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4
Porosity Logs
GENERAL
The next class of well logs to be considered is gen-
erally referred to as porosity logs. Although each pro-
duces a porosity value from basic measurements, none
actually measures porosity directly. Two such logs, the
density and neutron, are nuclear measurements. A
third log, the sonic, uses acoustic measurements, and
the fourth and newest log senses the magnetic reso-
nance of formation nuclei. When used individually,
each of the first three has a response to lithology which
must be accounted for, but when used in concert, two
or three at a time, lithology can be estimated and a
more accurate porosity derived.
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE LOG
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging was
first introduced by Schlumberger in 1978 (Maute,
1992) but was not initially widely used because of
operational limitations. With the commercial introduc-
tion of the Magnetic Resonance Imaging Log (MRIL)
by NUMAR Corporation (now part of Halliburton) in
1980 (Halliburton, 1999) and the release of the Com-
binable Magnetic Resonance Tool (CMR) by Schlum-
berger, the technique is steadily gaining acceptance.
The measurement technique is closely related to
medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in that it
senses the fluids in the formation surrounding the
borehole (like MRI senses the fluids in the body)
while the solids are largely invisible. In the logging
tool, a powerful permanent magnet in the tool causes
the protons in the formation fluids (mostly in the
hydrogen) to align. An antenna in the tool then sends a
signal into the formation, causing the protons to tip
away from that original alignment. When the antenna
signal is turned off, the protons begin to realign in the
strong magnetic field, producing a signal called the
spin echo. Repeated application of the antenna’s signal
Asquith, G., and D. Krygowski, 2004, Porosity Logs, in
G. Asquith and D. Krygowski, Basic Well Log Analy-
sis: AAPG Methods in Exploration 16, p. 37–76.
leads to the measurement of many spin echoes, gath-
ered as a spin echo train which is interpreted to esti-
mate formation properties. Different interpretation and
measurement methods lead to estimates of porosity,
pore fluid types, and pore size distribution in the for-
mation. Like the other porosity measurements, NMR
measures mostly in the invaded and mixed zones of the
formation around the wellbore. Unlike the other poros-
ity measurements, the porosity determined from it is
much less sensitive to lithologic changes than the
porosities determined from those measurements.
Because wide use of NMR logs is relatively new,
this technique is often used alone in the determination
of porosity rather than in concert with the other poros-
ity tools (sonic, density, and neutron). For these rea-
sons, NMR logging is considered separately in Chap-
ter 6.
SONIC LOG
The sonic log is a porosity log that measures inter-
val transit time (∆t, delta t, or DT) of a compressional
sound wave traveling through the formation along the
axis of the borehole. The sonic log device consists of
one or more ultrasonic transmitters and two or more
receivers. Modern sonic logs are borehole-compensat-
ed (BHC) devices. These devices are designed to
greatly reduce the spurious effects of borehole size
variations (Kobesh and Blizard, 1959) as well as errors
due to tilt of the tool with respect to the borehole axis
(Schlumberger, 1972) by averaging signals from dif-
ferent transmitter-receiver combinations over the same
length of borehole.
Interval transit time (∆t) in microseconds per foot,
µsec/ft (or microseconds per meter, µsec/m) is the
reciprocal of the velocity of a compressional sound
wave in feet per second (or meters per second). Inter-
val transit time (DT) is usually displayed in tracks 2
and 3 of a log (Figure 4.1). A sonic-derived porosity
37
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38 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

curve (SPHI) is sometimes displayed in tracks 2 and 3, porosities of carbonates with vuggy or fracture poros-
along with the DT curve. Track 1 usually contains a ity are calculated by the Wyllie formula, porosity val-
caliper (CALI), and a gamma ray (GR) or an SP. ues are too low. This happens because the sonic log
The interval transit time (∆t) is dependent upon only records matrix porosity rather than vuggy or frac-
both lithology and porosity. Therefore, a formation’s ture secondary porosity. The percentage of vuggy or
matrix interval transit time (Table 4.1) must be known fracture secondary porosity can be calculated by sub-
to derive sonic porosity either by chart (Figure 4.2) or tracting sonic porosity from total porosity. Total poros-
by the following formulas: ity values are obtained from one of the nuclear logs
Wyllie time-average equation (Wyllie et al., 1958): (i.e., density, neutron, or preferably the combination of
density and neutron). The percentage of secondary
porosity, called SPI or secondary porosity index, can
4.1 be a useful mapping parameter in carbonate explo-
ration.
Raymer-Hunt-Gardner (RHG) equation (Raymer et Where a sonic log is used to determine porosity in
al., 1980): unconsolidated sands, an empirical compaction factor
(Cp) should be added to the Wyllie et al. (1958) equa-
4.2 tion:
4.3
where:
φS = sonic-derived porosity where:
∆tma = interval transit time in the matrix (Table 4.1) Cp = compaction factor
∆tlog = interval transit time in the formation
∆tfl = interval transit time in the fluid in the forma- The compaction factor is obtained from the follow-
tion (freshwater mud = 189 µsec/ft; saltwater mud ing formula:
= 185 µsec/ft)
4.4
Unconsolidated Formations where:
The Wyllie et al. (1958) formula for calculating tsh = interval transit time in a shale adjacent to the
sonic porosity can be used to determine porosity in formation of interest.
consolidated sandstones and carbonates with inter- C = a constant which is normally 1.0 (Hilchie,
granular porosity (grainstones) or intercrystalline 1978).
porosity (sucrosic dolomites). However, when sonic Interval transit time values from selected depths on

Table 4.1. Sonic Velocities and Interval Transit Times for Different Matrixes. These constants are used in the sonic porosity formulas above (after Schlumberger, 1972).

