water (Udoeyo et al., amount of wood waste ash produced. The reduction in wood waste
2006). Hence, disposal of wood waste ash by means of land-filling ash yielded up to 45% with a combustion temperature increase
require a properly engineered land fill which have implications in from 538 ◦ C to 1093 ◦ C. Combustion of wood waste at higher tem-
terms of the cost of disposal. Therefore, such a method of disposal peratures beyond 1000 ◦ C also resulted in a profound decrease in
is uneconomical over long term. These problems require a new and carbonate content due to the chemical decomposition of the afore-
a more economical means of wood waste ash disposal as a solution. said chemical compound at such temperatures. Carbonates and
In addition, the current boom in the construction industry has bicarbonates compound especially calcite (CaCO3 ) are predomi-
caused a massive elevation of the demand for cement which is nant in wood ash produced from an incineration at temperature
the main constituent material in the production of concrete. The lower than 500 ◦ C. However, at higher incineration temperatures
production of cement involves an intensive use of raw material greater than 1000 ◦ C which is the typical operational temperature
(limestone) and energy, while at the same time, releases high quan- for most wood fired boiler units, oxide compounds such as quick
tities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Research reveals that lime (CaO) become predominant in the chemical phase of wood
 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685 671

Table 1
Chemical composition of wood ash from several species of timber (Vassilev et al., 2010).

Biomass group, sub-group and variety SiO2 CaO K2 O P2 O5 Al2 O3 MgO Fe2 O3 SO3 Na2 O TiO2

Wood and woody biomass

Alder-fir sawdust 37.49 26.41 6.1 2.02 12.23 4.04 8.09 0.83 1.81 0.98
Balsam bark 26.06 45.76 10.7 4.87 1.91 2.33 2.65 2.86 2.65 0.21
Beech bark 12.4 68.2 2.6 2.3 0.12 11.5 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.1
Birch bark 4.38 69.06 8.99 4.13 0.55 5.92 2.24 2.75 1.85 0.13
Christmas trees 39.91 9.75 8.06 2.46 15.12 2.59 9.54 11.66 0.54 0.37
Elm bark 4.48 83.46 5.47 1.62 0.12 2.49 0.37 1 0.87 0.12
Eucalyptus bark 10.04 57.74 9.29 2.35 3.1 10.91 1.12 3.47 1.86 0.12
Fir mill residue 19.26 15.1 8.89 3.65 5.02 5.83 8.36 3.72 29.82 0.35
Forest residue 20.65 47.55 10.23 5.05 2.99 7.2 1.42 2.91 1.6 0.4
Hemlock bark 2.34 59.62 5.12 11.12 2.34 14.57 1.45 2.11 1.22 0.11
Land clearing wood 65.82 5.79 2.19 0.66 14.85 1.81 1.81 0.36 2.7 0.55
Maple bark 8.95 67.36 7.03 0.79 3.98 6.59 1.43 1.99 1.76 0.12
Oak sawdust 29.93 15.56 31.99 1.9 4.27 5.92 4.2 3.84 2 0.39
Oak wood 48.95 17.48 9.49 1.8 9.49 1.1 8.49 2.6 0.5 0.1
Olive wood 10.24 41.47 25.16 10.75 2.02 3.03 0.88 2.65 3.67 0.13
Pine bark 9.2 56.83 7.78 5.02 7.2 6.19 2.79 2.83 1.97 0.19
Pine chips 68.18 7.89 4.51 1.56 7.04 2.43 5.45 1.19 1.2 0.55
Pine pruning 7.76 44.1 22.32 5.73 2.75 11.33 1.25 4.18 0.42 0.17
Pine sawdust 9.71 48.88 14.38 6.08 2.34 13.8 2.1 2.22 0.35 0.14
Poplar 3.87 57.33 18.73 0.85 0.68 13.11 1.16 3.77 0.22 0.28
Poplar bark 1.86 77.31 8.93 2.48 0.62 2.36 0.74 0.74 4.84 0.12
Sawdust 26.17 44.11 10.83 2.27 4.53 5.34 1.82 2.05 2.48 0.4
Spruce bark 6.13 72.39 7.22 2.69 0.68 4.97 1.9 1.88 2.02 0.12
Spruce wood 49.3 17.2 9.6 1.9 9.4 1.1 8.3 2.6 0.5 0.1
Tamarack bark 7.77 53.5 5.64 5 8.94 9.04 3.83 2.77 3.4 0.11
Willow 6.1 46.09 23.4 13.01 1.96 4.03 0.74 3 1.61 0.06
Wood 23.15 37.35 11.59 2.9 5.75 7.26 3.27 4.95 2.57 1.2
Wood residue 53.15 11.66 4.85 1.37 12.64 3.06 6.24 1.99 4.47 0.57

Mean 22.22 43.03 10.75 3.48 5.09 6.07 3.44 2.78 2.85 0.29

ash produced. The reduction of carbonates and bicarbonates chem-
ical species which contribute to alkalinity of wood ash at higher
combustion temperatures resulted in a corresponding decrease in
alkalinity of ash. Moreover, there was a decline in composition light
metallic elements such as potassium, sodium and zinc in wood
waste ash with increasing temperature of combustion (Etiegni and
Campbell, 1991).
Types of combustion technology used in thermal the conver-
sion of wood waste into ash has had a significant influence on the
physical and chemical properties of ash produced. Different types
of furnaces and incinerators may have varied thermal conversion
temperatures which have resulted in corresponding variations in
chemical and ash yield properties as discussed earlier. Additionally,
different types of combustion technology have significant effects on
the physical properties of ash produced. Typically, in a grate fired
furnace, the wood ash produced is coarser in nature and tend to
settle inside the combustion chamber as bottom ash. On the con-
trary, for more advanced and efficient fluidised bed furnaces, the
ash produced is predominantly fine fly ash with a finer particle size
grading with only a small fraction of coarse ash retained within the
combustion chamber.
Some species of trees from which the wood wastes were derived
has shown to be a dominant factor governing the chemical prop-
erties of wood waste ash produced. The chemical composition of
essential oxide compounds which governs the suitability of wood
ash as a cement replacement material such as silica (SiO2 ), alumina
(Al2 O3 ), iron oxide (Fe2 O3 ) and quicklime (CaO) varies significantly
with various species of trees. Variations in the chemical composi-
tion of ash produced from different species of trees can be seen in
Table 1.
1.2. Uses of wood waste ash
Currently, ash by-products from the combustion of wood wastes
are commonly used as a soil supplement to improve the alkalinity
of soil for agriculture applications. Wood waste ash is also used as
a filler material in the construction of flexible pavements for roads
and highways (Etiegni and Campbell, 1991). Recent research find-
ings confirm the suitability of wood waste ash as a partial cement
replacement material in the production of structural grade concrete
and self compacting concrete for applications in building construc-
tion (Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002; Elinwa et al., 2008; Abdullahi,
2006).
2. Physical properties of wood waste ash
Wood ash is reported to consist of a heterogeneous mixture of
variable size particles which are generally angular in nature. These
particles were unburned or partially burned wood or bark. In terms
of fineness, average amount of wood fly ash passing sieve #200
(75 ␮m) and retained on sieve #325 (45 ␮m) were 50% and 31%
respectively. The bulk density of wood fly ash was determined to
be relatively low at 490 kg/m3 with a specific gravity value of 2.48.
Wood fly ash was found to have low average autoclaved expansion
value of 0.2% (Naik, 1999).
Naik et al. (2003) evaluated the physical properties of wood
ashes from five different sources which concluded that wood
ash samples have varying values of unit weight that range from
162 kg/m3 to a maximum of 1376 kg/m3 . The specific gravity of
wood waste ash samples investigated ranged between 2.26 and
2.60. The low unit weight and specific gravity of wood ashes rel-
ative to neat cement indicate a possibility of the reduction in the
unit weight of concrete material produced by the partial substitu-
tion of cement using wood ash. A higher degree in the variation of
wood ash fineness was observed whereby the percentage of wood
ash retained on a 45 ␮m sieve varied between 23% and 90%.
A sieve analysis results showed that the mean diameter, d50 ,
of sawdust waste incineration fly ash (SWIFA) obtained from an
open incineration of sawdust in a drum to be 150 ␮m. The corre-
sponding surface area of SWIFA was determined to be relatively
672 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685

high (150 m2 /g) which, is possibly due to the increased ash surface
porosity. Other physical properties of SWIFA namely specific grav-
ity, loose bulk density and moisture content were found to be 2.29,
830 kg/m3 and 0.37% respectively (Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002;
Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004). Abdullahi (2006) reported similar results
whereby the specific gravity and the bulk density of wood ash were
found to be 2.13 and 760 kg/m3 respectively.
A micrograph obtained from a scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) analysis on residual ash produced from the incineration of
wood waste ash at a temperature of 1000 ◦ C indicated that wood
waste ash consists of two dominating phases, namely a fibre-like
continuous layer and particle like aggregates. The fibre like con-
tinuous layer is highly carbonaceous in nature with high carbon
content. On the contrary, carbon content in the particle like aggre-
gates’ phase is low and the consists mainly of silica and alumina
compounds as per energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) results illustrated
in Fig. 1 (Udoeyo et al., 2006).
A common finding whereby wood waste fly ash consists of parti-
cles which are highly irregular in shape with a highly porous surface
was reported by Wang et al. (2008a). In addition, crystal like spikes
were also observed to be present on the surface of wood waste fly
ash particles, as can be seen in Fig. 2, which may contribute sig-
nificantly to the high surface area of the ash particles. A specific
gravity of wood waste fly ash was determined to be 2.40 and par-
ticle size grading analysis results indicated that most of the ash
particles have diameter within 30–130 ␮m.
The specific gravity of wood fly ash collected from a forestry
biomass fired power plant was found to be 2.54. Wood fly ash from
the same source consisted of fine ash particles with an average
diameter below 50 ␮m. SEM images of wood fly ash reveals that
wood fly ash consists mainly of highly angular particles with a high
extent of surface porosity. Specific surface areas of wood fly ash col-
lected from two different sources had reported values of 40.29 m2 /g
and 7.92 m2 /g respectively. A higher specific surface area of the for-
mer is due to higher degree of irregularity in particle shape and
porosity of its surface as shown in Fig. 3 (Rajamma et al., 2009).
As physical properties of wood waste ash have significant effect
on pozzolanic and hydraulic reactivity, high degree in variation of
physical properties of wood ash obtained from different sources
mandate proper characterisation of wood ash prior to being incor-
porated as cement replacement material in production of concrete
material for construction.

