Charging electric cars from solar

energy

Xusheng Liang
Elvis Tanyi
Xin Zou

Supervisor:
Dr. Erik Loxbo
Examiner:
Dr. Sven Johansson

Department of Electrical Engineering

Blekinge Institute of Technology
Karlskrona
Sweden
2016
Abstract
Until now vehicles heavily relied on fossil fuels for power. Now, these
vehicles are rapidly being replaced by electric vehicles and or plug-in hybrid
electric cars. But these electric cars are still faced with the problem of energy
availability because they rely on energy from biomass, hydro power and
wind turbines for electric power generation. The abundance of solar radiation
and its use as power source in electric cars is not only an important decision
but also a necessary condition for eradication of environmental pollution
This study presents a model for charging electric cars from solar energy.
Little focus on detailed technologies involved from solar energy capture to
battery charging but our main focus is how to provide a modified charging
parking lot in Karlskrona city-Sweden .With a surface area of 2900sq. m, we
were able to choose mono crystalline 1STH-350-WH as the right PV
modules. Based on the latitude of our design area, a computed result of 71
degrees angle positioning between solar panel and roof so as to maximise the
surface area and optimise the solar irradiance gathering. Based on the
maximum power output of approximately 294kW these PV modules
generate, we further analysed and selected SDP 30KW inverter, PWM
controller SDC240V-100A and the AGM (BAT412201080) lead acid
storage batteries. Also we provide different car charging method by choosing
the SAE J1772 standard as one of specifications for dedicated vehicle
charging and Clipper Creek HSC-40 as our option of charger. With the data
of the generating solar energy every day, charging time, consuming power,
we can estimate how many cars the system can handle, and how many
electrical vehicles can be charged. Then we can decide whether we need to
use the electrical power from the external power grid.
We finally concluded that, our model is able to generate at least 136kwh
daily energy output in winter, average 823.2kwh daily energy output
throughout a year in theory and it can charge up to 27 electrical vehicles at
once with an average full charging time of up to 6.2 hours. Our model for
charging of electric car batteries is not only supportive but efficient in terms
of extracting solar energy from sunlight to charge electric cars, thus making
the region an eco-friendly place.

Keywords: AC Net, Converter, Controller, Electric Car,

Photovoltaic, Solar Energy, Solar Panel, Storage Battery, Solar Irradiance,
System design

2
3
Acknowledgements
We are heartily thankful to our supervisor Dr. Erik Loxbo whose
continuous critics, encouragements, guidance and support from the start of
our work till the final level. His support enabled us to understand not only
the research area but also the scope of our degree program in practical
perspectives.
Also we dully acknowledge the concern and time put in by some of our
programme mates, friends and closes ones to make it a success.
Finally we wish to acknowledge our program director (examiner)
DR. Sven Johansson and all the other teachers for both the theoretical and
practical skills they impacted on us and thus which enabled us in achieving
our task.

4
Contents
Abstract....................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements .................................................................... 4
Contents ...................................................................................... 5
List of figures.............................................................................. 7
List of tables ............................................................................... 8
List of symbols............................................................................ 9
List of acronyms ....................................................................... 11
1 Chapter: Introduction ...................................................... 12
2 Chapter: Background Theories ....................................... 14
2.1 Reviews Based on Topic of Study .................................................. 14
2.2 Review Based on System Design .................................................... 15
2.2.1 The Solar Panel System ............................................................. 16
2.2.2 The Micro Controller ................................................................. 17
2.2.3 Storage Bateries ......................................................................... 17
2.2.4 Solar Inverters ............................................................................ 18
2.2.5 The Vehicle Charger/ AC Net .................................................... 18
3 Chapter: Aim and Objective Statement ......................... 19
3.1 Problem Statement .......................................................................... 19
3.2 Aim & Objective Statemnt .............................................................. 20
4 Chapter: Solution .............................................................. 21
4.1 Brief Description of the System Design ......................................... 21
4.2 Description of solar panel ............................................................... 22
4.2.1 Types of solar cells..................................................................... 22
4.2.1.1 Crystalline Silicon cells(c-SI): ............................................ 22
4.2.1.2 Thin-Film Photovoltaic/Solar cells (TFPC/TFSC): ............ 24
4.2.1.3 The third generation / Emerging photovoltaics .................. 26
4.2.2 Calculation ................................................................................. 33
4.2.2.1 Illumination time ................................................................. 33
4.2.2.2 The PV modules Installation ............................................... 35
4.3 Description of controller ................................................................. 45
4.3.1 Different Types of Charge Controller ........................................ 45

5
 4.3.1.1 MPU Controllers ................................................................. 45
4.3.1.2 Pulse Width Modulated (Pwm) ........................................... 45
4.3.1.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller ...................... 46
4.4 Description of storage battery ......................................................... 53
4.4.1 Storage batteries ......................................................................... 53
4.4.2 Lead acid storage battery ........................................................... 53
4.4.3 Lithium Ion storage battery ........................................................ 54
4.4.4 Flow battery ............................................................................... 54
4.4.5 Connection of battery packs ....................................................... 60
4.5 Inverter ............................................................................................ 63
4.5.1 Description of inverter ............................................................... 63
4.5.1.1 String inverters .................................................................... 63
4.5.1.2 Micro Inverters .................................................................... 63
4.5.1.3 Power Optimisers ................................................................ 64
4.6 Utilization of electricity from general AC netwok ......................... 66
4.7 Description of vehical charger ........................................................ 67
4.7.1 Specification of the popular electrical vehicle battery ............... 67
4.7.2 Selection of charging mode........................................................ 70
4.7.3 SAE J1772 standard charger ...................................................... 71
4.7.4 General Swedish power output analyzes. ................................... 75
4.7.5 Charging time and consuming power ........................................ 76
4.7.5.1 Charging time and consuming power using SAE J1772 level
2 charging ............................................................................ 76
4.7.5.2 Charging time and consuming power using general socket 79
4.7.5.3 Chargers arrangement ......................................................... 80
4.8 Installation cost ............................................................................... 81
4.8.1 Installation cost of our system ................................................... 81
5 Chapter: Conclusion and future work ............................ 85
Reference .................................................................................. 86

6
List of figures
Figure 4-1 system structure ......................................................................... 21
Figure 4-2 monocrystalline silicon cell [45] ............................................... 22
Figure 4-3 polycristalline silicon cell [46] .................................................. 23
Figure 4-4 Thin-Film solar cell[47] ............................................................ 24
Figure 4-5 A comparism of global market share for PVs[45] .................... 25
Figure 4-6 silicon based cell[47] ................................................................. 26
Figure 4-7 Comparism Of Solar Cell Efficiencies And Choise For Our
Research Project, solar cell efficiencies[53] ............................................... 28
Figure 4-8 the distance between the PV array a horizontal surface ............ 40
Figure 4-9 Connection pattern of each phalanx .......................................... 43
Figure 4-10 PWM controller SDC240V-100A,[69] ................................... 50
Figure 4-11 AGM storage battery[77] ........................................................ 54
Figure 4-12 Connection pattern of battery with the controller ................... 62
Figure 4-13 string inverter[85] .................................................................... 63
Figure 4-14 Micro inverter[85] ................................................................... 64
Figure 4-15 power optimizer[85] ................................................................ 64
Figure 4-16 Utilization of electricity from general AC network ................ 66

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List of tables
Table 4-1 Compares of Solar Cell Efficiencies and Choice for Our
Research Project, Compares of solar cell efficiency [54] ........................... 29
Table 4-2 Comparism of different Solar Panel Products Types [55] [56]
[57] [58] ...................................................................................................... 31
Table 4-3 Illumination time ........................................................................ 34
Table 4-4 solar elevation and solar azimuth ............................................... 36
Table 4-5 the size of the PV modules [55].................................................. 39
Table 4-6 the parameter of the PV module [55] ......................................... 41
Table 4-7 Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on A Horizontal Surface
(kWh/m2/day)[63]. ..................................................................................... 42
Table 4-8 controller parameters .................................................................. 47
Table 4-9 Detailed specification of the SDC240V-100A controller[73] .... 52
Table 4-10 Compare of the Different Battery Types for Solar Energy
Storage [80] [56] ........................................................................................ 56
Table 4-11 AGM batteries specification ..................................................... 61
Table 4-12 Wikipedia-by Fraunhofer ISE 2014, from: Photovoltaic
Report[86] [87] [88] [89] ............................................................................ 65
Table 4-13 Electrical Vehicle battery specification[90]–[116]................... 67
Table 4-14 Specification of SAE J1772 Standard Charging[119]. ............. 73
Table 4-15 HCS-40 electrical specification[120] ....................................... 74
Table 4-16 Standard power output in Sweden[121]. .................................. 75
Table 4-17 Swedish General Plug Type Specification[122]. ...................... 76
Table 4-18 Charging time and consuming power using SAE J1772 level 2
charging[90]–[116] ..................................................................................... 78
Table 4-19 Electrical vehicle charging time and consuming power using
general power socket[90]–[116] ................................................................. 79
Table 4-20 Cost of system .......................................................................... 82

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List of symbols
Symbol Quantity Unit
PV Photovoltaic N
W Watt J/s
kW kilowatt 1000 J/s
V Volt
Φ Karlskona latitude ゜
δ Declination angle ゜
τ Hour angle ゜
h solar elevation ゜
γ solar azimuth ゜
𝜏𝜃 sunrise and sunset hour angles ゜
T duration of sunshine h
n the number of days in a year day
Z the installation inclination angle of the ゜
PV array
l the distance between the solar PV arrays cm
𝐶𝑂𝑃 the output capacity of each PV array Ah
each day
𝐶′𝑃𝑉 the value of the generation of all solar Ah
PV arrays each day
𝑉𝑃𝑉 the work voltage of the solar PV array V
𝐺′𝑃𝑉 the generation of the all PV arrays kWh
Cw Capacity of battery pack Wh
d Continuous days without sunlight Number of
days
D depth of the storage batteries discharge %
level
F Amending coefficient of discharge
K Loss between the battery and the %
electrical appliance
Pm Peak power W
QL Energy quantity can be delivered to the Wh
electrical appliance