Lithology/ Fluid Matrix velocity ∆tmatrix or ∆tfluid (Wyllie) ∆tmatrix (RHG)

ft/sec µsec/ft [µsec/m] µsec/ft [µsec/m]
Sandstone 18,000 to 19,500 55.5 to 51.0 [182 to 168] 56 [184]
Limestone 21,000 to 23,000 47.6 [156] 49 [161]
Dolomite 23,000 to 26,000 43.5 [143] 44 [144]
Anhydrite 20,000 50.0 [164]
Salt 15,000 66.7 [219]
Casing (iron) 17,500 57.0 [187]
Freshwater mud filtrate 5,280 189 [620]
Saltwater mud filtrate 5,980 185 [607]
ch04_v2.qxd 8/5/04 10:52 AM Page 39
the log in Figure 4.1 are listed in Table 4.5. Those val-
ues are used in the chart in Figure 4.2 to determine
sonic porosity, which is listed in Table 4.6.
Hydrocarbon Effects
The interval transit time (∆t) of a formation is
increased due to the presence of hydrocarbons (i.e.,
hydrocarbon effect). If the effect of hydrocarbons is
not corrected, the sonic-derived porosity is too high.
Hilchie (1978) suggests the following empirical cor-
rections for hydrocarbon effect:
(gas) 4.5
(oil) 4.6
DENSITY LOG
Density is measured in grams per cubic centimeter,
g/cm3 (or Kg/m3 or Mg/m3), and is indicated by the
Greek letter ρ (rho). Two separate density values are
used by the density log: the bulk density (ρb or RHOB)
and the matrix density (ρma). The bulk density is the
density of the entire formation (solid and fluid parts)
as measured by the logging tool. The matrix density is
the density of the solid framework of the rock. It may
be thought of as the density of a particular rock type
(e.g., limestone or sandstone) that has no porosity.
Since the late 1970s, the density log has also been used
for the photoelectric-effect measurement (Pe, PE, or
PEF) to determine lithology of a formation. The den-
sity log can assist the geologist to:
• identify evaporite minerals
• detect gas-bearing zones
• determine hydrocarbon density
• evaluate shaly-sand reservoirs and complex lith-
ologies (Schlumberger, 1972)
The density logging tool has a relatively shallow
depth of investigation, and as a result, is held against
the side of the borehole during logging to maximize its
response to the formation. The tool is comprised of a
medium-energy gamma ray source (cobalt 60, cesium
137, or in some newer designs, an accelerator-based
source). Two gamma ray detectors provide some mea-
sure of compensation for borehole conditions
(similar to the sonic logging tool).
When the emitted gamma rays collide with elec-
trons in the formation, the collisions result in a loss of
energy from the gamma ray particle. The scattered
Porosity Logs 39
gamma rays that return to the detectors in the tool are
measured in two energy ranges. The number of return-
ing gamma rays in the higher energy range, affected by
Compton scattering, is proportional to the electron
density of the formation. For most earth materials of
interest in hydrocarbon exploration, the electron den-
sity is related to formation bulk density through a con-
stant (Tittman and Wahl, 1965), and the bulk density is
related to porosity. Gamma ray interactions in the
lower energy range are governed by the photoelectric
effect. The response from this energy range is strong-
ly dependent on lithology and only very slightly
dependent on porosity.
The bulk-density curve (RHOB) is recorded in
tracks 2 and 3 (Figure 4.3). The photoelectric-effect
curve (Pe in barns per electron, b/e) is displayed in
either track 2 or track 3, with its placement set to min-
imize its overlap with the bulk-density curve. A cor-
rection curve (DRHO in g/cm3 or Kg/m3), is also dis-
played in either track 2 or track 3 (Figure 4.3). This
curve indicates how much correction has been added
to the bulk-density curve during processing due to
borehole effects (primarily mudcake thickness) and is
used primarily as a quality-control indicator. Whenev-
er the correction curve (DRHO) exceeds 0.20 g/cm3,
the value of the bulk density obtained from the bulk-
density curve (RHOB) should be considered suspect
and possibly invalid. A density-derived porosity curve
(DPHI) is sometimes present in tracks 2 and 3 along
with the bulk-density (RHOB) and correction (DRHO)
curves. Track 1 usually contains a gamma ray log and
a caliper (Figure 4.3).
The photoelectric-effect curve appeared as part of
the second-generation density tools, which are com-
monly referred to as Litho or Spectral tools and were
introduced around 1978.
Formation bulk density (ρb) is a function of matrix
density, porosity, and density of the fluid in the pores
(saltwater mud, freshwater mud, or hydrocarbons). To
determine density porosity, either by chart (Figure 4.4)
or by calculation, the matrix density (Table 4.2) and
type of fluid in the formation must be known. The for-
mula for calculating density porosity is:
4.7
where:
φD = density derived porosity
ρma = matrix density (see Table 4.2 for values)
ρb = formation bulk density (the log reading)
ρfl = fluid density (see Table 4.2 for values)
ch04_v2.qxd 8/5/04 10:52 AM Page 40
40 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI
Table 4.2. Matrix densities and photoelectric-effect (Pe) values of common lithologies
(Courtesy Halliburton, 1991).
Lithology/ ρma or ρfl
Fluid g/cm3 [Kg/m3]
Sandstone 2.644 [2644]
Limestone 2.710 [2710]
Dolomite 2.877 [2877]
Anhydrite 2.960 [2960]
Salt 2.040 [2040]
Fresh water 1.0 [1000]
Salt water 1.15 [1150]
Barite (mud
additive)
Importance of Correct ρma and ρfl values
A computer in the logging unit calculates density
porosity from the measured bulk density of the forma-
tion using Equation 4.7. The wellsite geologist or log-
ging unit engineer specifies the matrix and fluid den-
sities that are to be used. If the formation’s actual
matrix density (ρma) is less than the matrix density
used to calculate the porosity [e.g., calculating porosi-
ty of a sandstone (ρma = 2.64 g/cm3) using a limestone
matrix density (ρma = 2.71 g/cm3)], the log shows a
calculated porosity that is higher than the actual poros-