3. Chemical properties and leachate of wood waste ash

3.1. Chemical composition and phases of wood waste ash

The chemical composition of biomass fly ash is an important

property governing its suitability for use as pozzolanic material in
blended cement and concrete. ASTM C618 (ASTM, 1998) defines
pozzolana as a siliceous and aluminous material which possesses
little or no cementitious properties but in finely divided form may
react with portlandite from the hydration of cement to form a
product with cementitious properties. By definition of ASTM C618
(ASTM, 1998), the presence of significant quantities of silica and
alumina compounds in biomass fly ash or other type of finely
divided powder is mandatory in order to qualify as pozzolana.
Wood waste ash obtained from an uncontrolled incineration
of sawdust under an open burning condition is highly alkaline in
nature with pH values ranging between 9.5 and 10.1 have been
found to have a significant quantity of volatile matter of between
4.63 and 8.4% expressed as mass loss upon ignition of the ash at
temperature of 750 ± 50 ◦ C (Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002; Udoeyo
and Dashibil, 2002; Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004). An ignition loss of
27% was reported for wood waste ash acquired from uncontrolled
Fig. 1. EDX analysis on (a) fibre-like continuous phase and (b) particle-like aggregate
phase (Udoeyo et al., 2006).
burning of a wood biomass within the furnace of a local bakery
possibly due to the presence of external contaminants (Abdullahi,
2006). XRD analysis results of the wood waste ash confirmed pres-
ence of silica and calcium carbonates as the main phases of the
chemical compound within the ash (Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002;
Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004). In addition to silica and calcium carbonate
phases, the XRD analysis performed by Campbell (1990) and Etiegni
and Campbell (1991) detected the presence of additional dominant
phases, namely portlandite (Ca(OH)2 ) and lime (CaO), in the wood
waste ash samples examined.
XRF analysis performed by several researchers (Elinwa and
Mahmood, 2002; Udoeyo and Dashibil, 2002; Elinwa and Ejeh,
2004; Abdullahi, 2006) found significant amounts of silica in the
ash samples obtained from incinerated wood waste sawdust under
 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685 673

100
90

Extent of reaction (%)

80
70
60
50 SAW
40 Class C
30
10P
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Months

Fig. 4. Extent of reactions for various fly ash samples (Wang and Baxter, 2007).

ical composition and organic matter content in comparison with

class C fly ash. Further evaluation on pozzolanicity using the 70:30
ash mixture-the portlandite ratio indicated wood waste-coal co-
fired ash possesses similar pozolanic reactivity in comparison to
class C fly ash at a later age of tests, beyond 6 months, though the
rate of pozzolanic reaction at early age were relatively lower in
comparison to the class C fly ash as can be seen in Fig. 4 (Wang and
Fig. 2. Particle morphology of wood fly ash (Wang et al., 2008a).
Baxter, 2007).
Rajamma et al. (2009) performed X-ray diffractometry (XRD)
analysis on samples of wood waste fly ash collected from an elec-
trostatic precipitator unit of two separate forestry biomass fuelled
power plants. Results of XRD analysis indicated that two main
chemical compounds present in the ash samples are silica and
calcite. Loss on ignition (LOI) of both the fly ash samples was
determined to be 14% and 7% respectively. Relatively high LOI in
comparison to other type of cement replacement material namely
silica fume and metakaolin implies a certain degree of inefficiency
in the conversion of carbon due to kinetic and mass transfer restric-
tions in the biomass power plant when wood wastes were at
sufficiently high temperature between 750 ◦ C and 1000 ◦ C.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis results of both wood waste fly
ash samples, as shown in Table 2, confirmed the presence of essen-
tial chemical compounds governing pozzolanic reactivity namely
SiO2 , Al2 O3 and Fe2 O3 in significant amounts within the wood
waste fly ash samples examined. Wood waste fly ash samples with
higher SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 chemical compositions (F1) were deter-
mined to have stronger pozzolanic reactivity’s in comparison to
the wood waste fly ash F2 which have lower SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3
chemical compositions hence lower pozzolanic reactivity as can be
seen from pozzolanic reactivity results shown in Fig. 5. In Fig. 5,
it can be observed that concentrations of OH− ions and a corre-
Fig. 3. Particle morphology of wood fly ash (Rajamma et al., 2009).
sponding CaO concentration of wood waste fly ash F1 which plot

an uncontrolled burning condition. A total chemical composition of Table 2

pozzolanic essential compounds, namely silica, alumina and ferric, Chemical composition of wood waste fly ash (Rajamma et al., 2009).
was reported to have a range from 62.14 to 80.67% with a mean Element F1 (wt.%) F2 (wt.%)
value of 72.78% which is similar to those of class N and F coal fly
SiO2 41 28
ashes. In an effort to characterize the chemical composition of wood Al2 O3 9.3 6.2
waste ash obtained from five distinct sources for use as a binder in Fe2 O3 2.6 2.2
a controlled low strength material, Naik et al. (2003) found a wider CaO 11.4 25.4
range of a total chemical composition of silica, alumina and fer- MgO 2.3 5
Na2 O 0.9 3.3
ric compounds between 18.6 and 59.3% for the wood ash samples
K2 O 3.9 3.2
examined. Chemical compositions of wood waste ash determined TiO2 0.4 0.3
by several researchers above are summarized in Table 3. An eval- MnO 0.3 0.7
uation of pozzolanicity wood waste ash by Elinwa and Mahmood P2 O5 0.9 0.9
(2002) indicated that wood waste ash is chemically reactive with Cd 1.0 mg/kg 1.3 mg/kg
Pb 191 mg/kg 12 mg/kg
the pozzolanic activity index (PAI) value of 75.9% when exceeding Cu 99 mg/kg 27 mg/kg
the minimum 70% specified by ASTM C618 for all classes of coal fly Cr 47 mg/kg 73 mg/kg
ash to be suitable as pozzolan. Hg <1 mg/kg <1 mg/kg
Co-firing of 20% wood waste with 80% coal in the coal power Ni 35 mg/kg 27 mg/kg
Zn 376 mg/kg 34 mg/kg
plant was observed to yield a resulting fly ash with a similar chem-
674 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685

Table 3
Summary of chemical composition of wood waste ash.

Chemical compound SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO MgO TiO2 K2 O Na2 O SO3 C P2 O5 LOI (%)

Elinwa and Mahmood (2002) 67.20 4.09 2.26 9.98 5.80 – – 0.08 0.45 – 0.48 4.67
Udoeyo and Dashibil (2002) 78.92 0.89 0.85 0.58 0.96 – – 0.43 – 17.93 – 8.40
Elinwa and Ejeh (2004) 67.20 4.09 2.26 9.98 5.80 – – 0.08 0.45 – 0.48 4.67
Abdullahi (2006) 31.80 28.00 2.34 10.53 9.32 – 10.38 6.50 – – – 27.00
Naik et al. (2003)
W1 32.40 17.10 9.80 3.50 0.70 0.70 1.10 0.90 2.20 – – 31.60
W2 13.00 7.80 2.60 13.70 2.60 0.50 0.40 0.60 0.90 – – 58.10
W3 50.70 8.20 2.10 19.60 6.50 1.20 2.80 2.10 0.10 – – 6.70
W4 30.00 12.30 14.20 2.20 0.70 0.90 2.00 0.50 2.10 – – 35.30
W5 8.10 7.50 3.00 25.30 4.50 0.30 2.70 3.30 12.50 – – 32.80