9
Tm Peak sun hours hours

10
List of acronyms
Acronym Unfolding
AC Alternating current
DC Direct current
PV Photovoltaic

11
1 Chapter: Introduction
This project based on Charging Electric Cars from Solar Energy was
carried out at the Blekinge institute of Technology Karlskrona-Sweden.
Presently, developing new types of energy conversion and storage
systems is becoming evident because of increasing human population and
thus greater reliance on energy-based devices for survival. Due to the rapid
increase in the world population and economic expansion geometrically, this
is bringing about rapidly diminishing fossil fuels and the continuously
growing environmental concerns as greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore
with the technological advancements in this modern era, more electronic
devices are being used to replace manpower thus leading to a further increase
in energy consumption.
Energy obtained from the suns radiations when in contact with the earth’s
atmosphere and or surface as irradiances is called solar energy. Presently,
this is known by humans to be the prime renewable energy in existence till
date, the energy produced in day is able of sustaining mankind even when
traditional energy sources gets finished. This readily available
environmentally friendly energy source can easily be obtain via series of
methods as photovoltaic, solar thermal energy, artificial photosynthesis,
solar heating and also solar architecture[1]. Research works have shown that
at the core of the sun, the solar energy is in form of nuclear energy brought
about by continues fusion between hydrogen and helium atoms each second.
Thus as a result of this, it radiates out close to 3.8×1026 joules of solar energy
each second[1].
With the free and abundant solar irradiances that provides enormous times
more energy to the Earth than we consume, photovoltaic processes ensures
that not only sustainable but greater efficiency and reliability to access
electrical power for charging electric cars anywhere around the world
without environmental pollution. With little upkeep, viable approach to self-
charging of electric cars wherever need via photovoltaic processes. Solar
energy thus provides a unique, simple and elegant method of harnessing the
suns energy to provide electric power to electric cars thus taking the world
much step closer to a greener community.
Sweden being one of those unlucky countries with very little(or no) fossil
fuel availability for extraction, coupled with the rapid increase in its

12
population [2], and also active cars in circulation [3] the demand for
electricity so as to meet up the needs of the local masses is at an increase.
With our focus area Karlskrona in Blekinge Region-Sweden, located at
latitude/longitude: 56°09′41″N15°35′11″E, altitude: 18 m and also having
and an average annual temperature of 7.8 degrees centigrade [4] ,our
conceptual design based on harnessing solar energy to charge electric cars
will not only make the region eco-friendly but also increase the solar energy
availability but also encourage the masses to switch their choices from
traditional cars to electric cars using solar electric power.
The research work begins with a background study where related works
were reviewed. Then, in chapter three, we present the problem statement, our
objectives and main contributions. Furthermore, we present description of
our system design and implementations in chapter four. In chapter five, we
present our conclusion and (or) recommendations.
Finally we end the work with references, appendices and list of figures.

13
2 Chapter: Background Theories
2.1 Reviews Based on Topic of Study
The negative impacts on climate change on humane lives is already being
experienced and felt in most parts of the word. This has led to leading global
economies (G 8) and other stakeholders stressing on the importance of
renewable energies and immediate reduction of environmental pollutants.
Other researchers argue that renewable energies do not completely stop
climate change [5] whereas some stress that it’s not the only option but a
necessary condition for a greener future [6].Apart from reducing climate
change effect, renewable energies also have greater preferences to other
energy sources. These renewable energy sources are not only reliable but also
provide greater security due to their continuous availability [7] relatively cost
effective than other traditional energy sources [8], and also creates more jobs
and improves economic growth relatively [9].
Research work on how electric cars can be charged using both solar and
wind energy has been going on in the past [10] [11].Here they based their
idea on obtaining the various energy sources mainly by forecasting which
depends on both time and weather of a particular location. That is they stated
that forecasting the future weather conditions will give them the idea on what
energy to generate and save for the car to use in future. But forecast based on
climatic conditions is mostly never accurate or exact. So, this might bring
about shortages or no energy to power the car. Building a design that
conceptually show how solar energy can be easily harnessed, stored and
utilise have not been fully researched on and also considered more realistic
to operate.
In the previous year’s series of authors have shared knowledge and ideas
on how electric cars can be charged via the use of electricity from the grid
which was generated from traditional energy sources as coal, fuel and
hydropower [12] [13]. As more electric vehicles use the grid for power
supply, it is decreases for power to be used for home consumption and other
activities. This brings about imbalance in distribution thus providing poor
power factor and power net instability. Though tighter controls are were put
in place [14], using solar energy with unlimited power supply will serve as
better option since electric cars will be encouraged more to be used and also
providing greener environment.
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 Also, a handful of researchers have presented scholarly papers on how to
use the optimal daytime charging strategy to charge electric cars using solar
energy [15] since the solar irradiance is at peak during the day, they try to
design an approach on how to fully maximize the energy falling on earth’s
surface at peak hours. It’s an eco-friendly approach of energy harnessing
using PV cells but they did not explain on how the excess energy will be
shared and how energy will be obtained during periods of little or no solar
irradiance. Our research work tries to explain how solar energy can be
harnessed from PV cells to charge electric cars from parking lots thus
providing room for excess energy storage during peak period and also energy
reuse during low periods.
Research on solar cells being integrated into electric vehicles to supply
solar energy has been carried out in the past as well [16] , though they argued
that the energy generated by the intergraded PV cells can be used only when
the battery’s capacity is below optimum. Though it’s a sustainable approach,
the capacity of the cars battery saturation point limits the solar energy capture
of the cars PV setup. Also since the car mostly in motion, to optimise the
energy capture will involve smarter and well advanced system embedded
into the car, thus costly to operate.to reduce this complexity and cost is
simply to use charging via solar panel from a parking lot which is easier and
more convenient.
Also some authors wrote on plug in hybrid electric cars [17] these cars are
seen to use (consume) both petrol and electricity at rates that are based on
the distance travelled and topology of the road. These cars not only increase
environmental pollution but also costly due to their dual engines type.
Furthermore since they are based on blended strategy in terms of their engine
designs faults by one engine reduces the efficiency of the car to travel longer
distances. The use of solar energy to charge electric cars is not only eco-
friendly but secured.

2.2 Review Based on System Design

In this section we briefly state the framework and theories put forth by
other researchers in line with our thesis work.

15
 The conceptual design we developed guided us to understand the
problems and thus providing a guide to solutions [18]. The design consisted
of 6 sub-systems(solar panel, micro controller, storage battery ,inverters, AC
Net and car battery showing how their specific and unique choices were
linked to achieve our objective on charging electric cars using solar energy
we concentrated on how to design modified parking and charging lots.
Since this project describes conceptually how to charge a car using solar
energy, on this section on literature review we will dwell on research works
on each of the subsystems and how they are interrelated.

2.2.1 The Solar Panel System

The sun has been playing numerous roles in humane existence. Not only
supplying energy and light to earth but also used to understand how the other
areas of universe interact .With over 6.3*10^11 watts/sq. meter of solar
radiation produced constantly in the form of rays.as these rays spread from
the sun’s surface their intensity reduce and upon getting to planet earth the
rays becomes parallel in nature [19].
Though most of the rays are being scattered, diffracted and deflected upon
reaching earth’s surface [20] , it’s found that the total solar irradiance
(insolation) that actually absorbed by earth annually is close to 3.8 million
exajoule (EJ) [21] . Thus, solar energy doubles what is produced by all other
non-renewable energy sources annually [22].This brings the abundance of
solar irradiance reaching the earth’s surface for an hourly base unable to be
harnessed by humans and other living organism for a year [23].
Photovoltaic being the interest of study, some authors stressed that the
efficiently harnessed the solar intensity to provide the required solar energy
to drive electric cars heavily relies on; not only the weather condition but
location and time of day [24] the angle the solar irradiance makes with the
solar panels [25], the material (and its temperature properties) used to design
the PV panels [26], and also the aspect of PV surface area design [27] have
to be fully considered.

16
2.2.2 The Micro Controller
Generating solar energy consist of harnessing the maximum irradiance at
true solar noon. When the solar intensity is maximum, the electric car battery
might be fully charged as well. To save this extra energy that is being
generated photovoltaic charge controllers are needed to redirect the energy
to storage battery cells. Series of microcontrollers used for photovoltaic were
reviewed by other scholars. They did stress that importance of on and off,
Pulse Width and Modulated (PWM) and Maximum Power Tracking micro
controllers for increasing the efficiency of solar power generation. Stating
that the on and off micro controllers operate both in series and shunt modes.
Series controllers basically stop further charging when load is fully charged
while shunt charge controller diverts excess electricity to other loads. On the
other hand, Pulse width modulation (PWM) and maximum power point
tracker (MPPT) technologies are more technologically sophisticated, and
also adjusting charging rates depending on the battery's level, to allow
charging closer to its maximum capacity [28].

2.2.3 Storage Bateries

Batteries in solar applications ought to meet the demands of unstable grid
energy, that is heavy charging and discharging cycles and also irregular full
recharging. There’s a variety of battery types fitted for these unique
requirements. Main subgroups of storage batteries for solar energies
reviewed by others include flow batteries [29], lithium ion batteries [30] and
lead acid batteries [31].Considerations for choosing a battery included the
storage capacity which total energy actually stored with respect to that
retrieved [32], power transmission rate which is time required to extract the
energy stored [33], discharge time based on the maximum time the battery
takes to discharge [34],efficiency as in implying rate of energy released to
that stored as in [35], cycling capacity that’s the number of times that the
battery discharges as designed after successively recharged [36] , cost based
on both operational and investment expenses over the lifespan of the set
storage battery [36] ,disposal effects considering the environmental impact
of the storage battery after its life cycle completion [37] , and finally the self-
discharge rate of the battery in that the rate at which the battery discharges
while idling [38] .

17
2.2.4 Solar Inverters
The energy harnessed by the solar panels is basically DC. For this to be
used in charging the electric cars or other automobile devices, it has to be
converted to AC current. Solar inverters converts these DC to AC before
charging begins, or the current being channelled to off grid electrical
networks. Thus they have special function in photovoltaic system based on
energy conversion and balanced.
The various types and specifications have been deeply researched on such
as string inverters where panels are placed parallel with central inverter [39],
micro inverters in which solar panels placed serially with separate inverters
[40] and also power optimizers similar to micro inverters but more involved
with monitoring. Power optimizers are used to monitor the total output of the
PV panel arrays so as to continually adjust and modify the load attached in
order the keep the system operational at its peak [40].