ity of the formation. If the formation’s actual fluid den-
sity is less than the fluid density used to calculate the
porosity [e.g., calculating the porosity of a saltwater-
filled formation (ρfl = 1.1 g/cm3) using a freshwater
value (ρfl = 1.0 g/cm3)], the log shows a calculated
porosity that is lower than the actual porosity of the
formation. Because of the wider range of matrix-den-
sity values than fluid-density values, errors in estimat-
ing the matrix density have a larger impact on the cal-
culated porosity.
Bulk-density values from selected depths on the log
in Figure 4.3 are listed in Table 4.7. Those values are
used in the chart in Figure 4.4 to determine density
porosity, which is listed in Table 4.8.
Hydrocarbon Effects
Where invasion of a formation is shallow, the low
density of the formation’s hydrocarbons causes the
calculated density porosity to be greater than the actu-
al porosity. Oil does not significantly affect density
porosity, but gas does (gas effect). Hilchie (1978) sug-
gests using a gas density of 0.7 g/cm3 for fluid densi-
ty (ρfl) in the density-porosity formula if gas density is
unknown. Because the presence of oil has little effect
on the density log, this tool usually provides the best
indication of porosity in liquid-filled holes.
Pe (b/e)
1.81 Heavy Minerals
5.08
Any time the bulk density of a formation (ρb) is
3.14 greater than the assumed matrix density (ρma) of the
5.05 formation [e.g., when measurements are made in an
anhydrite (ρma = 2.96 g/cm3) but are recorded using a
4.65 limestone matrix (ρma = 2.71 g/cm3)], the resulting
density porosity is negative. It is important to note that
in cases like this the logging tool is operating proper-
ly, but the assumptions made in the conversion
267 between bulk density and density porosity are incor-
rect. In cases like this, where the porosity is clearly
erroneous (because it is negative), the log still yields
good information. Negative density porosity is often a
good indication of the presence of anhydrite or other
heavy minerals, as shown in Figure 4.5 over the inter-
vals 11,550 to 11,567 ft and 11,600 to 11,618 ft.
Powdered barite is commonly added to mud to
increase mud density. When heavy muds are used
(e.g., 14 lb/gal), the high Pe of the barite (Table 4.2) in
the mud can mask the Pe of the adjacent rock layers.
NEUTRON LOG
Neutron logs are porosity logs that measure the
hydrogen concentration in a formation. In clean for-
mations (i.e., shale-free) where the porosity is filled
with water or oil, the neutron log measures liquid-
filled porosity (φN , PHIN, or NPHI).
Neutrons are created from a chemical source in the
neutron logging tool. The chemical source is usually a
mixture of americium and beryllium which continu-
ously emit neutrons. When these neutrons collide with
the nuclei of the formation the neutron loses some of
its energy. With enough collisions, the neutron is
absorbed by a nucleus and a gamma ray is emitted.
Because the hydrogen atom is almost equal in mass to
the neutron, maximum energy loss occurs when the
neutron collides with a hydrogen atom. Therefore, the
energy loss is dominated by the formation’s hydrogen
concentration. Because hydrogen in a porous forma-
tion is concentrated in the fluid-filled pores, energy
loss can be related to the formation’s porosity.
The neutron curves are commonly displayed over
tracks 2 and 3, in units referenced to a specific lithol-
ogy (usually either limestone or sandstone, depending
on the geologic environment expected to be encoun-
tered), as illustrated in Figure 4.5.
ch04_v2.qxd 8/5/04 10:52 AM Page 41
Neutron log responses vary, depending on:
• differences in detector types and what they
detect (gamma rays and/or neutrons of different
energies)
• spacing between source and detector
• lithology (i.e., sandstone, limestone, and dolo-
mite)
While the variations due to detector types and tool
design are fixed (and are accounted for in the data pro-
cessing), the variations in response due to lithology
must be accounted for by using the appropriate charts
(Figures 4.6 and 4.7). A geologist should remember
that the responses of different neutron logs differ from
each other (unlike all other logs) and must be inter-
preted from the specific chart designed for a specific
log (i.e., Schlumberger charts for Schlumberger logs
and Halliburton charts for Halliburton logs). The rea-
son for this is that while other logs are calibrated in
basic physical units, neutron logs are not (Dresser
Atlas, 1975).
Table 4.11 shows the results of lithology correc-
tions that are made to neutron measurements using the
correct and incorrect charts for the specific neutron
tool.
The first neutron logs detected the gamma rays that
were products of neutron capture by formation nuclei.
Initially, each logging company had its own calibra-
tion system, but eventually the American Petroleum
Institute (API) developed calibration pits to provide a
common standard for measurement (Serra, 1984).
Generally these logs were displayed in counts per sec-
ond (cps) or API Neutron Units rather than porosity.
Although charts to convert from displayed units to
porosity exist (Bassiouni, 1994), arbitrary conversions
using core data or estimated formation porosities have
most often been used. It should be noted that the neu-
tron log response is inversely proportional to porosity
so that low-measurement unit values correspond to
high porosities, and high-measurement unit values
correspond to low porosities.
The first modern neutron log (where porosity was
directly displayed) was the sidewall neutron log. Like
the density log (and for the same reason of limited
depth of investigation), the sidewall neutron log has
both the source and detector in a pad that is pushed
against the side of the borehole. Although the sidewall
neutron log was relatively insensitive to lithologic
effects, it was sensitive to borehole effects, such as