far below the saturation curve indicate strong pozzolanicity while
concentrations of OH− ion and corresponding CaO concentrations
of wood waste fly ash F2 plot slightly above the saturation curve
implying negative pozzolanicity. Hence, there exists a strong cor-
relation between pozzolanicity of wood waste fly ash with its total
chemical content of SiO2 , Al2 O3 and Fe2 O3 . Generally, pozzolanic-
ity of wood waste fly ash varies proportionately with sum of SiO2 ,
Al2 O3 and Fe2 O3 chemical content of the ash.
Quantitative elemental analysis of the wood waste fly ash sam-
ples showed that quantities of Ca, Si, Al and Mg elements present
on the surface of the wood waste fly ash particles are comparable
to those present on the surface of cement particles and the find-
ing further supports the analysis results of energy dispersion X-ray
spectrometry performed on the wood waste fly ash samples.
3.2. Chemical properties of leachate from wood waste ash
For non conventional material such as wood waste ash there
have been no adequate environmental specifications developed for
its use as a construction material. In the absence of proper specifi-
cation, regulatory evaluators tend to use contaminant leachability
levels of pure wood waste ash in their judgement on the suitability
of wood waste ash as construction material.
Udoeyo et al. (2006) studied the chemical content especially
heavy metal content of leachate produced from the batch leach-
ing of wood waste ash. De-ionized water acidified using nitric acid
to adjust the pH to 4 and 5 for leaching of metals from pure wood
waste ash to produce a leachate then analysed using an atomic
absorption spectrophotometer. Analysis of the leachate from wood
waste ash indicated the presence of heavy metal ions such as
chromium, iron, zinc and arsenic when using an acidified solution of
both pH 4 and 5. It was observed that arsenic exhibited the highest
leachability due to its high concentration in the leachate exam-
ined while iron had the least leachability as it was only detected in
trace amounts. The leachability of chromium, iron, copper and zinc
were observed to have significant dependence on the pH value of
the leaching agent. The aforementioned metal exhibited a higher
degree of leachability with a higher acidity of leaching agent used.
Apparently, the mineralogical phase of the metal oxides present
in the ash had a significant influence on their susceptibility to the
reaction of H+ ions present in the leaching agent. More H+ ions were
available in a higher acidity leaching agent to react with the min-
eral phases containing metal ions within wood waste ash hence
resulted in a higher leachability of the metals.
A similar trend of higher metal leachability with an increas-
ing acidity of leaching agents has been observed by several other
researchers (Fytianos and Tsaniklidi, 1998; Karuppiah and Gupta,
1997). They also found that a leaching agent of pH 5 did not have
an adequate quantity of H+ ions to react with iron oxide phases
produced from the combustion of wood waste.
The concentration of the metallic ions namely arsenic,
chromium, iron and zinc in the leachate of wood waste ash were
found to be higher than the EPA fresh water acute criteria. In the
consideration that wood ash from fresh wood would not normally
have a high chemical composition of these metals, the recorded
high concentration of these metallic ions in the leachate produced
from wood waste ash are attributable to wood preservatives used
during processing of timber. Hence, it is important to screen wood
waste as a part of their selection process for use in concrete (Udoeyo
et al., 2006).

4. Properties of wood waste ash blended cement

Blending of wood waste ash and ordinary Portland cement

(OPC) at various levels of cement replacement produces a new
type of blended cement with altered physical properties and
heat kinetic properties in comparison to neat OPC. Wood waste
ash/OPC blended cement exhibit significant difference in terms of
the standard consistency, setting times, soundness, heat evolution
characteristics and the microstructure of hardened cement paste
with respect to OPC.

4.1. Standard consistency

Laboratory investigation findings of several researchers (Elinwa

Fig. 5. Result of pozzolanicity of F1 and F2 wood waste fly ash (Rajamma et al., and Ejeh, 2004; Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002; Abdullahi, 2006) were
2009). in common agreement that the inclusion of wood waste ash as a
 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685
partial cement replacement material in blended cement resulted
in a higher requirement for water in order to achieve a standard
level of cement paste consistency. Water demand of wood waste
ash/OPC blended cement paste increases proportionately with the
level of cement replacement by wood waste ash expressed as a
percentage of total binder’s weight. Higher water demand of wood
waste ash/OPC blended cement relative to OPC is mainly due to a
higher specific surface area of porous wood waste ash particles in
comparison to OPC particles.
4.2. Initial and final setting time
The inclusion of wood waste ash as a partial cement replace-
ment material in wood waste ash/OPC blended cement resulted in
a delay of cement setting hence the need for longer initial and final
setting times of blended cement paste. The effects of setting time
delays become more significant with the increase in the level of
cement substitutions with wood waste ash (Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004;
Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002; Udoeyo and Dashibil, 2002; Abdullahi,
2006). At the level of cement replacement with wood waste ash up
to 30% by total binder’s weight, both initial and final setting time
of the blended cement paste are still in compliance to the limits
prescribed in standard code of practice BS 12: 1978 (Udoeyo and
Dashibil, 2002).
Delays in the initial and final setting of cement paste in the pres-
ence of wood waste ash is largely due to the dilution of cement
content as part of the OPC was used as a substitute with wood
waste ash (Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004). The presence of wood waste ash,
which is less reactive than OPC in blended cement paste, resulted in
the retardation rate of cement hydration which also contributes to
the delay in the blended cement paste setting. A prolonged time
of setting for cement pastes is a desirable attribute of blended
cement which implicates longer times in which the paste is work-
able. A corresponding lower hydration heat of the blended cement
due to the lower hydration rate as aforementioned rendered wood
waste ash/OPC blended cement paste suitable for applications. This
allowed a desired low heat development which offsets the stress
induced by temperature differential such as mass concreting work.
4.3. Soundness
The presence of wood waste ash as a partial cement replacement
material in blended cement paste generally resulted in a higher
magnitude of cement paste soundness. Varying levels of cement
replacement using wood waste ash from 0 to 30% causes a corre-
sponding increase in the soundness of blended cement paste. At a
replacement level of 30%, the most sound blended cement paste
reported was 1.45 mm which was still in good compliance with the
maximum allowable soundness of 10 mm specified by BS 4550-Part
3 (Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002; Udoeyo and Dashibil, 2002; Elinwa
and Ejeh, 2004).
4.4. Calorimetric and heat evolution characteristics
The evaluation of heat development characteristics was per-
formed by Rajamma et al. (2009) on samples of wood waste fly
ash (WWFA)/OPC blended cement containing 0–30% of WWFA as
a partial substitution of OPC. All blended cement paste samples
tested were observed to reach a steady state temperature of 24 ◦ C
within 3 days upon mixing. In addition, the time taken to reach
their peak hydration temperature was observed to be shorter for
cement pastes containing WWFA.
In the absence of WWFA, neat OPC paste tested was found to
reach peak hydration temperature at 40 ◦ C. Peak hydration tem-
peratures attainable by WWFA/OPC blended cement pastes were
recorded to be lower with increasing levels of cement replace-
675
Fig. 6. Calorimetric evaluation of the hydration process of WWFA/OPC blended
cement pastes (Rajamma et al., 2009).
ment with WWFA. Moreover, peak hydration temperatures of all
WWFA/OPC blended cement paste within WWFA levels of cement
replacement between 5% and 30% were lower in comparison with
neat OPC paste as can be observed in Fig. 6.
The difference in the hydration rate and the shift in the peak of
hydration temperature with respect to the neat OPC pastes were
probably caused by variations of alkali and chlorine content of
WWFA used. Additionally, dilutions of OPC content in the presence
of WWFA as a partial substitution of OPC in the blended cement
paste also contribute towards lowering the hydration rate of the
cement pastes and the corresponding decrease in peak temperature
attainable by WWFA/OPC blended cement pastes.
4.5. Microstructure of cement paste matrix
Elinwa et al. (2008) performed a microstructural analysis on
concrete mixes containing 0% (PC-01N) and 10% (PC-03N) of wood
waste ash by total binder weight and observed a significant reduc-
tion in porosity of hardened mortar for the latter concrete mix.
Additionally, the incorporation of 10% of wood waste ash as sub-
stitution of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in the formulation
of concrete mix was found to significantly reduce the percentage
of non-hydrated cement and portlandite amount while increasing
the quantity of CSH gel present within the concrete mix produced
after a given curing age as summarized in Table 4. These obser-
vations imply a strong pozzolanic reaction between the reactive
silica present in wood waste ash with the portlandite compound
generated from the hydration of cement.
Pozzolanic reactions, which produced additional CSH gels in the
concrete mix with 10% wood waste ash of total binder weight,
were observed to continue beyond the hydration age of 28 days
up to 90 days. It can be noted in Table 4 that the production of CSH
gel within an equivalent concrete mix containing neat OPC with-
out wood waste ash content (PC-01N) had virtually stopped at the
age of 28 days and beyond as indicated by the stagnant amount of
CSH gel after curing age of 28 days. Continuous production of CSH
gel within a concrete mix with 10% wood waste ash content con-
tributed towards the microstructure densification of the cement
676 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685
Table 4
Result of micrograph analysis (Elinwa et al., 2008).
Mix no. Property (%)
PC-01N (control) Porosity
Unhydrated cement
Ca(OH)2
C–S–H
PC-03N (SCC) Porosity
Unhydrated cement
Ca(OH)2
C–S–H
paste matrix, lowered degree of mix porosity, improved the quality
of the cement-aggregate interfacial transition zone and increased
the uniformity of pore distribution within the cement paste matrix.
These enhancements of the microstructural properties of cement
paste matrices were beneficial for mechanical strength and dura-
bility of hardened concrete mix produced.
The XRD analysis performed on hardened wood waste fly ash
(WWFA) blended cement paste indicated that calcium silicates
peaks in blended cement paste with 10% WWFA of total binder
weight was more intense than those with 30% WWFA while the
intensity of the calcium silicate peak of neat OPC paste is the highest
at 28 days of curing. The observation implicates that the production
rate of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel which is also the hydra-
tion rate of cement paste was retarded by the inclusion of wood
waste fly ash as a partial cement substitution material in blended
cement paste (Rajamma et al., 2009).
Micrographs of hardened cement paste after 24 h of curing indi-
cated extensive growth of CSH gel in neat OPC and 10% WWFA (both
type F1 and F2 WWFA) substituted cement paste as can be seen in
Fig. 7a–c. For blended cement paste specimens with type WWFA
content of 30%, an active formation of ettringite needles within the
cement paste matrix was noted for the same duration of curing as
in Fig. 7d and e. After 30 days of hydration of neat OPC paste and the
blended cement pastes containing 10% and 30%, WWFA was almost
completed whereby silicate hardening phases could be observed in
the micrographs of their respective hardened cement paste matri-
ces as in Fig. 8. In Fig. 8d and e, it can be noted that ettringite needles
observed at earlier age of hydration in the blended cement paste
containing 30% of WWFA remained in the paste even after 30 days
(Rajamma et al., 2009).
5. Rheological properties of wood waste ash/OPC concrete
and mortar
Elinwa and Mahmood (2002) reported that utilization of wood
waste ash obtained from open burning for sawdust as cement
replacement material in the production grade 20 concrete has had
adverse effects on the workability of freshly produced concrete mix.
While the water binder ratio of the concrete mix were maintained
at a constant at 0.565, increment level of cement replacement by
wood waste ash from 5% to 30% of the total binder weight at 5%
intervals resulted in a corresponding gradual decrease in the slump
value of the concrete mix by 5–40 mm with reference to the con-
trol concrete mix without wood waste ash content. Similar trends
in the reduction of concrete workability in terms of slump were
reported by Udoeyo and Dashibil (2002) who attempted to pro-
duce grade 25 concrete mixes containing a similar range of cement
replacement (5–30%) of cement using wood waste ash also pro-
duced from open burning for sawdust. Corresponding decrease in
value of compacting factor of concrete mix with increasing level of
cement replacement with wood waste ash was also observed.
Age (days)
3 7 28 60 90
25 18 15 15 15
14 12 10 10 10
10 12 14 14 14
39 58 61 61 61
18 12 9 7 6
9 8 6 6 6
14 8 7 6 4
59 72 78 81 84
A drastic reduction in the slump of concrete mix, from 62 mm
for a control concrete to merely 8 mm for a concrete mix with only
5% wood waste ash, was reported by Udoeyo et al. (2006). Zero
slump mixes were produced when wood waste ash was used at
a cement substitution level of 20–30%. Such a significant impair-
ment of mix workability was probably due to high organic content
of wood waste ash used in the production of the mixes. Wood waste
ash used in the study was reported to have high value for ignition
loss (LOI 10.46%), which may implicate the presence of significant
combustible organic content within the ash that renders, in nature,
a high water absorption of ash. The nature of high water absorp-
tion of wood waste ash is further justified by the research findings
of Abdullahi (2006) that show the inclusion of wood waste ash col-
lected from a local bakery as a partial cement replacement material
at replacement levels of 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% resulted in increase
water requirements by 10%, 11.7%, 13.3% and 15% respectively in
order to achieve similar values of slump as the control concrete
mixes without wood waste ash content.
Elinwa et al. (2008) investigated the effects of partial substi-
tution of cement by wood waste ash in the formulation of self
compacting concrete (SCC) and mortar (SCM) mixes. At a constant
mix proportion of cement, sand, water binder ratio and dosage of
superplasticizer, the mortar spreads of SCM mixes containing wood
waste ash (from open burning of sawdust) at a cement replace-
ment level ranging from 0% to 20% of binder weight were observed
to undergo consistent reduction from 270 mm to 200 mm. In addi-
tion, the fresh SCM mix flow times were found to increase from
4 s to 18 s. This occurred when the level of cement replacement
of wood waste ash in the mix was increased from 0% to 20% by
total binder weight as summarized in Table 5. SCC mixes con-
taining 20 mm coarse aggregates, wood waste ash as a partial
cement replacement material at 10% binder weight were tested
using a slump flow, V-funnel, T-5 minutes, U-Box and L-Box pro-
cedures. They each exhibited good compliance with specifications
in EFNARC (EFNARC, 2002) as summarized in Table 6. The SCC mix
with 10% wood waste ash content was in EFNARC compliance with
their specified flow and V-Funnel values. This implies adequate mix
stability and self-deaeration properties. Moreover, compliance of
the actual T5 minutes test time, within EFNARC specifications, also
showed that the mix had no segregation. The mix therefore satis-
fied the EFNARC requirement because of the good compactibility
achieved as shown by the U-Box and L-Box values.
Rajamma et al. (2009) investigated the effects of incorporation
of wood waste fly ash from a biomass power plant in mortar mixes
on fresh and hardened properties in the produced mixes. The addi-
tion of wood waste fly ash as a partial substitution of OPC (10%)
by total binder’s weight in mortar mixes had no adverse effect on
the water demand of wood waste fly ash mortar mixes. This was
compared to the control mortar mix in order to achieve a similar
level of workability using solely OPC as binder material. It had also
been observed that mortar mixes with wood waste fly ash as a par-
tial replacement material, using 10% binder weight, had prolonged
 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685 677