2.2.5 The Vehicle Charger/ AC Net

The converted AC current has to be supplied to the power grid or charging
units for the electric cars. Charging of electric cars here based on specify car
and battery types, charger specifications and also the specification of the
socket. In Sweden the standard is 230V, 16A but the power varies with
design setup. Our choice for the electric car battery charging unit based on
the standard set up by the required authorities. We also took measures on the
car design and power consumption rates. All these are based on the power
generated from the PV panels.
Based on our respective sub analysis of the different systems within the
conceptual design, we do believe a well-integrated design linking the
respective systems based on their optimum efficiencies will make the
Karlskrona region not a greener but saver region to live in based on
environmental polluting avoidance

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3 Chapter: Aim and Objective Statement
3.1 Problem Statement
There has been rapid increase in levels of oceans due to faster rate of ice
melting in artic, coupled with fast desertification’s in other parts of the
earth’s surface as a result of continues increase in global climate as well.
Looking at the rapid increase in world population and further increase in
number of circulating cars, it’s found that more than 70% of environmental
pollution is caused by cars using traditional source of energy for power [41]
.With the climate change crises becoming a global issue, the continuous
awareness created by learning institutions, government bodies and other
stockholders have to be intensified and implemented [42].
Nowadays, with the global concern for greenhouse gases and
environmental pollution, electrical vehicles are being developed in quick
paces for both private and commercial purposes. At daily use of these cars,
users have to charge the battery of the car once they run out their battery in
the charge station. It takes not short time to fully charge their car. During
charging, user cannot only use their cars but the process creates an imbalance
in power distribution in the grid. Thus it causes poor power factor and power
net instability to other third parties using the grid. Furthermore, some electric
car owners still face the problem of charging their electric cars in some
charging station because of incompatibility between their car batteries and
the charging stations charger. Thus the question of how to charge electric
cars from solar energy has become an important and necessary link to solve
these environmental issues.

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3.2 Aim & Objective Statemnt
The main aim of this research work is to provide a system model that can
be used to brainstorm both innovative ideas and solutions to current problems
in the research area and also to serve as eye opener for future research design
and development. Also, it can provide an efficient, effective and sustainable
system based on using photovoltaic as a better renewable energy source to
charge electric cars.
The main objective of our research work is to outline a conceptual design
based on how solar energy from sun (photovoltaic energy) can be used for
charging electric vehicles. We also wish to explore conceptually how
existing parking lots can be modified into solar energy charging points for
charging the cars.
Furthermore, we explored ways on how the PV panels will be placed on
the roof of the parking lot, choice of the various components to convert and
channel the harnessed solar energy to storage battery cell and to charging
points and also the specification of the charging system for both the car
battery and electric charger. Finally we explore how the design can be
implemented in Karlskrona in our study area.

20
4 Chapter: Solution
4.1 Brief Description of the System Design
System designs are basically structured and modelled representation of
actual systems that show the various steps and components involved
achieving stated goals. These designs also guide researchers to understand
the problems and thus providing a guide to solutions as in [18]. Our design
is presented in Figure 4-2. consisted of 6 sub-systems(solar panel, micro
controller, storage battery ,inverters, AC Net and car battery).it clearly shows
how each of these subsystems are linked to each other furthermore in each
subsystem we clearly analyse the various product components and how our
specific choices were made to achieve our objective on charging electric
cars using solar energy.
The next part of the research work presents detailed analysis of each of
these subsystems.

AC Network

AC

Kwh

Solar Panel DC DC Converter

Controller

Charging DC Discharging General socket

Storage Battery
SAE J1772 charge
Vehicle Charger

Figure 4-1 system structure

21
4.2 Description of solar panel

4.2.1 Types of solar cells

4.2.1.1 Crystalline Silicon cells(c-SI):

These cells produced initially in the 1950s and till date they are most
useful and dominant semiconductor material used nowadays in most
photovoltaic solar cells production [43]. Crystalline silicon solar cells
comprise of different forms but differentiated by their respective purity
degrees. That is, when the silicon molecules are well aligned ,it gives that
particular silicon a better preference over others because solar cells made of
that specie will effectively convert the solar energy into electricity [44].
Crystalline silicon consist of two types; mono and polycrystalline and String
Ribbon silicon cells.
Monocrystalline Silicon solar cells consist of cylindrical ingots and four
sites cut to make silicon wafers. This not only reduces cost but optimize the
performance of the ingots as well. Also, the crystals have a higher power
efficiency rate of up to 20%, smallness in sizes so space efficient and a longer
lifespan of above 25years[45].
Though they have significant edge over other silicon solar panels, they are
relatively costly, more fragile and extreme variation in weather temperatures
quickly affects its efficiency.

Figure 4-2 monocrystalline silicon cell [45]

On the other hand, polycrystalline (p-Si)/multi-crystalline silicon solar
cells (mc-Si) consist of squared ingot wafers. They are less fragile, lower
production cycle and slightly lower heat tolerance factor compared to

22
monocrystalline solar panels. But, they do have an efficiency of power
generation below 20%, a lower space efficiency and less attractive in terms
of market values.

Figure 4-3 polycristalline silicon cell [46]

While String Ribbon solar cells is another form of multi crystalline silicon
cell production introduced by Evergreen Solar Company. Here high
temperature resistant wires are pulled through molten silicon to produce
polycrystalline ribbon of silicon crystals. It’s less costly than monocrystalline
because its production requires half the amount of silicon as compared to
monocrystalline manufacturing, but it’s inefficient and ineffective because
of lower power efficiency value compared to polycrystalline, and also due to
its lower space efficiency.

23
4.2.1.2 Thin-Film Photovoltaic/Solar cells
(TFPC/TFSC):

Figure 4-4 Thin-Film solar cell[47]

This solar cell consist of: Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC), Copper
indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS), Amorphous Silicon (a-Si), Cadmium
Telluride (CdTe). They are basically the second generation of solar cells
obtained by the deposition of thin layer(s) of photovoltaic material on a
substrate. Its uniqueness includes simplicity in large scale production,
flexibly in terms of handling and space, and little impact on weather
extremities on its performances. Whereas, space installation is a factor, low
power output compared to monocrystalline cells coupled with shorter
lifespan makes it lower in terms of preference.
Cadmium Telluride(CdTe) is found to be the only thin-film solar panel
that has exceeded the cost efficiency of silicon solar panels with an efficiency
of solar panel being 9-11% [48] .it also has the smallest or lowest energy
payback time [48] .though it has high efficiency and lowest energy pack back
time, its high cost of obtaining the tellurium component and also high toxicity
of cadmium makes its preference uncertain [49].
Furthermore, Amorphous Silicon (a-Si), basically used in small scale
power harnessing, consist of low-cost substrate and very little silicon
material which is nontoxic. It absorbs wide ranges of light spectrum thus
functions well in almost all hours of days and irrespective of temperature
variations. But its power output is very small(though can be improved by
stacking) and also it has a shorter effective lifespan of less than a year [50].

24
 Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS) having a lab efficiency of
above 20%, it uses an absorber consisting of copper, indium, gallium and
selenide.it is produced via a process of vacuum extraction and co-evaporation
and sputtering. Presently most promising with respect to the others [48]

Figure 4-5 A comparism of global market share for PVs[45]

25
4.2.1.3 The third generation / Emerging photovoltaics

Figure 4-6 silicon based cell[47]

These are a group of thin-film photovoltaic that uses both inorganic and
organometallic materials. Presently they still possess lower efficiencies and
lifespan still shorter as well. This includes;
Copper Zinc tin sulphide solar cell (CTZTS), Dye-sensitized solar cell,
Polymer solar cell, Quantum dot solar cell, Perovkite solar cell, amongst all
listed above, the Dye –sensitized solar cell has the highest solar conversion
efficiency with about 11% because they are built with only thin layers of
conductive plastic in front layer, thus this allows them to radiate some heat
away easily and quicker. Thus, suitable for lower internal temperatures[51].
Unlike fragile silicon cells that are protected from external surfaces via
glasses and which increases internal temperatures of the silicon cells causing
a drop in efficiency. Despite the proses of dye solar cells, the use of liquid
electrolyte leads to environmental temperature stability issues because at
extremely cold temperatures, the electrolytes freezes and power generation
stops while higher temperatures can cause the liquid expansion and
destruction of cell internal designs as well.
Base on figure 4-7 below that shows the comparism of solar cell
efficiencies and choice for our research project, we found that multi-junction
cells do have the highest energy efficiency conversion rates as compared to
the other cell types. But due to their high cost of production and
installations[52],we could not integrate into our system. Presently they are
mostly applied in astronomical applications as satellite launching. So, we are
left with a choice based on silicon, thin-film and third generation
photovoltaic cells as in table 4-1.
Table 4-1 shows a Comparism of solar cell efficiencies and choice for our
research project based on a confirmed terrestrial cell and sub module
efficiencies measured under the global AM1.5 Spectrum. From the table we
clearly found that silicon cells do have relatively higher cell efficiency and
fill factor as well.
Thus, it is a better choice for our research work.
Figure 4-7 Comparism Of Solar Cell Efficiencies And Choise For Our Research Project, solar cell
efficiencies[53]
Table 4-1 Compares of Solar Cell Efficiencies and Choice for Our Research Project, Compares of solar cell
efficiency [54]
TITLE CONFIRMED TERRESTRIAL CELL AND SUBMODULE EFFICIENCIES MEASURED UNDER THE GLOBAL
AM1.5 SPECTRUM (1000 W/M2) AT 25 °C (IEC 60904-3: 2008, ASTM G-173-03 GLOBAL).