rugosity (roughness) which caused measurement diffi-
culties.
The most commonly used neutron log is the com-
pensated neutron log which has a neutron source and
Porosity Logs 41
two detectors. Like the sidewall neutron log, it direct-
ly displays values of porosity. The advantage of com-
pensated neutron logs over sidewall neutron logs is
that they are less affected by borehole irregularities.
Both the sidewall and compensated neutron logs can
be recorded in apparent limestone, sandstone, or
dolomite porosity units. If a formation is limestone,
and the neutron log is recorded in apparent limestone
porosity units, apparent porosity is equal to true poros-
ity. However, when the lithology of a formation is
sandstone or dolomite, apparent limestone porosity
must be corrected to true porosity by using the appro-
priate chart (Figure 4.6 illustrates the lithology correc-
tions for one model of Halliburton neutron log, and
Figure 4.7 the corrections for a Schlumberger neutron
log). The procedure is identical for each of the charts
and is shown in Figures 4.6 and 4.7.
Neutron-porosity values from selected depths on
the log in Figure 4.5 are listed in Table 4.9. Those val-
ues are used in the chart in Figure 4.6 to determine
sonic porosity, which is listed in Table 4.10.
Hydrocarbon effects
Whenever pores are filled with gas rather than oil
or water, the reported neutron porosity is less than the
actual formation porosity. This occurs because there is
a lower concentration of hydrogen in gas than in oil or
water. This lower concentration is not accounted for by
the processing software of the logging tool, and thus is
interpreted as low porosity. A decrease in neutron
porosity by the presence of gas is called gas effect.
Shale Effect
Whenever clays are part of the formation matrix,
the reported neutron porosity is greater than the actual
formation porosity. This occurs because the hydrogen
that is within the clay’s structure and in the water
bound to the clay is sensed in addition to the hydrogen
in the pore space. Because the processing software of
the logging tool expects all hydrogen in the formation
to reside in the pores, the extra hydrogen is interpreted
as being part of the porosity. An increase in neutron
porosity by the presence of clays is called shale effect.
POROSITY MEASUREMENT COMBINATIONS
Although the advent of porosity logs provided a
substantial improvement in log interpretation, the sig-
nificant change, from a geological viewpoint, was the
development of interpretive techniques that combined
the measurements from different porosity tools. With
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42 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI
combinations of two or three measurements, lithology
could be interpreted (rather than having to be known)
and a better estimate of porosity produced. The inter-
pretation of lithology and porosity is accomplished
through crossplots. These are x-y plots of the quanti-
ties of interest, usually overlain with lines for “pure”
lithologies (normally sandstone, limestone, and
dolomite) with porosity indicated on each lithology
line (e.g., Figure 4.11).
Neutron-density Combination:
Quick-look Lithology and Porosity
The combination of the neutron and density meas-
urements is probably the most widely used porosity
log combination. The neutron-density log display con-
sists of neutron-porosity (NPHI) and density-porosity
(DPHI) curves recorded in tracks 2 and 3 (Figure 4.5)
and a caliper (CALI) and gamma ray (GR) in track 1.
Both the neutron and density curves are normally
recorded in limestone porosity units, however, porosi-
ty referenced to sandstone and dolomite can also be
recorded.
The extensive use of the neutron-density combina-
tion may be due in part to the fact that they were
among the first logging tools that could be physically
combined and their data acquired in a single logging
run. The response of the combination is such that for
reconnaissance evaluation one can forego the crossplot
and rely on recognition of the curve patterns (the posi-
tion of the curves with respect to each other) to quick-
ly determine the most likely predominant lithology
and formation porosity.
Figure 4.8 illustrates the use of the neutron-density
Table 4.3. Estimation of formation lithologies using the neutron-density combination (Campaign, W. J., personal communication).
Neutron and density are run with a limestone matrix; formation is water filled or oil filled
Lithology φN and φD
Sandstone Neutron-density crossover (φN > φD) of 6 to 8 porosity units.
Limestone Neutron and density curves overlay (φN ∼ φD).
Dolomite Neutron-density separation (φN < φD) of 12 to 14 porosity units.
Anhydrite Neutron porosity is greater than density porosity (φN > φD) by 14 porosity
units or more. φN ∼ zero.
Salt Neutron porosity is slightly less than zero. Density porosity is 40 porosity
units (0.40) or more. Watch for washed out hole (large caliper values) and bad
density data.
combination to determine formation lithology and to
estimate porosity. The reconnaissance technique
works best with the following constraints:
• Both the neutron and density curves are in
porosity (decimal or percent) referenced to lime-
stone units.
• The formations are clean (no clays in the forma-
tions).
• There is no gas in the formations, only water or
oil.
Using only the neutron-porosity and density-poros-
ity curves, single lithologies can be predicted with lit-
tle ambiguity. Adding the gamma ray may help, as in
identifying dolomite from shale. In mixed lithologies,
such as the sandy limestone and sandy dolomite
shown, even the addition of the gamma ray does not
help.
If the density log is of the newer litho or spectral
type and a photoelectric curve (Pe) is available, the
ambiguity can be further lessened, especially in the
case of mixed lithologies. The value of the Pe curve in
mixed lithologies falls between the single lithology