Fig. 7. Microstructure of cement paste after 24 h of hydration: (a) neat OPC paste; (b) 10% type F1 WWFA blended cement paste; (c) 10% type F2 WWFA blended cement
paste; (d) 30% type F1 blended cement paste; (e) 30% type F2 blended cement paste (Rajamma et al., 2009).

setting times in comparison to an equivalent control mortar mix.
Shortened mix setting times recorded when wood waste fly ash was
used at a higher cement replacement level at 20% and 30% binder’s
weight. Higher setting rates were observed when there was a high
rate of absorption when mixing water by organic content of the
wood waste ash in the mix. An unexpected retardation occurred
within the mix setting rate. By incorporating the wood waste ash
at a cement 10% replacement level, as mentioned earlier, proba-
bly caused a dominating effect over the relatively lower fineness of
wood waste ash in comparison to OPC over its organic content.

Table 5
Mix proportion and workability of SCM mixes (Elinwa et al., 2008).

Mix no. Cement (kg/m3 ) SDA, % (kg/m3 ) Sand (kg/m3 ) Water (kg/m3 ) SP dosage (%) w/c Mortar spread (cm) Flow time (s)

PC-01M 441 0 (0) 662 265 2.5 0.6 27 4

PC-02M 419 5 (22) 662 265 2.5 0.6 25 7
PC-03M 397 10 (44) 662 265 2.5 0.6 24 7
PC-04M 375 15 (66) 662 265 2.5 0.6 23 12
PC-05M 353 20 (88) 662 265 2.5 0.6 20 18
678 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685

Fig. 8. Microstructure of cement paste after 30 days of hydration: (a) neat OPC paste; (b) 10% type F1 WWFA blended cement paste; (c) 10% type F2 WWFA blended cement
paste; (d) 30% type F1 blended cement paste; (e) 30% type F2 blended cement paste (Rajamma et al., 2009).