CLASSIFICATION EFFICIENCY (%) AREA(SQ.CM) VOC(V) JSC(MA/SQ.CM) FILL

FACTOR
(%)
SILICON:
Si(crystalline) 25.6 ± 0.5 143.7 (da) 0.740 41.8 82.7
Si(multi-crystalline) 20.8 ± 0.6 243.9 (ap) 0.6626 39.03 80.3

Si(thin transfer submodule) 21.2 ± 0.4 239.7 (ap) 0.687 38.50 80.3

Si(thin film minimodule) 10.5 ± 0.3 94.0 (ap) 0.492 29.7 72.1
111 V CELLS:

GaAs (thin film) 28.8 ± 0.9 0.9927 (ap) 1.122 29.68 86.5

GaAs (multicrystalline) 18.4+-0.5 18.4 ± 0.5 4.011 23.2 79.7

InP (crystalline) 22.1 ± 0.7 4.024.02 0.878 29.5 85.4
THIN FILM CHALCOGENIDE:
CIGS (cell) 20.5 ± 0.6 0.9882 (ap) 0.752 35.3 77.2
CIGS (minimodule) 18.7 ± 0.6 15.892 (da) 0.701 35.29 75.6
CdTe (cell) 21.0 ± 0.4 1.0623 (ap) 0.8759 30.25 79.4
AMORPHOUS/MICROCRYSTALLINE
Si (amorphous) 10.2 ± 0.3 1.001 (da) 0.896 16.36 69.8
Si (microcrystalline) 11.4 ± 0.3 1.046 (da) 0.535 29.07 73.1
DYE SENSITISED:
Dye 11.9 ± 0.4 1.005 (da) 0.744 22.47 71.2
Dye (minimodule) 10.0 ± 0.4 24.19(da) 0.718 20.46 67.7
29
 Dye (submodule) 8.8 ± 0.3 398.8 (da) 0.697 18.42 68.7
ORGANIC:
Organic thin-film 11.0 ± 0.3 0.993(da) 0.793 19.40 71.4
Organic (minimodule) 9.5 ± 0.3 25.05(da) 0.789 17.01 70.9
MULTIJUNCTION DEVICES:
InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs 37.9 ± 1.2 1.047 (ap) 3.065 14.27 86.7
a-Si/nc-Si/nc-Si (thin-film) 13.4 ± 0.4 1.006 (ap) 1.963 9.52 71.9
a-Si/nc-Si (thin-film cell) 12.7+-0.4 1.000(da) 1.342 13.45 70.2

(da) = designated illumination area; (ap) = aperture area

30
 Table 4-2 Comparism of different Solar Panel Products Types [55] [56] [57] [58]

TITLE Comparism of different Solar Panel Products Types [55] [56] [57] [58]

Classification Cost Power Vmp(V) Imp(A) Power Number Voltage Efficiency Temp Dimension (mm)
rating(W) (%/Years) Coeff.
(/Wp) Tolerance Cells (Vmax)
(%)

Crystalline Silicon cells(c-SI):

M-Si $1.05 350 42.98 8.13 3 60 1000 16.22/25 -0.48%/K 1652*1306*50

(1SolTech
1STH-350-WH
(350W)

P-Si(JY250M) $0.05 250 29.6 8.45 2 72 1000 15.3/25 1650*992*40

String Ribbon $1.05 210 18.1 11.05 5 - 600 13.4/25 1650.5*951.3*46

(Evergreen 210
W, ES-A Series)

Thin-Film Photovoltaic/Solar cells(TFPC/TFSC): [59] [60] [61]

CIS/CIGS(BP- $1.76 380 31.5 12.06 5 75 1000 16.6/25 (-40 to 2598*1000*17mm

M-F380 CIGS) 85ºC)

a-Si/(OYD-250) $0.54 250 38 8.54 3 60 1000 17/25 –40˚C to 1640*990*40

-0.6 85˚C)

31
CdTe(DM 77W $0.86 80 16.8 4.58 - - 1000 12/25 -0.21(Pm) 1200*6000*6.8
CdTe-2)

The third generation / Emerging photovoltaics[62]

dye solar cell SI- $0.6 250 30.30 8.25 -0.03 60 1000 15.37/25 -0.45%/°C
SPM250W 1650*990*50

156*156(cell)

32
 Based on the data obtained from Table 4-2 above, we decided to
choose the silicon crystalline solar (Specifically 1STH-350-WH solar
panels) panel to design the solar panel. this is due to the fact that is has an
efficiency of more than 25% with over 41 J in terms of power generated
per square meter. Furthermore, with a fill factor of over 82 %( that is ratio
of the solar cells actual power output to its dummy output) over an area of
143.7 sq. metre. [27].

4.2.2 Calculation

4.2.2.1 Illumination time

Because of the high latitude in Karlskona, the disparity of duration of
sunshine is large, in order to increase the role of solar PV modules, we have
to know the illumination time by calculating the declination angle of the sun,
and calculate the solar elevation and the solar azimuth to decide the distance
between each PV panels, in order to make each component can exposure to
the sun fully and completely to increase utilization. Then according to the
karlskona latitude to adjust the inclination of the solar panels, make the
sunlight vertical irradiate on the solar PV modules as much as possible, to
make the radiation reaches the maximum, increase power output.
First, we seek the latitude of Karlskona the map. Karlskona latitude
Φ=56.16゜
Then, we collect declination angle of some few special dates and whole
summer.
According to those data, we can calculate the declination angle1,
284+𝑛
δ = 23.45° × sin(360° × 365
)

Where n is the number of days in a year.

Then Sunrise and sunset hour angles,
cos τ𝜃 = − tan 𝜙 tan 𝛿

1 angle between the sun rays and earth equatorial plane

 or
𝜏𝜃 = cos−1(− tan 𝛿 tan 𝜙)
𝜏𝜃 is the angle of sunrise or sunset; positive angle is at sunset, negative
angle is at sunrise.
Following other data, then we can calculate the duration of sunshine with
any season, any day length latitude.

Duration of sunshine
2 2
Τ= cos−1(− tan 𝛿 tan 𝜙) = 𝜏
15° 15° 𝜃

Table 4-3 Illumination time

the the
illumin
angle angle
n(d δ 𝜏 ( ation
data cos𝜏𝜃 𝜃 of of
ay) (゜) ゜) time
sunris sunset
(hour)
e(゜) (゜)
karls
-
kona 2010/3 0.0 89.
80 0.403 -89.44 89.44 12
/21 1 44
653
-
2010/6 23.44 130 -
173 0.6 130.38 17
/22 8046 .38 130.38
5
-
latit 2010/6 23.18 129 -
181 0.6 129.77 17
ude /30 4489 .77 129.77
4
-
2010/7 21.67 126 -
φ= 195 0.5 126.42 17
/14 4617 .42 126.42
9
-
2010/7 18.67 120 -
56.16 210 0.5 120.33 16
/29 0488 .33 120.33
0

34
 -
2010/8 14.74 113 -
224 0.3 113.17 15
/12 4488 .17 113.17
9
-
2010/8 9.599 104 -
239 0.2 104.66 14
/27 3972 .66 104.66
5
-
2010/9 0.0 88.
266 1.008 -88.54 88.54 12
/23 3 54
871
-
2010/1 0.6 49.
356 23.44 -49.72 49.72 7
2/22 5 72
457
Based on the Table 4-3, we know illumination time in one day; it will help
us to calculate the average power in the whole year.

4.2.2.2 The PV modules Installation

Next, in order to decide the distance between each PV panels, we should
know about solar elevation and solar azimuth.
First, hour angle τ = ωt
It is defined as: at noon when τ= 0, every 1 hour plus 15゜, morning is
positive, afternoon is negative. For example, at 10:00, t=2, τ=30゜, at
14:00, t=2, τ=-30゜
the solar elevation2,
sin ℎ = sin 𝛿 sin 𝜙 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜏
the solar azimuth3,
cos 𝛿 sin 𝜏
sin 𝛾 =
cos ℎ

2 the angle between center of the sun light direct to the ground and the local plant, solar
elevation angle is an important factor on the strength of the solar that ground can gain.
3
the angle between the projection of the sunlight on the ground plane and south of the local
meridian, it means that it represents the sun position, decided the direction of the incident sunlight.

35
Table 4-4 solar elevation and solar azimuth

36
 n(day τ
data δ(゜) time h(゜) γ(゜)
) (゜)

12:0
- 0 0.000 0
2010/3/2 0
karlsko 80 0.40365
na 1 14:0 26.01 -
3 -30
0 3 33.8209
12:0 57.31
0 0
2010/6/2 23.4480 0 7
173
2 46 14:0 60.01 -
-30
0 5 66.6459
10:0 50.40 46.1759
30
0 8 2
12:0 57.05
0 0
2010/6/3 23.1844 0 3
latitude 181
0 89 14:0 50.40 -
-30
0 8 46.1759
16:0 35.67 -
-60
0 6 78.5652
10:0 49.04 45.1667
30
0 5 6
12:0 55.54
0 0
2010/7/1 21.6746 0 3
φ= 195
4 17 14:0 49.04 -
-30
0 5 45.1668
16:0 34.45 -
-60
0 6 77.4679
10:0 46.30 43.3150
30
0 8 5
12:0 52.53
0 0
2010/7/2 18.6704 0 7
210
9 88 14:0 46.30 -
-30
0 8 43.3151
56.16
16:0 32.00 -
-60
0 0 75.3814
10:0 42.69 41.1580
30
2010/8/1 14.7444 0 2 8
224
2 88 12:0 48.60
0 0
0 9

37
 14:0 42.69 -
-30
0 2 41.1581
16:0 28.93 -
-60
0 1 73.1604
10:0 37.90 38.6853
30
0 0 6
12:0 43.46
0 0
2010/8/2 9.59939 0 1
239
7 72 14:0 37.90 -
-30
0 0 38.6854
16:0 24.40 -
-60
0 9 69.7061
12:0 32.84
- 0 0
2010/9/2 0 8
266 1.00887
3 14:0 27.89 -
1 -30
0 1 34.4632
10:0 27.5062
30 6.433
0 7
12:0 10.40
- 0 0
2010/12/ 0 1
356 23.4445
22 14:0 -
7 -30 6.433
0 27.5063

Different latitude, the sun irradiation direction angle of the sun to the
ground is different, in order to obtain much more solar irradiance, the
inclination of the PV array is different. It can be roughly achieved the
installation inclination angle of the PV array depended on the local latitude:
When =0~25, the installation inclination angle of the PV array is Z=;
When =26~40, the installation inclination angle of the PV array isZ =
∅ + (5°~10°);
When =41~55, the installation inclination angle of the PV array isZ =
∅ + (10°~15°);
When =>55, the installation inclination angle of the PV array isZ = ∅ +
(15°~20°).
The latitude in Karlskona is ∅ = 56.16°
Oblique angle Z=Φ+15゜=71゜

38
 Because the oblique angle is too large, if we install it in a horizontal plane,
it will be unstable, so we decide to mount it on the roof with the angle of 30
゜.