value of each member, so some distinction can be
made. Table 4.3 summarizes the patterns and values
for common lithologies.
The estimation of porosity is equally straightfor-
ward: the formation porosity can be estimated to with-
in about 2 porosity units (0.02) by taking the average
of the neutron porosity and density porosity.
In areas of the world where sand and shale intervals
predominate, the neutron and density are referenced to
sandstone rather than limestone to eliminate the need
for matrix conversion. (This also helps highlight the
gas crossover effect described below.) While Figure
Pe
less than 2
about 5
about 3
about 5
4.7
ch04_v2.qxd 8/5/04 10:52 AM Page 43
4.8 focuses on lithology changes in clean (clay-free)
formations with widely varying lithologies, Figure 4.9
illustrates neutron and density patterns in a variety of
shaly sands, with both porosities referenced to sand-
stone. The effects of gas and clays are greater on the
neutron measurement than on the density, with the
neutron simultaneously being driven lower by gas and
higher by clays in a shaly gassy formation. The exact
location of the neutron curve with respect to the den-
sity curve is determined by the amounts of clay and
gas present in the formation.
Table 4.12 shows the quick-look lithology determi-
nation in Figure 4.8 applied to the data in Figure 4.5.
Neutron-density Combination: Gas Detection
Another technique using the neutron and density
logs and the identification of curve patterns is that of
gas identification. Gas in the pores causes the density
porosity to be too high (gas has a lower density than
oil or water) and causes the neutron porosity to be too
low (there is a lower concentration of hydrogen atoms
in gas than in oil or water). Figure 4.10 shows an
example of a gas zone. In that zone, the neutron poros-
ity is less than the density porosity, and the two poros-
ity curves cross over each other. This is called cross-
over. The magnitude of the crossover (the amount of
separation between the curves) is qualitatively related
to the gas saturation, however, the crossover is more
strongly influenced (again qualitatively) by the forma-
tion pressure. Low-pressure zones, either at shallow
depths or depleted from production, tend to show large
crossover.
Neutron-density crossover can also be caused by
lithologic effects, as when the curves are displayed
referenced to a lithology that is different from the actu-
al lithology of the formation. Figure 4.8 illustrates this
in the sandstone formations with the curves displayed
referenced to limestone. It is important to check the
log header for lithology-reference information as well
as knowing the actual lithology of the formation in
question before predicting the presence of gas from
the log patterns only.
The porosity of a gas-bearing formation can be esti-
mated by either form of the following equation:
4.8
where:
φNDgas = porosity of the gas-bearing formation
φN = neutron porosity
φD = density porosity
Porosity Logs 43
Porosity Combinations: Crossplots
Crossplots are a graphical way to solve fairly com-
plex relationships using two (or three) porosity meas-
urements to estimate formation lithology and porosity.
All these crossplots have the same general format: one
measurement is displayed along the x-axis, and anoth-
er is displayed along the y-axis. The measurements are
either in porosity units referenced to limestone or, in
the case of density and sonic logs, they can be in the
original measurement units (ρb in g/cm3 or Kg/m3 for
the density, and ∆t in µsec/ft or µsec/m for the sonic).
Superimposed on the plot (as an overlay) are pure
lithology lines, usually sandstone, limestone, and
dolomite. Porosity is indicated along each of these
lines. See Figure 4.11 as an example.
In the interpretation, the values of the two meas-
urements of interest are plotted on the crossplot. The
intersection of those values on the plot determines
both the porosity and the lithology of the point. If the
point lies between two lithology lines, the lithology is
taken as a mixture of those two lithologies (with the
dominant lithology being that of the line closest to the
point). The porosity is estimated by joining points of
equal porosity on the two lithology lines and interpo-
lating between the lines of equal porosity. Figure 4.11
illustrates the interpretive process.
It should be noted that not all interpretations are
unique. In fact, the data often plot in such a way that
there are two possible lithology pairs, and the decision
of which to chose lies with the interpreter’s knowledge
of the area (or the application of other data). In some
plots, as noted below and shown in the accompanying
figures, the choice of lithologic pair significantly
affects the predicted porosity value.
Other minerals can also be plotted on the crossplot,
as distinct points (rather than lines indicating varying
porosity). Figure 4.11 shows the location of halite and
anhydrite. Log values for other pure minerals are
available in the log interpretation chartbooks provided
by most well log (wireline and MWD) acquisition
companies. Although the existence of pure (and thick)
beds of some minerals is very rare, the location of the
mineral point on the crossplot (and the shift of the data
toward that point) may sometimes give some indica-
tion that the mineral is present in the formation of
interest.
Table 4.4 details the advantages and limitations of
each of the four crossplots. The crossplots are listed in
the order of preference of use, from top to bottom.
Figures 4.11 to 4.14 and Tables 4.13 to 4.15 illus-
trate the determination of porosity and lithology using
the first three crossplot techniques in Table 4.4.
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44 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Table 4.4. Comparison of porosity crossplots (in order of preference of use)