6. Bulk density and mechanical strength of hardened wood
waste ash/OPC concrete and mortar
6.1. Bulk density
Generally, the utilization of wood waste ash as a partial cement
replacement material in concrete mix reduces bulk density of hard-
ened concrete. Reduction in bulk density becomes more significant
at higher levels of cement replacement using wood waste ash. Bulk
density of grade 20 concrete mixes was observed to be reduced
from 2482 kg/m3 at 0% wood ash content to 2281 kg/m3 when wood
ash content was increased up to 40%. The bulk density reduction
effect is attributed to a lower specific gravity wood waste ash in
comparison to OPC (Elinwa et al., 2005).
6.2. Compressive strength
Several researchers (Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002; Udoeyo and
Dashibil, 2002; Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004; Abdullahi, 2006) had com-
mon findings that show the use of wood waste ash as a partial
cement replacement material in concrete at all level of cement
replacement ranged between 5% and 30% it reduces the compres-
sive strength of the concrete mix produced relative to neat OPC
concrete for all curing times. Udoeyo et al. (2006) justified that
the trend observed is most probably due to the mechanism that
wood waste ash particles act more like filler material within the
cement paste matrix than as binder material. Thus, increasing ash
content as replacement of cement resulted in an increased surface
area of filler material to be bonded by decreasing the amount of
 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685
Table 6
Fresh property of SCC mixes with 10% wood waste ash (Elinwa et al., 2008).
Measurement Mix
FC-01M
Experimental value
Flow 680 mm
V-funnel 8.4 s
T5 minutes 9.8 s
U-Box 29 mm
L-Box 0.85
cement which caused a decline in strength. However, Elinwa and
Mahmood (2002) observed a marginal difference of compressive
strength between wood waste ash concrete and neat OPC control
concrete mix. This tends to decrease with prolonged curing dura-
tions, especially beyond 28 days. In addition, Udoeyo and Dashibil
(2002) observed a higher rate of compressive strength gain for
concrete mix with wood waste ash content ranging between 15%
and 25% total binder weight. This was true for increments of 5%
at later curing ages of 56 and 90 days. Both observations are evi-
dence of increased CSH gel formation within cement paste matrix
microstructure of wood waste ash concrete by pozzolanic activity.
This was done between an amorphous silica content of wood waste
ash and portlandite from the hydration of cement.
Elinwa and Ejeh (2004) studied the compressive strength devel-
opment of mortar mixes containing wood waste ash as a cement
replacement between 5 and 30% at stepped increments of 5%
observed that mortar mix with 10% wood waste ash content exhib-
ited highest compressive strength at all ages of curing up to 60 days.
At a 60 day curing age the mortar mix with 10% of wood waste ash as
partial cement replacement material exhibited similar compressive
strength as equivalent mortar mix with only OPC as binder.
Naik et al. (2002) investigated the compressive strength devel-
opment behaviour of a concrete mixture made with wood fly ash
used as a partial cement substitution material for curing age up to
365 days. Wood fly ash was included in the mix at binder substitu-
tion levels of 5, 8 and 12% by total binder weight while a quantity of
binder, aggregate and water/binder ratios remained constant for all
mixes produced. From the compressive strength results acquired,
they concluded that (i) control concrete mixture (without wood
waste ash content) achieved a strength of 34 MPa at 28 days and
44 MPa at 365 days. The strength of (ii) concrete mixtures contain-
ing wood fly ash ranged from 33 MPa at 28 days and between 42
and 46 MPa at 365 days. (iii) The inclusion of wood fly ash in a par-
tial substitution of cement in concrete up to a replacement level of
12% had a significant contribution to the strength development of
concrete mixtures produced. Continuous strength was gained from
the wood fly ash concrete mixes upon prolonged curing durations.
This indicated a presence of pozzolanic reactions between wood
waste ash and the cement hydration product.
Elinwa et al. (2005) attempted to improve compressive strength
of wood waste ash/OPC concrete by the including trace amounts
of metakaolin as an additive in the concrete mixes. The concrete
mixes produced had 20 MPa target strength. This mix included
wood waste ash as a cement replacement using a 5% step incre-
ments between 0 and 40%. Metakaolin was used as an additive
material at a constant dosage of 3% by total binder weight. It was
observed that the inclusion of metakaolin though at small dosage,
contributed towards the enhancement of an early rate of com-
pressive strength gain of wood waste ash/OPC concrete. SDA/OPC
concrete with 10% wood waste ash total binder weight exhibited a
compressive strength and modulus of rupture which was respec-
tively 37% and 7% higher in comparison to the neat OPC concrete
though both mixes had same content of metakaolin. Concrete mixes
with wood waste ash at cement replacement levels of 5%, 10%, 15%
679
Standard (EFNARC, 2002)
FC-01N
Experimental value
665 mm 650–800 mm
8.2 s 8–12 s
9.9 s 8–15 s
28.5 mm 0–30 mm
0.85 0.8–1.0
and 20% and 3% metakaolin as additive reached target strength of
20 MPa after 28 days of curing period.
Further evidence of pozzolanic characteristic of wood waste ash
was reported by Elinwa et al. (2008) that incorporation of wood
waste ash as partial cement replacement material by 10% of total
binder weight in self a compacting mortar mix resulted in improve-
ment in compressive strength of mix relative to control the mortar
mix containing neat OPC as binder. Self compacting mortar mixes
with wood waste ash beyond 10% total binder weight was observed
to have lower compressive strength than neat OPC mortar for curing
ages up to 28 days. At a prolonged curing age up to 90 days, mortar
mixes with wood waste ash content of 15% exhibited compressive
strength similar to neat OPC mortar. Similar trends of a higher rate
of compressive strength development at later curing ages beyond
28 days up to 90 days relative to neat OPC mortar were exhibited
by all mortar mixes which had wood waste ash content of 5, 10, 15
and 20% of total binder weight.
Rajamma et al. (2009) investigated the compressive strength
of cement mortar mixes containing wood waste fly ash obtained
from a wood biomass fired power plant. Wood waste fly ash was
used as cement replacement material at replacement level of 10, 20
and 30% of total binder weight. It was observed that mortar mixes
with a wood waste fly ash content of 10% exhibited higher 28-day
compressive strength but lower flexural strength in comparison
with equivalent neat OPC mortar. The use of wood waste fly ash as
a partial cement replacement material at higher replacement level
of 20 and 30% of total binder weight was observed to reduce 28 day
compressive strength relative to equivalent neat OPC mortar mix.
Utilization of very finely ground ash from the co-combustion of
wood waste, sugarcane bagasse and rice husks (BRWA) as partial
cement replacement material in concrete was found to significantly
improve the compressive strength of the concrete mix produced.
Horsakulthai et al. (2011) investigated the strength development
characteristic of concrete mixes produced by incorporation of
BRWA as cement replacement material. BRWA used were obtained
from a biomass power plant which used the mixture of wood waste,
sugarcane bagasse and rice husk as fuel and ground to a very fine
dust (2% of total mass of ash retained on 45 ␮m sieve). Concrete
mixes produced had BRWA content of 0%, 10%, 20% and 40% total
binder weight as a partial cement replacement material. After 28
days curing, the concrete mixes with BRWA contents of 10% and
20% total binder weight were determined to have a higher compres-
sive strength of 103% and 108% normalized against the compressive
strength of the control concrete mix. Concrete mixes with 40%
BRWA content total binder weight, though exhibited lower com-
pressive strength as early as 7 and 28 days relative to control
concrete mix, had a similar compressive strength as the control
concrete at prolonged curing period of 91 days. Concrete mixes
with 10%, 20% and 40% of concrete mixes exhibited higher rates of
strength beyond 28 days relative to control concrete mix with only
OPC as binder. Compressive strengths with a given curing time for
all the mixes examined are summarized in Table 7. Enhancements
in the compressive strength of concrete with BRWA content as early
as 7 and 28 days were attributed to the micro filler effect of the ultra
680 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685

Table 7 in marginal differences between split tensile strength of sawdust

Compressive strength of concrete at various curing duration (Horsakulthai et al.,
ash/OPC concrete with neat OPC concrete at prolonged curing 7–28
2011).
days.
Mix Compressive strength (MPa)–normalized Naik et al. (2002) studied the influence of wood ash on the
7 days 28 days 91 days 180 days splitting tensile strength of concrete when used as partial cement
replacement material in production of concrete. Wood fly ash
PC1 19.0–100 24.0–100 29.0–100 31.5–100
10BRWA1 18.5–97 24.5–103 33.4–116 36.5–116 was used in the partial replacement of cement to produce several
20BRWA1 21.0–111 26.0–108 38.5–133 40.5–129 batches of concrete mix at replacement level of 5%, 8% and 12%
40BRWA1 16.0–84 20.5–85 29.0–100 34.5–110 total binder weight. A corresponding control concrete mix with-
out wood fly ash content was cast for comparison. The tensile split
strength of the concrete specimens produced was monitored at 3,
Table 8
Split tensile strength of sawdust ash concrete (Udoeyo and Dashibil, 2002). 7, 28, 91, 182 and 365 days. (i) From the laboratory results analy-
sis, it was reported that control concrete mixtures achieved a split
SDA (%) Split tensile strength (N/mm2 )
tensile strength of 3.8 MPa at 28 days and 4.3 MPa at 365 days; (ii)
7 days 28 days the split tensile strength of concrete mixtures with wood fly ash
0 2.14 2.8 content varied between 3.6 and 4.0 MPa at 28 days and between
10 2.05 2.76 4.3 and 5.3 MPa at 365 days. It was also observed that for ages of
15 1.83 2.69 concrete beyond 28 days up to 365 days, the concrete mix with
20 1.79 2.61 wood ash content of 8% total binder weight exhibited the best split
25 1.44 2.53
30 1.14 1.91
tensile strength development behaviour with a magnitude of split
tensile strength consistently exceeded those of other test mixes.