Table 4-5 the size of the PV modules [55]

Length Width
Manufacturer Model (in.) (in.)
1SolTech 1STH-350-WH 65.0 51.4
Now, we use the size of the solar PV module is 1STH-350-WH, its width
is 51.4inch, is about 130.556cm.
Before the installation, we should splice the solar PV modules into the
solar PV array.
We decide the total area of the roof of our car park is 50 * 58M, since the
inclination angle is 41゜ , in order to prevent the solar phalanx broken for
the large volume, I design to place on 10 * 4 solar phalanx, each phalanx
consists of 3*7 solar PV modules.
Considering about the 3*7 PV array is large, so we decide to put all of
them on the roof, not to build them up, and use longer wires to connect with
series and parallel.
So W = 130.556cm. Using this data and the installation inclination angle of
the PV array we can know the actual height of the solar panel H′.
H ′ = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍 = 130.556𝑠𝑖𝑛71° = 123.4431𝑐𝑚
In order to make solar panels radiate heat, solar panels will be elevated
10cm
10
H = H′ + = 134.9905𝑐𝑚
𝐶𝑂𝑆(30°)
In order to make sure the solar panels can work well whole year, we adopt
the data of solar elevation angle and azimuth angle on winter solstice
(December 22) at noon, because this time the solar elevation is the lowest in
whole year, at this time if the sunlight can shine on the PV modules shows
that whole year achieve the requirement.
At this time, according to the Table 4-4, we know:

39
 h = 10.39527°
134.9905
L = H/tanh = = 735.8473𝑐𝑚
tan(10.39527°)
γ = 0°
D = Lcosγ = L = 735.8473cm

Figure 4-8 the distance between the PV array a horizontal surface

a = Wcos71° = 42.50488cm
ℒ = a + D = 778.3522cm
ℒ𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ
b + ℓ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛30° + 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ = 216.716𝑐𝑚
𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
b = Wcos41° = 98.532cm
ℓ = 216.716 − 98.532 = 118.1841cm
So, at the end, we calculate the distance between the solar PV arrays is
about 1.18m.

40
 For the fixed installation in northern hemisphere, as long as setting in
about south 20゜, the power generation capacity will not be affected any
more. Considering about using in winter, the solar panels can be set south 20
゜, the peak of the solar generation will appear in the afternoon, and this will
help increasing the generation in winter.
In conclusion, we will set the PV modules on a roof with 30゜, the
installation inclination angle is 41゜, west 20゜, and the distance between
the PV array is1.18m.
The capacity of solar modules

Table 4-6 the parameter of the PV module [55]

Rated
Rated power Max. Max.
power @ power power
@ STC PTC voltage current
Manufacturer Model (W) (W) (Vmp) (Imp)
1SolTech 1STH-350-WH 350 309.1 42.98 8.13

41
 Table 4-6 is the parameter of the solar PV module 1STH-350-WH, according
to our design about 3*7 solar PV modules, we can calculate how many
energy each solar PV array provide.
Frist, we should know about the output capacity of each PV array each day
(Cop ), it’s the product of the lowest monthly averaged insolation incident in
a year and the maximum power current.
Table 4-7 Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on A Horizontal
Surface (kWh/m2/day)[63].
Lat Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annua
56.16 l
Avera
Lon ge
15.58
22- 0.6 1.2 2.5 3.8 5.1 5.2 5.1 4.3 2.8 1.4 0.7 0.4 2.80
year 0 8 0 8 5 8 2 3 0 3 4 6
Avera
ge

The lowest monthly averaged insolation incident in a year is 0.46 kWh⁄𝑚2

𝐶𝑜𝑝 = 0.46h × 8.13A = 3.7398A ∙ h

42
 Figure 4-9 Connection pattern of each phalanx
Figure 4-9 presents the connection pattern of each phalanx, the output
voltage, output current and electric quantity can be calculated according this
structure.

Then, we can calculate the generation of one solar PV array each day，
the output power on each day multiply 3(parallel number) is the value of the
generation of all solar PV arrays each day (C′PV ),
𝐶𝑜𝑝 × 3
𝐶′𝑃𝑉 = = 11.23063𝐴 ∙ ℎ
1.11 × 0.9

43
 Where, 1.11 is the efficiency of charge the battery by solar PV modules;
0.9 is correction factors of the loss of PV modules caused by the attenuation
of the solar PV modules and dust.
So, all PV arrays can provide 12𝐴ℎ every day.
A ∙ h is the unit of the storage battery, so now we should count the voltage
of the PV array to converted Ah into kWh.
Then, we will calculate the work voltage of the solar PV array (𝑉𝑃𝑉 ), it is
the product of the maximum of power voltage and series number.
𝑉𝑃𝑉 = 42.98𝑣 × 7 = 300.86𝑣
The value of the work voltage of the solar PV array is 301V.
At the end, we can know the power of one solar PV array (𝑃𝑃𝑉 ),
𝐺𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶′𝑃𝑉 × 𝑉𝑃𝑉 = 3378.848𝑊 ∙ ℎ = 3.378𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ
And we have 10*4 solar PV arrays in the roof, so they will provide about
′
𝐺𝑃𝑉 = 40 × 𝑃𝑃𝑉 = 135.154𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ

At the end, we calculated the generation of the all PV arrays is 136 kWh
every day.

44
4.3 Description of controller

4.3.1 Different Types of Charge Controller

Microcontrollers or solar battery regulators are electronic devices used to
regulate the flow of electric current or voltage between to electric batteries.
Its basic functions involved preventing complete discharge or over charging
of batteries so a main tool in protecting batteries life. The term charge
controller or regulator may be referred to either a standalone device or an
integrated circuit attached to the battery system.
There are basically three sets of solar battery micro controllers; MPU
controllers, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Controller, and Maximum
Power Point Tracking Controller.

4.3.1.1 MPU Controllers

These are the first generation of PV charge controllers performing one
way operations. They involve the Series regulators, shunt charge controllers
and the simple charge controller. Series regulators mainly disable further
current from flowing into batteries when fully charged while shunt charge
controllers diverts excess electricity from a fully charged battery to auxiliary
load (loads). Furthermore, simple charge controllers basically stop to charge
a battery when they exceed their specified voltage level and they further re-
enable the charging process when the battery voltage gets below their
specified minimum voltage levels [28] .some of the benefits of using on and
off controller is that it’s very simple to operate, efficient with little heating,
and also it operation help saves battery life since it prevent over and under
charging of the battery. Recharging of battery by this controller is slower as
compared to PWM controllers.

4.3.1.2 Pulse Width Modulated (Pwm)

PWM basically uses higher voltage spikes in forwarding the charged
current from the solar panels to the storage batteries. Some designs have
output voltage pre-set so that they can be set for the particular battery in use.it
also recharges batteries faster than on and off controllers.

45
 One of the problems using the PWM controller is that most 12V units need
at least 8V at the battery before they can function properly.so if a storage
battery has been discharged below that value it will be difficult for the PWM
controller to transfer the power irrespective of the amount being generated
by the solar panels. Also some micron rollers have internal heat sink that
reduces the total power from solar panels to storage batteries.

4.3.1.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller

It’s a micro controller set up to allow high voltage PV modules to charge
batteries with lower voltage capacities. The controller indirectly hides the
batteries from the PV solar modules thus supporting the batteries to operate
at their optimum.in extreme climatic conditions, this controller still extract
the most energy from the PV modules. Also it can operate efficiently even
when it is separated some distance from the panels .The prime problem is
that, in very low light levels such as early mornings or when sun sets, the
controller might relay little or no power to the storage batteries.

46
 Table 4-8 controller parameters
Floode
Self-
maximum working d Temp.
paramet rated consu Full char Low-
price charging tempera chargin compensati
er voltage mptio ge cut voltage cut
current ture g on
type n
voltage
MPU controller [64] [65]
SC4060/ $168 ≤ -25℃ -3MV/℃
48V ≤50A 54.8V 43.2V 54.8V
50A .00 25MA ~+45℃ /CELL
Sc4120/ ≤ -25℃ -3mv/℃
48V ≤100A 54．8V 43．2V 54.8V
100A 50mA ~+45℃ /cell
pulse width modulated controller [66] [67] [68] [69]
WS- 12V/24
$28. <=30m 13.7V / 10.5~11V / -25℃ 17V / -3mv/℃
C2460(5 Vauto 50A
00 A 27.4V 21V~22V ~+55℃ 34V /cell
0A) work
12V/24
$60. -35℃
KT1215 Vauto 15A <5mA 13.2V 12.6V 13.8V NO
00 ~+55℃
work
12/24V 13.7/27.
auto 4V 12.6/25.2V
$26. ≤ -40℃ 13.8V/ -3mv/°
SR-50 matic 50A recogniz recognize
00 45mA ~+60℃ 27.4V C/cell
volt e tacit tacitly
age ly
 $2,5 -
SDC240V ≤10 ＞285V± -3mv/°
00.0 240v 100A 210V 25℃ ～ 405.0V
-100A mA 2 C/cell
0 +60℃
maximum power point tracking controller[70] [71] [72]
≤
20mA(
12V/24
Tracer4 $169 12V) -25℃
Vauto 40A 14.6V 11.1V 13.8V -3mV/℃/2V
210A .00 ≤ ~+45℃
work
16mA(
24V)
12V/24
V
1.4
IT4415N $422 /36V/4 -25℃
45A ～ 11.1V 13.8V -3mV/℃/2V
D .60 8V ~+55℃
2.2W
auto
work
refer
DC14V~ the
I-P- 14.2V-
DC100V charge
eSMART- （the top
$150 /DC30~ ≤ -25℃ voltag
12V/24V 40A 110V 10.5V temperatur
.00 DC100V 40mA ~+55℃ e of
/48V(40 e-25℃）
/DC60~ the
A) *0.3
DC100V batter
y

48
49
 Following the Table 4-8 controller parameter, we choose the PWM
controller SDC240V-100A, because the output voltage is higher than other
controller, it is suitable for our batteries. There are three stages charging
function to protect battery: constant current; constant voltage and flooded
charging.
Besides the basic function of controller, likes input short-circuit
protection; input overcurrent protection, batteries and PV array reverse
polarity protection, the controller has the function of restricting maximum
input power of the PV array, make sure the array can’t be overload under any
condition; it also can protect the batteries overcharge and over-discharge.