Crossplot Advantages Limitations

Neutron Density Given two possible lithology pair solutions, In rough holes or in heavy drilling muds,
(Figure 4.11) the porosity remains relatively invariant the density data might be invalid.
between solutions.
The combination of neutron and density is
the most common of all porosity tool
pairs.
Neutron Sonic Given two possible lithology pair solutions, The combination of sonic and neutron
(Figure 4.12) the porosity remains relatively invariant data (without the density) is not common.
between solutions.
The sonic is less sensitive to rough holes than
the density.
Spectral Density Both measurements are made with the The choice of lithology pair will have a
(bulk density-Pe) same logging tool; both will be available significant effect of the estimation of
(Figure 4.13) in newer wells. porosity. In rough holes or in heavy
drilling mud, the data may be invalid. The
Pe measurement will not be present in
wells logged before about 1978.

Sonic Density Best for identifying radioactive reservoirs,
(Figure 4.14) rather than predicting lithology and
porosity:
Potential reservoirs plot along the closely
spaced lithology lines while shales tend to
fall toward the lower right of the plot.
This can indicate the presence of radioactive
reservoirs which are intermingled with
shales (which tend to have high radioactivity).
The choice of lithology pair has a
significant effect on the estimation of
porosity.
The lithology lines are closely spaced, so
any uncertainty in the measurements
produces large changes in the lithology
and porosity estimates.

Extending the Crossplot Technique M-N Lithology Plots

Given that the use of two porosity measurements This technique is the oldest of the three-measure-
can lead to the prediction of a more lithologically ment lithology techniques, and was based on combin-
complex subsurface (i.e., the formation described as a ing the three porosity measurements in such a way so
two-mineral mixture), the natural extension is to use that two quantities could be used in a crossplot. The
three measurements to estimate a ternary mixture. two calculated quantities are:
There are two different techniques, with one having
two variations. Both techniques are more concerned
with determining lithology than with determining
porosity, the porosity having been determined from 4.9
the previous two-measurement crossplots (usually the
neutron-density).
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Porosity Logs 45

Table 4.5. Values to be used with the chart in Figure 4.2 to determine the sonic porosity, SPHI.

Raw Data SPHI (Wyllie) SPHI (RHG) DPHI NPHI

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Dolo Sand
11,508 51
11,522 47

11,545 57
11,560 48

11,593 50
11,615 51
11,631 67
11,645 52
11,655 57
11,665 52
11,696 50

Table 4.6. Determination of sonic porosity by two methods.

Raw Data SPHI (Wyllie) SPHI (RHG) DPHI NPHI

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Dolo Sand
11,508 51 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.110
11,522 47 0.000 0.025 0.000 0.060

11,545 57 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170

11,560 48 0.005 0.031 0.010 0.073

11,593 50 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098

11,615 51 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.010
11,631 67 0.138 0.163 0.203 0.235
11,645 52 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122
11,655 57 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170
11,665 52 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122
11,696 50 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098
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46 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Table 4.7. Values to be used with the chart in Figure 4.4 to determine the density porosity, DPHI.

Raw Data SPHI (Wyllie) SPHI (RHG) DPHI NPHI

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Dolo Sand
11,508 51 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.110
11,522 47 2.75 0.000 0.025 0.000 0.060

11,545 57 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170

11,560 48 0.005 0.031 0.010 0.073

11,593 50 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098

11,615 51 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.010
11,631 67 2.50 0.138 0.163 0.203 0.235
11,645 52 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122
11,655 57 2.64 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170
11,665 52 2.68 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122
11,696 50 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098

Table 4.8. Determination of density porosity.

Raw Data SPHI (Wyllie) SPHI (RHG) DPHI NPHI

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Dolo Sand
11,508 51 2.73 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.110 -0.013 0.078
11,522 47 2.75 0.000 0.025 0.000 0.060 -0.022 0.068

11,545 57 2.67 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170 0.022 0.110

11,560 48 2.96 0.005 0.031 0.010 0.073 <0 <0

11,593 50 2.70 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098 0.005 0.095

11,615 51 2.97 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.010 <0 <0
11,631 67 2.50 0.138 0.163 0.203 0.235 0.125 0.200
11,645 52 2.82 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122 <0 0.030
11,655 57 2.64 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170 0.042 0.125
11,665 52 2.68 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122 0.020 0.105
11,696 50 2.76 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098 -0.028 0.063
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Porosity Logs 47

Table 4.9. Values will be used with the chart in Figure 4.4 to determine the neutron porosity, NPHI, referenced to other lithologies (dolomite and sandstone).

Raw Data SPHI (Wyllie) SPHI (RHG) DPHI NPHI

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Dolo Sand
11,508 51 2.73 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.110 -0.013 0.078
11,522 47 2.75 0.090 0.000 0.025 0.000 0.060 -0.022 0.068

11,545 57 2.67 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170 0.022 0.110

11,560 48 2.96 0.005 0.031 0.010 0.073 <0 <0

11,593 50 2.70 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098 0.005 0.095

11,615 51 2.97 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.010 <0 <0
11,631 67 2.50 0.290 0.138 0.163 0.203 0.235 0.125 0.200
11,645 52 2.82 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122 <0 0.030
11,655 57 2.64 0.160 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170 0.042 0.125
11,665 52 2.68 0.010 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122 0.020 0.105
11,696 50 2.76 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098 -0.028 0.063

Table 4.10. Lithology conversions for the neutron log.