1.2 6.4. Flexural strength

Split tensile stregth ratio

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 the strength of concrete mixtures with wood fly ash content varied
0 10 15 20 25
Sawdust ash content (%)
Fig. 9. Split tensile strength ratio versus sawdust ash content (Udoeyo and Dashibil,
2002).
fine particles of ash which contributed to the denser packing of
the cement paste matrix. A higher compressive strength of BRWA
mixes at later age of curing (91 and 180 days) were largely due
to continuous formation of CSH gels within cement paste matrix
by pozzolanic reaction between amorphous silica composition of
BRWA with portlandite from hydration of cement. High rates of
the pozzolanic reaction which was initiated on the 28 days of curing
period were largely due to very fine particle size of the ash.
6.3. Split tensile strength
Udoeyo and Dashibil (2002) reported a reduction in both the
compression and split tensile strength of concrete produced by
partial replacement of cement with wood waste ash. Split tensile
strength of concrete mixes at 7 and 28 days was observed to decline
with increasing level of cement replacement with wood waste ash.
The effects of reduction in split tensile strength of concrete by the
use of wood waste ash as partial cement replacement material
was less pronounced in comparison with reduction in compres-
sive strength. It was observed that the marginal difference in split
tensile strength of SDA/OPC concrete mixes with reference to neat
OPC concrete were more significant at 7 days. However, at 28 days
the SDA/OPC concrete mixes with a cement replacement level up
to 25% total binder weight exhibited a split tensile strength values
of over 90% of split tensile strength of neat OPC concrete as seen in
Table 8. The graphical correlation between a split tensile strength
ratio (split tensile strength of SDA concrete to neat OPC concrete)
and sawdust ash content in Fig. 9 illustrates a further reduction
Naik et al. (2002) investigated the effects of the incorporation
of wood ash in partial replacement of cement in concrete mix
on flexural strength of hardened concrete. In this study, wood fly
7 Days ash was incorporated in a concrete mix at a cement replacement
28 Days level of 0 (control concrete), 5, 8 and 12%. The flexural strength
results obtained indicated that (i) control mixture achieved flex-
ural strength of 4.1 MPa at 28 days and 4.4 MPa at 365 days; (ii)
30 between 3.9 and 4.4 MPa at 28 days and between 4.3 and 5.3 MPa
at 365 days (iii) and at 7 days, all mixes with wood fly ash content
exhibited superior flexural strength relative to the control concrete
mix. The mix which had 5% wood fly ash exhibited the highest flex-
ural strength. (iv) At 28–365 days, the concrete mix containing 8%
of wood fly ash exhibited optimal flexural strength among all mixes
examined.
Udoeyo et al. (2006) studied the flexural strength development
behaviour of concrete mixes produced with the use of wood waste
ash as a partial cement replacement material at varying levels of
cement replacement; (0 (control concrete), 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and
30% binder weight. Flexural strengths of concrete specimens pro-
duced were recorded at 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. Analysis of the
results indicated that at all ages the concrete there was an increased
level of cement replacement with wood waste ash that resulted
in a decreased magnitude of flexural strength. For instance, at 28
days, the flexural strength of the concrete mix with 5% wood waste
ash content was recorded at 5.20 MPa as compared to 5.57 MPa of
control concrete specimens. A gradual reduction occurred in the
flexural strength over 28 days. Results revealed a decrease from
5.20 MPa with 5% wood waste ash concrete to 3.74 MPa with 30%
total binder mass with wood waste ash content in the mix was
observed. By performing a regression analysis of flexural strength
and compressive strength data acquired, they also found a strong
direct linear proportional correlation between flexural strength and
the compressive strength of wood waste ash concrete mixes pro-
duced for up to 28 days as presented in the following equation.
ff = 0.234fcu − 0.908 (R2 = 0.94) (1)
Rajamma et al. (2009) evaluated the 28 days flexural strength
of mortar mixes produced by partial replacement of cement binder
using fly ash from two distinct wood biomass power plants. Mor-
tar bars specimens fabricated for flexure testing were produced
with the use of wood fly ash at 0 (control mortar), 10, 20 and 30%
 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685 681

120 120

100 100

Weight (g)
80
Weight (g)

80

60 60
Control Control
40 10% SWIFA 40 10% SWIFA
20 20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Age (weeks) Age (weeks)
Fig. 10. Variation of mass of concrete with the duration of immersion in nitric acid Fig. 11. Variation of mass of concrete with the duration of immersion in sulphuric
20% (Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004). acid 20% (Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004).

by total binder weight. Flexure strength data recorded indicated

a gradual decrease in flexure strength of mortar mix produced 1.2
with an increasing level of cement replacement by wood fly ash

Water absorption (%)

1
from 0 to 30%. Mortar mixes with 10, 20 and 30% of wood fly
ash used in a partial substitution of cement exhibited flexural 0.8
strengths in the range of 60.6–71%, 59.6–61.7% and 45–48.6% flex-
0.6
ural strength of control mix respectively. They concluded that (i)
wood fly ash can be used in mortar at cement replacement level of 0.4
up to 20% in order to maintain acceptable mechanical strength; and 0.2
(ii) mechanical strength of mortar deteriorated rapidly with incor-
poration of wood waste ash at cement replacement level higher 0
than 20%. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
WWA content (%)
7. Durability properties of wood waste ash/OPC concrete Fig. 12. Correlation of water absorption with wood waste ash content in concrete
(Udoeyo et al., 2006).
7.1. Resistance against acid attack