Figure 4-10 PWM controller SDC240V-100A,[69]

Table 4-9 gives the detailed specification of the SDC240V-100A controller.

51
 Table 4-9 Detailed specification of the SDC240V-100A controller[73]

Model SDC240V-100A
Rated battery voltage 240V
Rated current of solar energy panel 100A
Rated current of each solar energy panel 25A
Maximum voltage of solar energy panel 440V
Rated Power of the Solar Panel 24KW
Number of solar energy panel array 4 circuits
Method of working Working continuously
Function Charging and control
State display LED
Protection class IP30
Operating environment Temperature:-10-40 ℃
Humidity≤80%
Stopping charging voltage of 1&2 circuits solar Panel ＞285V±2
Resuming charging voltage of 1&2 circuits solar Panel ＜270V±2
Stopping charging voltage of 3&4 circuits solar Panel ＞290V±2
Resuming charging voltage of 3&4 circuits solar Panel ＜270V±2
Connection cable of provided battery(㎡) ＞20mm²
Maximum no-load self-consume （MA） 300mA
Voltage drop between solar energy panel and accumulator 2V
Applicable altitude ﹤1000 m
Product size 585*585*980mm

52
4.4 Description of storage battery

4.4.1 Storage batteries

For the impact of the solar energy to be felt, the storage batteries used in
the respective solar applications and systems need to meet the demands of
unstable grid energy. Thus, solar storage batteries are considered to be key
components in stand-alone renewable energy systems so as to continuously
store the supply energy harnessed during peak and low periods respectively.
There’s a variety of battery types fitted for these unique requirements. Main
subgroups of storage batteries for solar energies earlier reviewed included
flow batteries[74], lithium ion batteries [75] and lead acid batteries[76].
Also, choice for the battery comprised of parameters such as; the storage
capacity which total energy actually stored with respect to that retrieved [32],
power transmission rate [33], discharge time [34], battery efficiency [35],
cycling capacity [36], cost of the storage battery [36],disposal/environmental
effects[37], and finally the self-discharge rate of the storage battery[38] . A
brief presentation of each of these subgroups is presented below.

4.4.2 Lead acid storage battery

Also known as valve regulated (VRLA) battery, it comprises of; Gel,
Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) and flooded lead acid models.
Flooded lead acid has a higher replacement/maintenance and disposal risk
factor because of constant refilling of the evaporated electrolytes. But AGM
and gel are recombinant in that they require little or no maintenance and
filling since there is minimal evaporation of the electrolytes making them
environmentally safer. Being cheaper than lithium Ion batteries, and also
high capacity, higher efficiency and cycle life, lead acid storage battery
performance makes them a better choice for solar energy standby.

53
 Figure 4-11 AGM storage battery[77]

4.4.3 Lithium Ion storage battery

Presently the most common storage battery used in modern technology
especially in smartphones. Its various forms consist of Iron phosphate,
Nickel, Cobalt, Manganese storage models. Unlike lead acid storage battery
types, they basically require low maintenance, low self-discharging, higher
energy and capacity densities, and thus they can provide higher current
outputs.
Despite the above benefits, they are more expensive, higher aging rates, and
they require a lot of protection in terms of voltage/ current balances [78].

4.4.4 Flow battery

Flow battery for solar energy storage is consisted of basically redox
vanadium and hybrid models. Still considered as an emerging form for solar
energy storage and cost assumed to be cheaper than lithium acid in near
future[79].
Flow batteries are considered to deliver optimal power supply since its
electrolytes and electro- active materials are stored externally and separately.
Though there is separation of reactive components, externally there is high
cost of construction and environmental risk of spillage.

54
 So from the tabular analysis as seen on Table 4-10 below and our
investigations, AGM(BAT412201080) lead acid storage battery was selected
for our research work

55
 Table 4-10 Compare of the Different Battery Types for Solar Energy Storage [80] [56]

Temp Energ Pow

Depth sensi y/ er/
Ene Capacit Design Cyc wei
Price Volta of tivit weigh Energy/v Self-
Parameters/ rgy y life le ght Dispo
($/kwh ge dischar y t ol ratio discharge
eff (years lif rat sal
Model ) (A ge ratio (wh/l)
(V) ) e (best io (%)
(%) /20h)
(%) degre (wh/k (w/
e ) g) kg)

Lead acid batteries

T105-RE 70.0- 152 225 12 30-50 12 800 - 35.0- 180 70.0 3.0- High
Flooded 92.0 .0- 20 ℃ 40.0 - 4.0 safety
100 - 80.0 measures
0.0 +70
1 ℃

AGM(BAT41220 92 387 220 1 30-80 7.0 - 200 - 4- 42 - < ISO

1080) 2 10.0 Cyc 25 ℃ 2 9001 quality
les - standard
@ +60
100 ℃
%

4 Can’t find the data for boxes with -. This is because the data available was not in line with our research work
 Temp Energ Pow
Depth sensi y/ er/
Ene Capacit Design Cyc wei
Price Volta of tivit weigh Energy/v Self-
Parameters/ rgy y life le ght Dispo
($/kwh ge dischar y t ol ratio discharge
eff (years lif rat sal
Model ) (A ge ratio (wh/l)
(V) ) e (best io (%)
(%) /20h)
(%) degre (wh/k (w/
e ) g) kg)

GEL(BPG12- 90 150- 150 1 30-80 10.0 - 4- - - - <2 Moderat

24T) 180 (20 2 15.0 5.6 e safety
hours measure
rate
(7.5A
10.8V))

lithium ion batteries [81] [82] [76]

Iron 92 7 60 3.2-3.3 12 6 200 - 80.0- 1400 >300 180A High

phospate(BAT 9 .8 0Cycles 45 ℃ 120.0 (LFP safety
512600500) 7 @ 80% - -CB measures
+70 12,8
℃ /60)

57
 Temp Energ Pow
Depth sensi y/ er/
Ene Capacit Design Cyc wei
Price Volta of tivit weigh Energy/v Self-
Parameters/ rgy y life le ght Dispo
($/kwh ge dischar y t ol ratio discharge
eff (years lif rat sal
Model ) (A ge ratio (wh/l)
(V) ) e (best io (%)
(%) /20h)
(%) degre (wh/k (w/
e ) g) kg)

5
Nickel,Cobal >91 9 20 2.7-4.2 4 8 0.75- 55 140.0 260- 80% Moderate
t,Manganese 7 1.9 - 450 - safety
0 150.0 measure

Flow batteries[83] [84]

Redox(vanedi 80 no 100kw 48V DC 10 20- unlimit -40℃ 10.0 10 15- <150 environmen
um cellcube price h 0 30 ed ~+50 -20.0 25 W tally
FB 10-100) assume ℃ friendly &
rental recyclable

Hybrid(UPS >94 no 6.0 12 5 3- 2500 0℃ ~ - 18 - (+/- >97%

Premium price to 0 20. +40℃ (0.9 ) recycle
DSP0.9 assume 300 0 power 405V rate, Li-
Hybrid 10- rental factor DC ion low
500kVA) ) &(+/

5 Can’t find the data for boxes with -. This is because the data available was not in line with our research work
58
 Temp Energ Pow
Depth sensi y/ er/
Ene Capacit Design Cyc wei
Price Volta of tivit weigh Energy/v Self-
Parameters/ rgy y life le ght Dispo
($/kwh ge dischar y t ol ratio discharge
eff (years lif rat sal
Model ) (A ge ratio (wh/l)
(V) ) e (best io (%)
(%) /20h)
(%) degre (wh/k (w/
e ) g) kg)

-) safety
300V level
DC

59
4.4.5 Connection of battery packs
In order to figure out the connection pattern of batteries, we have to refer
the specification of the controller, the PV modules, how they connect
together and produce how much power.
There are formulas describes the relationship between the solar panels
phalanx and the storage battery pack. We will figure out the connection
pattern base the formulas below.
𝑄𝐿 𝑑𝐹
𝐶𝑤 =
𝐾𝐷
𝑄𝐿 𝐹
𝑃𝑚 =
𝐾𝑇𝑚
Cw is the battery pack capacity with the unit Wh; QL is the energy quantity
which can be deliver to the electrical appliance; d is the number of continuous
days without sunlight and we assume d=2 here; F is the amending coefficient
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
of discharge (𝐹 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦); K is the loss between the battery and
the electrical appliance; D is the depth of the storage batteries discharge level,
we suppose D=80% in our utilization of batteries; Pm is the peak power of
each PV phalanx, a PV phalanx consists of 3×7=21 PV modules with 350W
maximum power, thus
𝑃𝑚 = 350 × (3 × 7) = 7350𝑊;
Tm is the Peak sun hours, Tm=2.8 hours in average throughout a year
according Table 4-7.
According the two formulas above, we obtain that:
𝑃𝑚 𝑇𝑚 𝑑
𝐶𝑤 =
𝐷
The storage battery pack should have the capacity for a PV phalanx bigger
than:
𝑃𝑚 𝑇𝑚 𝑑 7350 × 2.8 × 2
𝐶𝑤 = = = 51450 𝑊ℎ
𝐷 80%
 The voltage of each battery pack is same with the system voltage, 240V.
Therefore we need
240 ÷ 12 = 20
Batteries connected in series to raise the voltage in the battery pack. 12V is
the voltage of each battery.
In the meanwhile, the capacity of each battery pack should be bigger than
𝐶𝑤 51450𝑊ℎ
C= = ≈ 214.38 𝐴ℎ
𝑈 240
Table 4-11 describes the specification of different types of AGM batteries.
And the capacity of the BAT412201080 is 220Ah, which is bigger than
214.38Ah, conforming our requirement of conserving the daily energy output
of a PV phalanx. Therefore we do not need to connect the batteries in parallel
in each battery pack to raise the capacity of each battery pack.
Table 4-11 AGM batteries specification
12 Volt Deep Cycle AGM General Specification
RES
Article lxwxh Weight CCA Technology: flat plate AGM
Ah V CAP
number mm kg @0°F Terminals: copper
@80°F
Rated capacity: 20 hr discharge
BAT406225080 240 6 320x176x247 31 1500 480
at 25°C
Float design life: 7-10 years at
BAT212070080 8 12 151x65x101 2,5
20 °C Cycle design life:
BAT212120080 14 12 151x98x101 4,1 400 cycles at 80% discharge
600 cycles at 50% discharge
BAT212200080 22 12 181x77x167 5,8 1500 cycles at 30% discharge

BAT412350080 38 12 197x165x170 12,5

BAT412550080 60 12 229x138x227 20 450 90

BAT412600080 66 12 258x166x235 24 520 100
BAT412800080 90 12 350x167x183 27 600 145
BAT412101080 110 12 330x171x220 32 800 190
BAT412121080 130 12 410x176x227 38 1000 230
BAT412151080 165 12 485x172x240 47 1200 320
BAT412201080 220 12 522x238x240 65 1400 440

According the features that each controller has 4 circuits connecting with
the battery packs, the rate current and rated voltage is 25A and 240V of each
circuit, the input current and the input voltage for each battery is also 25A
and 240V.