Raw Data SPHI (Wyllie) SPHI (RHG) DPHI NPHI

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Lime Dolo Dolo Sand
11,508 51 2.73 0.005 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.110 -0.013 0.078 <0 0.015
11,522 47 2.75 0.090 0.000 0.025 0.000 0.060 -0.022 0.068 0.070 0.140

11,545 57 2.67 0.130 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170 0.022 0.110 0.105 0.185
11,560 48 2.96 -0.010 0.005 0.031 0.010 0.073 <0 <0 <0 <0

11,593 50 2.70 0.000 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098 0.005 0.095 <0 0.015
11,615 51 2.97 -0.010 0.024 0.051 0.053 0.010 <0 <0 <0 <0
11,631 67 2.50 0.290 0.138 0.163 0.203 0.235 0.125 0.200 0.250 0.365
11,645 52 2.82 0.140 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122 <0 0.030 0.115 0.200
11,655 57 2.64 0.160 0.067 0.092 0.125 0.170 0.042 0.125 0.135 0.220
11,665 52 2.68 0.010 0.032 0.059 0.070 0.122 0.020 0.105 <0 0.030
11,696 50 2.76 0.010 0.017 0.045 0.040 0.098 <0 0.063 <0 0.030
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48 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Table 4.11. Differences in neutron porosity using correct and incorrect charts for the specific neutron tool.

NPHI NPHI
Zone Log Values (incorrect chart for (incorrect chart for
the example data) the example data)
Depth NPHI RHOB DT dolo sand dolo sand
11,508
11,631 0.29 2.50 67 0.250 0.365 0.210 0.335
11,645
11,655 0.16 2.64 57 0.135 0.220 0.080 0.210
11,665 0.01 2.68 52 <0 0.030 <0 0.040
11,696

Table 4.12. Lithology determination on the data from the intervals in Figure 4.5, using the curve patterns in Figure 4.8.

Raw Data ND Quicklook

Depth Zone range
RHOB DPHI PE NPHI Lithology
11,508 11,490-11,518 2.73 -0.013 5.0 0.005 Limestone
11,522 11,518-11,528 2.75 -0.022 3.2 0.090 Dolomite
11,528-11,543 Dolomite w/anhydrite
11,545 11,543-11,546 2.67 0.020 3.7 0.130 Dolomite
11,560 11,546-11,570 2.96 <0 4.8 -0.010 Anhydrite
11,570-11,580 Dolomite (w/anhydrite?)
11,593 11,580-11,598 2.70 0.005 5.6 0.000 Limestone
11,615 11,598-11,625 2.97 <0 5.1 -0.010 Anhydrite
11,631 11,625-11,641 2.50 0.125 3.8 0.290 Dolomite
11,645 11,641-11,649 2.82 <0 3.5 0.140 Dolomite (w/anhydrite?)
11,655 11,649-11,659 2.64 0.042 3.5 0.160 Dolomite
11,665 11,659-11,680 2.68 0.020 5.5 0.010 Limestone
11,696 > 11680 2.76 -0.028 5.1 0.010 Limestone w/anhydrite

φNfl = neutron porosity of the fluid of the formation

4.10 (usually = 1.0)
Figure 4.15 shows the resulting plot. As in the two-
where: mineral crossplots, a number of common mineral
∆t = interval transit time in the formation (from the points are plotted. For the common minerals (litholo-
log) gies) of interest (quartz [sandstone], calcite [lime-
∆tfl = interval transit time in the fluid in the forma- stone], and dolomite), each mineral is associated with
tion a group of points. The open and closed circles con-
ρb = formation bulk density (from the log) nected by dashed lines indicate the location of the
point in freshwater and saltwater muds, respectively.
ρfl = fluid density The groups of these connected points indicate ranges
φN = neutron porosity (in limestone units, from the in porosity.
log)
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Porosity Logs 49

Table 4.13. Log values from Figures 4.1, 4.3, and 4.5, used to determine porosity and lithology.

Raw Data Neutron-Density Crossplot

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI Lithology PhiND
11,508 51 2.73 5.0 0.005 Limestone 0.000
11,522 47 2.75 3.2 0.090 Dolomite 0.070

11,545 57 2.67 3.7 0.130 Dolomite 0.110

11,560 48 2.96 4.8 -0.010 Anhydrite 0.000

11,593 50 2.70 5.6 0.000 Limestone 0.000

11,615 51 2.97 5.1 -0.010 Anhydrite 0.000
11,631 67 2.50 3.8 0.290 Dolomite (w/anhydrite?) 0.230
11,645 52 2.82 3.5 0.140 Dolomite (w/anhydrite?) 0.100
11,655 57 2.64 3.5 0.160 Dolomite 0.130
11,665 52 2.68 5.5 0.010 Limestone 0.010
11,696 50 2.76 5.1 0.010 Dolomitic limestone 0.005

Table 4.14. Log values from Figures 4.1, 4.3, and 4.5, used to determine porosity and lithology.

Raw Data Neutron-Sonic Crossplot

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI Lithology PhiNS
11,508 51 2.73 5.0 0.005 Sandy limestone 0.000
11,522 47 2.75 3.2 0.090 Dolomite 0.070

11,545 57 2.67 3.7 0.130 Limestone 0.130

11,560 48 2.96 4.8 -0.010 Anhydrite 0.000

11,593 50 2.70 5.6 0.000 Limestone 0.010

11,615 51 2.97 5.1 -0.010 Anhydrite? 0.000
11,631 67 2.50 3.8 0.290 Dolomite 0.240
11,645 52 2.82 3.5 0.140 Dolomite 0.120
11,655 57 2.64 3.5 0.160 Limy dolomite 0.145
11,665 52 2.68 5.5 0.010 Sandy limestone 0.020
11,696 50 2.76 5.1 0.010 Sandy limestone 0.010
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50 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Table 4.15. Log values from Figures 4.1, 4.3, and 4.5, used to determine porosity and lithology.