Udoeyo and Dashibil (2002) investigated the resistance of con-
crete containing wood waste ash against acid attack. Two batches
of concrete specimens having the same mix proportions (1 binder:
2 sand: 4 gravel and w/c ratio of 0.65) were produced. One of
the batches contained neat OPC as a binder while the other batch
had 15% total binder weight of wood waste ash used in partial
replacement of cement and 85% total binder weight of cement.
The hardened concrete cubes produced were immersed in a 20%
concentrated nitric acid solution. The cubes were immersed and
their loss of mass was noted at 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63
and 70 days. There was a continuous marginal increase in mass
for both sets of concrete specimens upon immersion in the con-
centrated nitric acid solution up to 9 weeks of immersion due to
the absorption of water. At the tenth week of immersion, there
was observable mass decrease in both batches of specimens and
it could be noted that mass decrease of the concrete specimens
with 15% total binder weight of wood ash were less pronounced
in comparison to control concrete specimens with neat OPC as
binder.
Elinwa and Ejeh (2004) studied the effects of incorporating
wood waste ash in concrete for resistance against corrosive action.
Two types of corrosion tested were concentrated nitric acid and
sulphuric acid both having a 20% concentration. A batch of con-
crete with wood waste ash used as a partial cement replacement
level of 10% total binder weight and a corresponding batch of con-
trol concrete a having similar mix proportion as the former but
without wood waste ash content. Both specimens were immersed
in both types of acid solution mentioned earlier. Their loss in mass
was noted every week for total immersion up to 5 weeks. The resis-
tance of concrete containing 10% of wood waste ash by total binder
weight against corrosive action of nitric acid was observed to be
higher than control concrete mix because loss in mass of wood
waste ash concrete was less pronounced relative to the control
concrete as can be seen in Fig. 10. However, a 10% wood waste
ash concrete mix was observed to have a lower resistance against
the corrosive action of sulphuric acid in comparison to the con-
trol concrete containing only neat OPC as binder. This is due to
higher loss in mass of 10% wood waste ash concrete as compared
to OPC concrete when immersed in 20% sulphuric acid as indicated
in Fig. 11.
7.2. Water absorption
Elinwa and Ejeh (2004) studied the effects of the incorporation
of wood waste ash as a partial cement replacement material in mor-
tar mixes on its water absorption property. Two batches of mortar
mixes with the same mix proportions (1 binder: 3 sand: 0.6 w/b
ratio) were cast whereby one batch contained 15% wood waste
ash as a partial replacement material while the other had no wood
waste ash content. It was observed that inclusion of wood waste
ash as a cement replacement material at 15% total binder weight
contributed towards the reduction in water absorption of the mor-
tar mix produced. Average water absorptions of mortar mixes with
15% of wood waste ash and without wood waste ash content were
recorded to be 0.8% and 1.25% respectively whereby both are still
far below maximum of 10%.
Udoeyo et al. (2006) investigated the water absorption prop-
erties of concrete with wood waste ash as a partial cement
replacement material. Concrete mixes with wood waste ash con-
tent ranging between 5% and 30% at increments of 5% were
produced for water absorption tests. The water absorption of
concrete with wood waste ash as a partial cement replacement
material was observed to increase gradually from 0.14 to 1.05%
with the increase in level of cement replacement from 5% to 30% as
shown in Fig. 12. At levels of cement replacement by wood waste
ash up to 30%, concrete mix produced still has satisfactory values
682 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685
Fig. 13. Chloride diffusion coefficient of concrete at the age of 28 days (Horsakulthai
et al., 2011).
of water absorption below 10% which has been an acceptable value
for most construction material.
7.3. Chloride permeability
Wang et al. (2008b) investigated the chloride penetration resis-
tance of air entrained in a concrete mix with a partial replacement
of cement binder using wood fly ash and wood/coal blended fly ash.
Level of cement replacement by several types of fly ash was main-
tained at 25% total binder weight. Various types of fly ash used as a
partial cement replacement material were, to name a few, combus-
tion of wood (Wood), class C coal/wood blended fly (Wood C), class
F coal/wood blended fly ash (Wood F), class C and class F coal fly
ash and fly ash from co-combustion of coal and switch grass (SW1
and SW2). Wood C and Wood F blended fly ash were produced by
blending class C and class F coal fly ash with pure wood ash at a mass
ratio of 80% coal fly ash and 20% wood waste fly ash. All concrete
mixes produced were moist cured for 56 days prior to being sub-
jected to a rapid chloride permeability test which was performed in
accordance to ASTM C1202-91. Based on the test results obtained,
they observed that (i) the incorporation of wood waste ash at a
cement replacement level of 25% in air entrained concrete mix did
not result in a significant impairment of the chloride permeabil-
ity property of concrete. (ii) The utilization of wood waste/class F
coal blended fly ash in partial substitution of cement had significant
contribution towards lowering of chloride permeability property of
concrete mix. A slight increase in chloride permeability of concrete
mix with 25% wood waste ash used in partial substitution of cement
relative to control concrete mix with pure OPC binder observed was
probably attributed to coarse particle size (30–130 ␮m) of wood
waste ash used.
Horsakulthai et al. (2011) studied the effects of incorporating a
very finely ground ash from the co-combustion of wood, rice husk
and sugarcane bagasse waste (termed as BRWA) as partial cement
replacement material on the chloride permeability property of con-
crete mix produced. The accelerated salt ponding method was used
to evaluate chloride permeability of two different grades (grade 20
and 35) of concrete mixes produced by the incorporation of BRWA
at a cement replacement level of 0, 10, 20, and 40% total binder
mass. The test results concluded that the incorporation of finely
ground BRWA as partial cement substitution in concrete resulted
in the enhancement of resistance against chloride penetration and
lowered the chloride diffusivity coefficient. The presence of BRWA
in a concrete mix at a cement substitution level of 10, 20 and 40%
resulted in the reduction of the chloride diffusion coefficient by
30–40%, 65–70% and 75% respectively in comparison to control con-
crete mixes with only OPC as binder. The gradual reduction trend
of the chloride diffusion coefficient for two different grades of con-
crete was examined. The increasing level of cement replacement
by BRWA is presented in Fig. 13.
7.4. Alkali silica reaction (ASR)
Wang and Baxter (2007) investigated the alkali silica reaction
(ASR) expansion behaviour of mortar mixes containing a reactive
aggregate (opal), high alkali cement and three different type of fly
ash. Three types of fly ashes used were C, SAW and 10P. They were
obtained from the combustion of class C coal, co-firing of class C coal
with sawdust at mass ratio of 80% coal/20% sawdust and co-firing of
class C coal with switch grass at mass ratio of 90% coal/10% switch
grass respectively. Four batches of mortar mix with similar binders:
aggregate: water proportion was made. They included a batch of
control mortars (with only OPC as binder) and three other batches
with the three different types of fly ash used at a constant level
of cement replacement with 35% total binder weight. The change
in length of the mortar bars were designed from the four different
mortar mixes and monitored at 1 day, 14 days, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9 and 12
months. The test results indicated that although sawdust-coal co-
fired fly ash (SAW) had much higher alkali content in comparison to
class C fly ash, it performed better in the reduction of ASR expansion
than class C fly ash. The use of sawdust-coal co-fired fly ash in the
mortar mix was found to be able to reduce ASR expansion at 6
months below 0.1% (maximum expansion specified in ASTM C33)
from 0.28%. This occurred with the control mortar mix having only
OPC as binder. Among the fly ash examined, sawdust-coal co-fired
ash was observed to have best performance in the mitigation of ASR
expansion.
7.5. Corrosion current and electrical resistance
Horsakulthai et al. (2011) investigated the effects of partial
substitution of cement with very finely ground ash from co-
combustion of chop wood, rice husks and sugarcane bagasse
(termed as BRWA). These substitutions were tested in two dif-
ferent grades of concrete on the corrosion current and electrical
resistance of hardened concrete mixes. The two concrete mixes
had a target strength grade of 20 MPa and 35 MPa respectively. For
grade 20 mixes, BRWA was used as partial cement replacement
material at a replacement level of 0 (control mix), 10, 20, and 40%.
Meanwhile, for the grade 35 MPa mix, BRWA was used at a cement
replacement level of 0 (control mix), 10 and 20%. The corrosion cur-
rent and electrical resistance of mixes produced were evaluated by
an accelerated corrosion test using the impressed voltage (ACTIV)
method. From the test results they observed that increased levels
of cement replacement using BRWA resulted in increased electrical
resistance of the mix. This is indicated by a lowered value of initial
corrosion current passing the mix. For grade 20 concrete, values of
initial corrosion current of the mixes with BRWA content of 0, 10,
20 and 40% were recorded to be 27.4, 18.8, 7.9 and 4.0 mA respec-
tively. While for the grade 35 concrete mix, with BRWA content of
0, 10 and 20%, currents reported were to be 26.1, 14.5 and 6.4 mA
respectively. The enhancement in electrical resistance of the con-
crete mix with the use of BRWA as partial cement replacement
material was largely attributed to the effect of the overall reduc-
tion of the average pore size. There was a quality improvement of
the interfacial transition zone between the cement paste matrix
and the aggregates formed by the additional CSH compounds from
the pozzolanic reaction. This reaction, in turn occurred between
the amorphous silica content of BRWA with portlandite formed
during the OPC hydration stage. Test results of the accelerated cor-
rosion test, by impressed voltage, also showed a delay in time for
the formation of the first micro-crack within the concrete mixes.
These were examined upon immersion in the concentrated sodium
chloride solution with an increased level of cement replacement
by BRWA as shown in Fig. 14. Furthermore, the loss in mass of
the steel bar embedded in the concrete mixes upon immersion
in 3% sodium chloride solution was observed to decrease with
 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685
Fig. 14. Time of the initial crack of concrete (Horsakulthai et al., 2011).
60
50
Weight loss (g)
40
30
20
10
0 ash. Similar behaviour was observed for other types of fly ashes
10BRWA1
20BRWA1
40BRWA1
10BRWA2
PC1
PC2
Fig. 15. Mass loss of the embedded steel bar in the mix after 90 days immersion in
3% NaCl solution (Horsakulthai et al., 2011).
an increased level of cement replacement by BRWA as shown in
Fig. 15.
8. Resistance of wood waste ash concrete against
freeze–thaw action
Naik et al. (2002) investigated the influence of partial replace-
ment cement by wood ash on the freezing and thawing resistance
of concrete mix produced. In this study, wood ash was used as a
partial substitution of cement in the production of concrete mixes
at a replacement level of 0 (control concrete), 5, 8 and 12% of
total binder’s weight. Changes in the relative dynamic modulus,
pulse velocity and variation in length of concrete specimens fab-
ricated were recorded after a given number of freeze–thaw cycles
up to a total of 360 cycles. From the results of the relative dynamic
modulus of the concrete acquired, it was observed that (i) there
was no significant effect of the freeze–thaw action (300 cycles)
on the relative dynamic modulus of concrete mixtures; and (ii)
the inclusion of wood ash in the concrete mix did not make a
significant difference in the relative dynamic modulus of the con-
crete mix. After being subjected to 300 freeze–thaw cycles, relative
dynamic modulus of 97.7%, 95.7%, 97.8% and 95.7% were recorded
for the concrete mixes with a wood waste ash inclusion level of
0 (control mix), 5, 8 and 12% respectively. Similarly, there was
no significant effect from the inclusion of wood ash in the con-
crete on the pulse velocity of the mixes upon being subjected to a
given number of freeze thaw cycles. At the end of 300 freeze–thaw
cycles, the pulse velocities of the concrete mixes with 0, 5, 8 and
12% wood ash content were recorded to be 5425, 5480, 5560and
5435 m/s respectively. In terms of length variation under the freeze
thaw action, for the control concrete mix percent change in length
recorded was 0%(at 32 cycles)/−0.00556%(at 300 cycles). Mean-
while, for the concrete mix with wood ash content of 5, 8 and
12%, percentage length changes after 32 and 360 freeze thaw cycles
were recorded as −0.003273%/0.01113%, 0.002942%/0.00903% and
683
−0.000417%/0.01156% respectively. It was concluded that incorpo-
ration of wood ash did not significantly affect the length changes
properties of concrete under freeze–thaw action.
As the damaging action of freezing and thawing involves expan-
sion of water upon freezing, it is logical to expect that, if excess
water can readily escape into adjacent air-filled voids, damage
of concrete will not occur. Hence, entrainment of small air bub-
bles within the range of micrometers (typically with diameter of
50 ␮m) enhances resistance of concrete against freezing and thaw-
ing degradation. These air bubbles are normally created within the
cement paste matrix of concrete by incorporation of an adequate