61
 Table 4-19 present the connection of the batteries and the connection
between the battery packs and the controller.

......
.

......
.
Controller

......
.

battery
220Ah, 12V
......
.
20
Battery pack
240V, 220Ah

Figure 4-12 Connection pattern of battery with the controller

Since there are ten controllers handling all the electric energy output from
the PV phalanxes, and each controller controls four battery packs charging
and discharging. We need 10×4 = 40 battery packs to conserve the energy
generated by the PV phalanxes. In other word, There are 40×20 =800
batteries in our system to conserve the energy.

62
4.5 Inverter

4.5.1 Description of inverter

Based on electricity generated by solar cells, there are three basic inverters
or converters which convert the DC electricity from the solar panel to AC
electricity that can be used to charge the cars both at home sockets or
charging stations these converters includes, the string inverters or centralised
inverters, micro inverters and power optimizers.

4.5.1.1 String inverters

Involves arranging the solar panels parallel into sets of strings that relay
the power they harnessed into a single inverter. Here the panels produce
equal total power at higher voltages. This reduces cost of wiring and lesser
internal losses of the harnessed energy leading to improved efficiency [39].

Figure 4-13 string inverter[85]

4.5.1.2 Micro Inverters

Unlike string inverters, micro converters the DC electricity of each solar
panel to the AC per panel- that is each panel is attached to a micro inverters
and output of the several micro inverters are combined and fed into the
electric grid of the home or load. Here any failure of one of the panels as a
result of shadings, debris or snow lines does not affect the functionality of
the other panels because each micro inverter harnesses maximum power [39].
 Though individual micro inverters generally have lower efficiency
values as compared to string inverters, their combined efficiency is
increased due to the fact that every inverter / panel unit acts independently.

Figure 4-14 Micro inverter[85]

4.5.1.3 Power Optimisers

Similar to micro inverters in that both systems attempt to isolate individual
panels in order to improve the performance of the entire system. Power
optimizers are used to monitor the total output of the pane arrays so as to
continually adjust and modify the load attached in order the keep the system
operational at its peak. This process is known as maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) by use of a Smart Module [40].

Figure 4-15 power optimizer[85]

64
 Table 4-12 Wikipedia-by Fraunhofer ISE 2014, from: Photovoltaic
Report[86] [87] [88] [89]

Title Comparison of inverter

Type Power Efficiency Module Module Cell modules

(%) Voc Ioc
(W)

Fronius 6.6- 97 650 38 4 strings

Primo 8.2 12.7K
inverter

SDP 1-200K 94 240 136 4

30KW
inverter

P350 350 99.5 1000 15 Up to

Power 25 strings
optimizer

To conclude based on our analysis on Table 4-12 above, we will adopt the
SDP 30KW inverter due to its rated output power compatible to the energy
produced by our solar panels and also output frequency range in line with
that specified with the vehicle charger selected.
We determine to use micro inverter in our research work because of its
higher power output rate and also more flexible in that additional solar panels
can be added, and monitoring done to access our power harnessing and
consumption rates.

65
4.6 Utilization of electricity from general AC netwok

AC Network

kwh

......
General socket

SAE J1772 charge

Vehicle Charger

Figure 4-16 Utilization of electricity from general AC network

Since the high latitude at Karlskrona, the solar radiation in the Karlskrona
is much less than the districts at low latitude. Moreover, the illumination time
is very short in the winter, PV module acquire little irradiation at these time.
It cannot afford the daily requirement of the charging. We adopt the use of
electricity from general AC power grid, in case the PV modules cannot
provide enough electricity for daily charge by user.
jointed straightway to the AC network and separate the general power
circuit with the photovoltaic energy generation circuit. That is to say only
SAE J1772 chargers in our system will use the energy generated by the PV
modules; the energy the general sockets use is from the general AC network.
Figure 4-16 presents a rough and simple structure of the use of the energy
from AC network. At this case, when the storage batteries are detected in low
level by controller and are about to run out of their energy, the system will
turn off some unused SAE J1772 chargers to prevent either battery charge
breaking off or batteries over discharging. Meanwhile, the system will notice
the user to use the general socket to charge their vehicles.

66
4.7 Description of vehical charger

4.7.1 Specification of the popular electrical vehicle

battery
In order to implement our charging system, we study several electrical
vehicles, their batteries and how they are charged. Table 4-13 below gives
the basic information about these.
Table 4-13 Electrical Vehicle battery specification[90]–[116].
Battery Capacity(
Model Charger Adapter
type kW h)
3.5kW AC 10A 220V-
onboard charger 240V
Renault Fluence household
lithium-ion 22
Z.E. Optional Zoe's charger;
Chameleon
charger (43 kW) SAE J1772
SAE J1772
public
chargers.

Adapters to
IEC 60309
5 PIN Red
16A/3-
11 kW AC
phase (400
onboard charger
Tesla Model S V) or IEC
lithium-ion 90
P90D 60309 3
120 kW DC fast
PIN Blue
charger
32A/single-
phase (240
V) or some
other kinds
of domestic
adapter or
general
adapters

67
 based on
regions.

Optional
CHAdeMO
charger.

Super
charger.

120v
Toyota Prius 3.3kW AC
lithium-ion household 8.8
Plug-in Hybrid onboard charger
outlet;

SAE J1772
7.4kW AC
SAE J1772
onboard charger
BMW i3 lithium-ion Optional 22
Combo DC.
DC fast charger
120V cord
plugs into
any
household
outlet;
3.3kW AC
Chevrolet Spark onboard charger 240V
lithium-ion 21.3
EV chargers;
DC fast charger
DC Fast
Charge-
capable
(SAE
Combo)
adapters for
domestic
3.3kW AC
AC sockets
onboard charger
Mitsubishi i- (110-240
lithium-ion 16
MiEV V);
44kW DC fast
charger
15 A 240 V
AC (3.6

68
 kW)[2] on
the SAE
J1772-2009
inlet,

optional
Chademo
(max 44
kW 480 V
DC[3]);
Standard
SAE J1772-
2009
connector
120/240
3.6 kW AC
volts AC
onboard charger
Nissan Leaf lithium-ion JARI high- 24
voltage DC
DC fast charger
connector(5
00 volts DC
125A,
CHAdeMO
)
6.6kW AC on
SAE J1772
board charger
Kia Soul EV lithium-ion 27
CHAdeMO
DC fast charger
6.6kW AC
Fiat 500e lithium-ion SAE J1772 24
onboard charger
120-volt
charging
Mercedes B- 10kW AC onboard
lithium-ion cable; 28
Class Electric charger
SAE J1772
120V
convenienc
e charge
Ford Focus 6.6kW AC cord
lithium-ion 23
Electric onboard charger
240V Home
Charging
Station

69
 SAE-J1772
charging
cable in
conjunction
with a
3.6kW AC standard
Volkswagen E- onboard charger domestic
lithium-ion 24.2
Golf mains
DC fast Charger socket;

Combined
Charging
System;

The table above lists the present popular electrical vehicles battery data.
The capacity of these vehicle batteries is approximately 43kWh.

4.7.2 Selection of charging mode

According to Table 4-13, most electrical vehicle provides several kinds of
charging mode. All these electrical vehicles generally support connecting
household electric socket charging and SAE J1772 standard charging or DC
fast charging. Among these charging modes, the DC fast charging is latest.
It is supported by several vehicles, mode. In this mode, the charging rate has
been raised to two to three times than AC charging. It realized that charging
battery up to 80% in an hour. There are three main types of DC fast charging
standard: CHAdeMO, Combined Charging Standard and Tesla’
Supercharger. However, although this DC charging technology has high
efficiency, its consuming power rate is too high. If we implement the fast DC
charging in our system, according the present CHAdeMO standard charger
at least providing 40 kW power[117], we need to place more than 114 PV
modules with 350w maximum power output to provide 40 kW power for one
DC charger. And the total number of our PV modules in our system is 840.
350×840×2.8
With the = 823.2kWh theoretical daily energy output, it can
1000
823.2
only support a DC charger work for about = 20.58 hours each day. In
40
350×840
other way, we can only deploy ÷ 40 ≈ 7 DC fast chargers and
1000

70
provide enough power only if the PV modules work at the STC6. Obviously,
it is not realistic to equip the DC charging in our system. Our system cannot
handle so much power to the DC fast charger. In the table, it indicates all the
vehicles support the SAE J1772 standard charging and general household
socket charging. Therefore this two charging mode will be employed in our
system. Regarding the general power socket in Sweden, we have to have one
kind of power output conformed the Swedish standard and another kind
conformed the SAE J1772 standard. Order to simplify the structure of our
system, the energy the general socket use comes from the general AC power
grid instead of coming from the PV modules. And using the general socket
to charge vehicle is an alternative charging option in our system, it make the
charge tasks still available when the system run out all of the energy in the
storage batteries and there is no output from the PV modules in the same time.

4.7.3 SAE J1772 standard charger

“SAE J1772 (IEC Type 1) is a North American standard for electrical
connectors for electric vehicles maintained by the SAE7 International and has
the formal title "SAE Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice J1772, SAE
Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler". It specifies the requirements
of the charging system in many aspects, such as physic, electric,
communication protocol, and performance[119]. Since this standard
charging had been developed since early and has advantages such as price
comparing to other standards, it has been used widely, most electrical vehicle
in the market.
In order to integrate this charging pattern in our solar charging system, we
have studied the electricity parameter of SAE J1772 standard and create the
required condition to install this charger. There are two level of charging of
SAE J1772 standard.

6 “Standard Test Conditions (STC) are specified in standards such as IEC 61215, IEC 61646 and
UL 1703; specifically the light intensity is 1000 W/m2, with a spectrum similar to sunlight hitting the
earth's surface at latitude 35°N in the summer (airmass 1.5), the temperature of the cells being
25 °C”[118].
7 Society of Automotive Engineers

71
Table 4-14 below gives descriptions of these two levels of charging.

72
 Table 4-14 Specification of SAE J1772 Standard Charging[119].
Voltage Phase Peak current Power
AC Level 1 120 V Single phase 16 A 1.92 kW
32 A (2001) 7.68 kW
AC Level 2 240 V Split phase
80 A (2009) 19.20 kW

Nowadays, almost all the electrical vehicle supports the SAE J1772 level
2 charging mode, and level 2 charging rate is much higher than level 1
charging. Therefore we will integrate this charging mode in our system based
on the specification indicated in

73
 Table 4-14.
In order to implement our charging electrical network, we have chosen a
certain type of charger, Clipper Creek HSC-40 as our option of charger.
Table 4-15 below gives specification of this type of charger.

Table 4-15 HCS-40 electrical specification[120]

General

Charging Power 32 Amp (7.7kW max)

Product Dimensions 19.7"L x 8.9"W x 5.3"D

Product Weight

Installation Hardwired (3 foot service whip provided)

Supply Circuit 208/240V, 40A

Frequency: 60 Hz

Warranty 3 years

Charge Cable Length 25 feet

Vehicle Connector Type Lockable SAE J1772

Accessories Included SAE J1772 Connector Holster, Wall Mount

Enclosure Fully Sealed NEMA 4

Environment Rating Indoor/Outdoor rated

Operating Temperature -22°F to 122°F (-30°C to +50°C)

Certifications ETL, cETL

According this specification, we can build up an eligible electrical circuit

to service the HSC-40 charger.

74
4.7.4 General Swedish power output analyzes.
In Sweden, the general power socket conforms CEE 7/3 standard8, the
general plug conforms CEE 7/49 standard. They together have been called
"Schuko" and Type F. This Schuko connection system is symmetrical and
unpolarised which means that it does not matter whether you put the plug
into the socket reversely. The CEE 7/3 standard socket is also compatible
with the CEE 7/16 standard plug and CEE 7/17 plug which are belong to type
C. Table 4-16 and Table 4-17 below present the standard power output and
plug specification in Sweden.
Table 4-18 Standard power output in Sweden[121].
Voltage Frequency Accepting Plug Type
230V 50Hz C,F

8 CEE 7/3 standard was released by The International Commission on the Rules for the
Approval of Electrical Equipment (IECEE).
9 CEE 7/4 standard was released by The International Commission on the Rules for the

Approval of Electrical Equipment (IECEE).

75
 Table 4-19 Swedish General Plug Type Specification[122].
IEC Standar Rating Earth Polaris Fuse Insulat Socket
Wor d ed ed d ed accepts
ld pins Europl
Plug ug
s
Typ
e
CEE 2.5 250 NO NO NO YES N/A
7/16 A V
C
(Europl
ug)
CEE 16 250 NO NO NO NO N/A
- 7/17 A V
plug
CEE 7/3
Socket 16 250
F YES NO NO NO YES
CEE 7/4 A V
Socket

Base on the specification in the tables above, we will use Type F (CEE
7/4) socket as one of our charging socket. And it will provides 230V power
output, maximally allows 16A current flow.

4.7.5 Charging time and consuming power

4.7.5.1 Charging time and consuming power using

SAE J1772 level 2 charging
Regarding the SAE J1772 charging, we also study the charging time of
the electrical vehicle listed in Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla.,

76
Table 4-20 below gives data of these.

77
 Table10 4-20 Charging time and consuming power using SAE J1772
level 2 charging[90]–[116]
Capacity( Power Curren Charging time
Model
kW h) (kW) t(A) (hour)
Renault Fluence
22 3.5 14.6 7.5
Z.E.
Tesla Model S
90 6.6 27.5 14
P90D
Toyota Prius
8.8 3.3 13.8 2.25
Plug-in Hybrid
BMW i3 22 7.4 30.8 3.5
Chevrolet Spark
21.3 3.3 13.8 7
EV
Mitsubishi i-MiEV 16 3.3 13.8 6
Nissan Leaf 24 3.6 15.0 8
Kia Soul EV 27 6.6 27.5 4
Fiat 500e 24 6.6 27.5 4
Mercedes B-Class
28 10 41.7 3.5
Electric
Ford Focus Electric 23 6.6 27.5 4
Volkswagen E-Golf 24.2 3.6 15.0 8
5.4 6.0

According this table, we can obtain the average charging power with using
SAE J1772 charging is 5.4kW; the consuming power is 6.5 hours in average.
However, as our option of charger maximum power is 7.7kW, the Mercedes
B-Class Electric cannot charge at its maximum charge rate 10kW. Instead its
maximum charge power becomes 7.7kW. Since of these and it is hard to
measure the increasing time when Mercedes B-Class charge at this power

10 The data in this table is not accurate. The practical data varies caused by many factors such

as the condition of the battery. All this data is gathered from the internet.

78
rate, we recalculate the average consuming power and average charging time
by removing the data about this vehicle.
We obtain the results that the consuming power of charging is about 4.9
kW and the average fully charging time for each vehicle is about 6.2 hours.

4.7.5.2 Charging time and consuming power using

general socket
Regarding using the general power socket to charge the electrical vehicle,
we have studied the charging time in several types of vehicle listed in Table
4-13. Table 4-21 below gives the data of these.
Table11 4-21 Electrical vehicle charging time and consuming power
using general power socket[90]–[116]
Capacity( Power Curren Charging time
Model
kW h) (kW) t(A) (hour)
Renault Fluence
22 2.3 10 11
Z.E.
Tesla Model S
90 2.9 13 30
P90D
Toyota Prius
8.8
Plug-in Hybrid
BMW i3 22 2.7 12 9.5
Chevrolet Spark
21.3
EV
Mitsubishi i-MiEV 16
Nissan Leaf 24 2.3 10 12
Kia Soul EV 27
Fiat 500e 24

11 The blank cell means the data is missing. The data in this table is not accurate. The practical

data varies caused by many factors such as the condition of the battery. All this data is gathered
from the internet.

79
 Mercedes B-Class
28
Electric
Ford Focus Electric 23
Volkswagen E-Golf 24.2 2.3 10 13

According this table, we can obtain the average charging time with
general socket is 15.1 hours; the consuming power is 2.5kW in average.

4.7.5.3 Chargers arrangement

According the result of daily electric output quantity Pm•Tm=350×840×
2.8 = 823.2kWh and the 4.9kW average consuming power of charging, we
can acquire that 823.2kWh/4.9kW=168 hours total charging time. In order to
approach the maximum quantity requirement of users, we suppose that each
charger can work at least 6.2 hours. In this case we can deploy 168/6.2≈27
chargers at our system. In other word, if 27 vehicles need to be charged in
the same time, our system still assures that the 27 vehicle can be acquired
fully charging service. Otherwise if there are less than 27 hour vehicle
charging at the same time, each charger service hours will relatively increase.
And this reckon is theoretical, it neglects the loss between the PV modules
823.2𝑘𝑊
and the charger and other influencing factor.4.9𝑘𝑊×6.2ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 ≈ 27

80
4.8 Installation cost

4.8.1 Installation cost of our system

Base on the number and the price of each component we use, we can
approximately estimate the total cost of our system. Table 4-22 Lists most of
the components we use at our system and the cost of them.

81
 Table 4-23 Cost of system
Capacity 135KW

Daily Power
Solar radiation 2.8hours 823.2KWH
Consumption

System Voltage 240V

Type 1STH-350-WH $1.05/panel $882.00

Pmax 350W 840 panels

Solar panel
Vmp 42.98V

Imp 8.13A

SPEC 350w $6,000.00 $12,000.00

Wave form Sinc wave 2 inverters

Inverter Output voltage 60v

Output frequency 50Hz~60Hz

Inverter efficiency 98.80%

Rated voltage 240V $2,500.00 $25,000.00

Controller
Rated current 100A 10 controllers
 Control mode PWM

Smart charging and

discharging;
Protection
three stages charging function
to protect battery.

Battery Type AGM(BAT412350080) $118/battery $94,400.00

Storage battery Voltage 12v 800 batteries

Capacity 38(A/20h)

Type SAE J1772 $565.00 $15,255.00

Vehicle charger Supply Circuit 240V, 40A 27 chargers

Charging power 32 Amp (7.7kW max)

General socket Type F CEE 7/4 socket $3.00 $81.00

Distribution Box Specification 2 inputs; 2 outputs 20

Cable Specification 1.0mm2

Solar Mounting
Inclined Roof Mounting Type
System

83
Total $147,618.00

84
5 Chapter: Conclusion and future work
Striving for a greener and eco-friendly future depends on how much
actions we put in so as to reduce and while not stop those humane behaviours
based on car usage that increases the level on environmental pollution.
Efficient harnessing of solar energy involved choosing efficient
components that provide the required energy capacity to charge the electric
cars. With a surface area of 2900m2, 840 1STH-350-WH PV modules at 71
degrees inclination, it generated approximately at least 136kwh daily energy
output in winter, average 823.2kwh daily energy output throughout a year in
theory.
Combining 10 SDC240-100A micro controllers, 2 SDP30Kw inverters,
800 AGM (BAT412350080) storage batteries from our system model, we
can charge up to 27 electrical vehicles at once with an average full charging
time of up to 6.2 hours. All these are achieved due to the fact that we use the
SAE J1772 standard charging. Additionally general power sockets provide
230V power output in case more energy is needed. This energy is obtained
from the general AC power grid and the average charging time 15.1 hours
with this alternative charging method. Also, this method of charging
consumes 2.5kW power in average.
Since the solar energy generation and charging occurs during the day, thus
using photovoltaic to charge electric cars means most of the electric vehicle
charging will have to take place during working hours, which will have
significant impact on reducing carbon emissions during the day which is the
main humane concern. With this piece of work we do hope it serves as a
starting point for other research work in this area.
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