amount of air entraining agent in the concrete mix. Air entraining
agents are surface active agents that have long chained molecules
which orientate themselves so as to reduce the surface tension of
water, the other end of the molecule being directed towards the
air. Thus, air bubbles formed during mixing become stabilized and
prevented from coalescence which ensures uniform dispersion of
entrained air (Neville, 1995). Wang et al. (2008c) observed that the
use of wood waste fly ash in partial substitution of cement raised
the demand of air entraining agents of the mix to achieve a given
range of entrained air content within the concrete mix. This was
probably attributed to the absorption of air entraining agent by
active carbon available in the organic content of wood waste fly
used in the study. In fact, air entraining agent’s demand of pure
wood waste fly ash to achieve a constant volume of entrained air
in mix was the lowest relative to other types of fly ashes used.
Wang et al. (2008b) studied the degree of deterioration of air
entrained concrete containing several types of fly ashes used as a
partial substitution of cement as a binder upon being subjected to
a constant cycle of freeze and thaw actions. Ashes used as partial
cement replacement material in the study were namely wood fly
ash, blended class C coal/wood fly ash at 80%/20% mass ratio (Wood
C), blended class F/wood fly ash at 80%/20% mass ratio (Wood F),
class C fly ash, class F fly ash, ash from co-combustion of switch
grass with class C coal at a mass ratio of 20% switch grass/80% coal
(SW1) and ash from co-combustion of switch grass with class C coal
at a mass ratio of 10% switch grass/90% coal (SW2). These ashes
were used as a partial cement replacement material in the pro-
duction of air entrained concrete at a constant replacement level
of 25% of total binder weight. Freeze–thaw tests were performed
on the concrete mixes produced in accordance to the procedures
prescribed in ASTM C666. From test results obtained, they con-
cluded that while maintaining similar volumes of entrained air,
the use of wood waste fly ash and all fly ash examined as a
partial substitution material there was no adverse effects on the
resistance of air entrained concrete mix against the freeze–thaw
action.
9. Drying shrinkage of concrete containing wood ash
Naik et al. (2002) studied the drying shrinkage properties of con-
crete mixtures made by the incorporation of wood waste ash as a
partial cement replacement material. For mixes produced during
the study, wood ash was used at cement substitution level of 0, 5,
8 and 12%. Length changes of concrete specimens produced were
monitored up to 232 days. It was reported that the shrinkage value
of control concrete specimens was −0.0092% (7 days)/−0.052% (232
days). Meanwhile shrinkage values of concrete mixtures with 5, 8
and 12% were recorded to be 0.012%/−0.027%, 0.014%/−0.013% and
−0.0051%/−0.044%. From the results of drying shrinkage, it was
observed that the inclusion of wood waste ash significantly con-
tributed to the reduction in magnitude of concrete upon drying.
This is a desirable attribute which may reduce formation of micro
cracks within concrete mix on drying.
684 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685
10. Reuse and recycling of wood waste ash
10.1. Use of wood waste ash in the production of controlled low
strength material (CLSM)
Naik (1999) investigated physical, chemical and morphological
properties of wood ash and found that it could be potentially used as
a pozzolanic mineral admixture and chemical activator in cement
based material. Furthermore, he indicated that wood ash has sig-
nificant potential to be used in the production of controlled low
strength material (CLSM) and other construction material such as
masonry product, roller compacted concrete pavement and (RCCP)
and blended cements.
As an extension from his previous work, Naik (2000) proceeded
further to study the use of wood waste ash as a main component
in the production of CLSM. In the study, a total of 31 CLSM mix-
tures were formulated using three distinct sources of wood fly
ash to obtain a range of compressive strengths between 0.34 MPa
and 1.0 MPa at the age of 28 days. CLSM mixtures produced con-
sisted only of three constituent materials namely cement, water
and wood waste fly ash. Each batch of CLSM mixture produced
was evaluated for its rheological and hardened state properties.
Rheological properties of the mix examined included fresh unit
weight, amount of bleed water, settlement, setting and harden-
ing characteristics. Aspects of hardened CLSM properties evaluated
were compressive strength, density and permeability of hardened
mix.
Several CLSM mixtures with high volumes of wood waste fly ash
were found to be appropriate for backfill and excavation work and
for making low to medium strength concrete (Naik, 1999, 2000).
Further evidence was reported by Fehrs (1996) who studied the
mechanical and rheological properties of low strength concrete
and CLSM by the incorporation of wood waste ash as constituent
material. He concluded that wood ash can be suitably used as a
constituent material in the manufacture of low strength and CLSM
material.
10.2. Use of wood ash for improvement of soil alkalinity and as
fertilizer
Naylor and Schmidt (1986) evaluated wood ash for use as a fer-
tilizer and liming agent for agricultural soil. In this study, wood
ash was mixed with acidic soil at application rates of 0, 0.4, 1.8
and 2.4 tonnes/acre to assess any changes in extractable nutri-
ents and soil pH. They observed that increasing the rate of wood
ash application resulted in a higher soil pH and concentrations
of extractable phosphate, potassium and calcium ions. The ash
neutralizing capability was found to be half of that achieved by
agricultural limestone.
Etiegni and Campbell (1991) investigated the suitability of wood
ash as an agricultural soil supplement and liming agent. In this
study, two types of plants, namely winter wheat and poplar, were
grown in a green house on six different soil samples amended with
varying amounts of wood ash. The results obtained indicated a sub-
stantial increase in the biomass of wheat and in the diameter and
height of the poplar at ash in soil concentration up to 2% (equiv-
alent to application rate of 16 tonne/acre). Furthermore, from an
analysis of their results, the authors indicated that wood ash can be
suitably applied as a low grade fertilizer with significant potassium
and liming agent content.
Bramryd and Frashman (1995) reported a decrease in acid-
ity and aluminium concentration when wood ash was applied to
soil bearing 35 year old pine trees in Sweden. In addition, con-
centrations of extractable Manganese ions were found to increase
following wood ash applications. Copper ion content in the soil was
also found to increase with the presence of wood ash. However, no
significant increase in heavy metal concentration was found due to
addition of wood ash.
Nguyen and Pascal (1997) measured tree growth response by
the use of wood ash from two different sources as a forest soil
amendment. Four different application rates (0, 2, 4 and 8%) were
used. They observed that the addition of wood ash to forest soil
affected all the measured growth parameters within the wood ash
application zone. However, a 2% application rate was found to be
optimum.
Meyers and Kopecky (1998) evaluated the effects of land spread-
ing wood ash on forage crop yield and the elemental composition
of soil nutrient levels. The use of wood ash as soil supplementary
material resulted in higher crop yield in comparison to the use
of lime and fertilizer. No adverse effects were noted at wood ash
application rate of up to 20 tonnes per acre.
The use of wood ash as a liming agent to control the alkalinity of
soil has been in practice in the agricultural sector for many years.
Wood ash for land application involves several considerations. Prior
to planting any crops on agricultural land, the existing nutrient and
pH level must be determined by appropriate soil testing methods. In
order to minimize potential air and ground water pollution, wood
ash applications on agricultural land should be limited to a level
that maintains the soil pH for the intended crop growth. Moreover,
excessive applications of wood ash may result in higher soil alkalin-
ity which may render the land unsuitable for planting certain crops.
Generally, the liming ability of wood ash is estimated using a mea-
surable parameter called the calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE).
However, CCE content may vary significantly for wood ash from
different sources but the variations are normally within the range
of 25–60%. In the presence of proper soil tests and laboratory data
on lime equivalency of wood ash used, application rates for wood
ash are calculated as the ratio of recommended lime application
rate to the lime equivalency of wood ash (Siddique, 2008).
10.3. Use of wood ash as a pollution control agent
Wood ash has been used as a replacement for lime or cement
kiln dust in the solidification of hazardous wastes. In addition, wood
ash is an effective liming agent and has been widely used for pH and
odour control of hazardous and non hazardous wastes. Wood ash
has been added to compost as a colour and odour control agent.
Wood ash has been found to be able to capture several water borne
contaminants (NCASI, 1993).
11. Conclusions and summary
1. Quantity and quality of wood ash are dependent on several
factors namely, combustion temperatures of wood biomass,
species of wood from which wood biomass fuels were derived
and types of combustion technology used. Hence, proper char-
acterisation of wood ash is mandatory prior to its application as
a constituent material in the production of concrete mixtures.
2. Particle distribution of wood ash is generally coarser in com-
parison to ordinary Portland cement (OPC). However, specific
surface of wood ash is comparatively higher than OPC due to
high irregularity in the shape of wood ash particles and its
porous nature.
3. Wood ash has a chemical composition which varies signifi-
cantly within species of trees from which the wood biomass
was derived but is generally rich in lime and silica compounds.
4. Blended cement with wood ash as a partial OPC replacement
material has a higher standard consistency, initial and final set-
ting time. It tends to have more soundness but a lower rate of
heat development relative to neat OPC paste.
 C.B. Cheah, M. Ramli / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 669–685
5. Significant amounts of ettringite crystals are formed within a
cement paste matrix upon hydration of wood ash-OPC blended
cement especially at high level of OPC substitution by wood
ash.
6. Concrete and mortar mixtures containing wood ash as a par-
tial cement replacement material has higher water demands
to achieve a given level of mix workability as compared to
equivalent neat OPC mixtures.
7. The inclusion of wood ash as partial cement replacement mate-
rial in concrete or mortar mixtures at an increasing level of
cement replacement may result in a gradual reduction in bulk
density of the hardened concrete or mortar mixtures.
8. Generally, the incorporation of wood ash as a partial cement
replacement material in the formulation of concrete mix
reduces mechanical strength (compressive, flexural and split-
ting tensile strength) of concrete. However, there were
promising observations that inclusion of wood ash at low lev-
els of cement replacement actually contributed towards the
enhancement of compressive strength in concrete mixtures
produced. Wood ash use as a partial replacement for OPC
at replacement levels up to 10% by total binder weight can
produce structural grade concrete or mortar with acceptable
strength properties.
9. Metakaolin can be used in as an additive in trace amounts as a
chemical activator to enhance the rate of mechanical strength
development of concrete and mortar mixtures containing wood
ash as partial cement replacement material.
10. Concrete mixtures containing wood ash as a partial cement
replacement material exhibit higher degrees of resistance
against corrosion under exposure to mono basic acid solutions
as compared to equivalent neat OPC mixtures. However, the
reverse is true when the concrete mixtures are subjected to the
corrosive actions of dibasic acid solutions.
11. Increasing wood ash content as a partial cement replacement
material in the formulation of concrete mixtures generally
results in increasing magnitudes of water absorption in con-
crete mixtures.
12. The use of wood ash as a partial substitution of cement in con-
crete mixtures at replacement levels up to 25% by total binder
weight does not have adverse effects on the resistance of con-
crete against the diffusion of chloride ions. In addition, the use
of blended mineral admixtures which consists of 20% wood ash
and 80% coal fly ash by weight significantly enhances resis-
tance of concrete against diffusion of chloride ions in concrete
mixtures at cement replacement level of 25%.
13. Incorporation of very finely ground ash, produced from co-
firing of wood, rice husk and sugarcane bagasse, contributes
significant improvement in durability properties of the mix-
tures in terms of alkali silica reaction (ASR) mitigation ability,
electrical resistance against corrosion current and resistance
against chloride diffusion.
14. The presence of wood ash in concrete does not have adverse
effects on the resistance of concrete against deterioration by
freeze–thaw action. However, concrete mixtures containing
wood ash have a higher demand of air entraining agents in order
to achieve a specified volume of entrained air within the mix.
15. The use of wood ash as a partial replacement of cement as a
binder in concrete has given a significant contribution towards
the reduction of magnitude for drying shrinkage of produced
concrete mixtures.
Acknowledgements
The review work is jointly supported by Universiti Sains
Malaysia Fellowship Programme [RU: 1001/441/29301/CIPS/
685
AUPE001] and Research University Postgraduate Research Grant
Scheme (USM-RUPRGS) [Grant No. 1001/PPBGN/843086].
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