Raw Data Spectral Density Crossplot

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI Lithology PhiSpD
11,508 51 2.73 5.0 0.005 Limestone (w/anhydrite?) 0.000
11,522 47 2.75 3.2 0.090 Dolomite 0.060

11,545 57 2.67 3.7 0.130 Limy dolomite 0.080

11,560 48 2.96 4.8 -0.010 Anhydrite 0.000

11,593 50 2.70 5.6 0.000 Limestone 0.000

11,615 51 2.97 5.1 -0.010 Anhydrite 0.000
11,631 67 2.50 3.8 0.290 Limy dolomite 0.160
11,645 52 2.82 3.5 0.140 Limy dolomite 0.010
11,655 57 2.64 3.5 0.160 Limy dolomite 0.100
11,665 52 2.68 5.5 0.010 Limestone 0.010
11,696 50 2.76 5.1 0.010 Limestone (w/anhydrite?) 0.000

Data plotted on this crossplot show the following Mineral-identification Plots

patterns: For a single pure mineralogy, the data plot
around the point representing that mineralogy. For
binary mineral systems, the data plot along a line con-
necting the two mineralogical members, with the loca-
tion of the points along the line indicative of the min-
eral mixture of each point. For ternary systems, the
data plot in a triangle with the three member miner-
alogies as the vertices of the triangle, and with the
location of each data point in the triangle indicative of
the mineral mixture of that point. Note that porosity is
not predicted from this plot but is determined from the
earlier two-component crossplots.
Although two common mineral triangles are usual-
ly used as examples (either quartz/calcite/dolomite or
calcite/dolomite/anhydrite), any three minerals that
plot uniquely on the crossplot can be used. One need
not see data clustered around a particular mineral end-
point to sense the presence of a mineral. The presence
of small amounts of a mineral tend to draw the data
away from the primary mineral (or mineral mixture)
and toward the secondary mineral endpoint.
Table 4.16 shows the calculation of M and N values
and the resulting lithology estimations from Figure
4.15.
These plots rely on the calculation of apparent
matrix values as crossplot parameters. The apparent
matrix values are determined (when done graphically)
through what are essentially crossplots, created to
emphasize matrix values rather than porosity. Appar-
ent matrix density (ρmaa) is determined from an equiv-
alent of the neutron-density crossplot and is shown in
Figure 4.16. Apparent matrix travel time (∆tmaa) is
determined from an equivalent of the neutron-sonic
crossplot and is shown in Figure 4.17. The calculation
of apparent matrix values (Western Atlas, 1995) is:
4.11
4.12
where:
ρb = bulk density (from the log)
ρfl = fluid density
φND = neutron-density crossplot porosity
∆t = interval transit time (from the log)
∆tfl = fluid transit time
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Porosity Logs 51

Table 4.16. Log values from Figures 4.1, 4.3, and 4.5, lists of values of M and N calculated from the equations above, and lithology estimates from the M-N crossplot.

Raw Data M-N Lithology Plot

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI M N Lithology
11,508 51 2.73 5.0 0.005 0.798 0.578 Limestone (w/anhydrite?)
11,522 47 2.75 3.2 0.090 0.811 0.520 Dolomite

11,545 57 2.67 3.7 0.130 0.790 0.521 Dolomite

11,560 48 2.96 4.8 -0.010 0.719 0.515 Anhydrite

11,593 50 2.70 5.6 0.000 0.818 0.588 Limestone

11,615 51 2.97 5.1 -0.010 0.701 0.513 Anhydrite
11,631 67 2.50 3.8 0.290 0.813 0.473 Limy dolomite
11,645 52 2.82 3.5 0.140 0.753 0.473 Dolomite
11,655 57 2.64 3.5 0.160 0.805 0.512 Limy dolomite
11,665 52 2.68 5.5 0.010 0.815 0.589 Limestone
11,696 50 2.76 5.1 0.010 0.790 0.563 Dolomite

φNS = neutron-sonic crossplot porosity
The neutron and density data (through the neutron-
density crossplot) produce an apparent matrix density
(as well as a neutron-density crossplot porosity), and
the neutron and sonic data (through the neutron-sonic
crossplot) produce an apparent matrix travel time (as
well as a neutron-sonic crossplot porosity).
These two apparent matrix values are then applied
to a crossplot (Figure 4.18). In Figure 4.18, the three
common lithologies, highlighted in the previous cross-
plots, occur on the plot as points which are connected
to form a triangle. The location of the point on the plot,
with respect to that mineral triangle, indicates the rel-
ative lithologic mixture. In practice, any three miner-
als that have unique values (with respect to each other)
can be used as endpoints in a mineral triangle (e.g., a
calcite, dolomite, and anhydrite choice is common in a
known carbonate area). As with the M-N plot
described previously, data from a single pure mineral-
ogy plot around the point representing that mineralo-
gy. For binary mineral systems, the data plot along a
line connecting the two mineralogical members, with
the location of the points along the line indicative of
the mineral mixture of each point. Note that porosity is
not predicted from this plot, but is determined from the
earlier two-component crossplots.
Figures 4.16 and 4.17 and Tables 4.17 and 4.18
show the calculation of apparent matrix values. Figure
4.18 and Table 4.19 show the application of those
apparent matrix values to determine lithology.
A variation on this technique was developed with
the advent of the Pe curve on the more recent density
logs. Using the Pe curve, the bulk-density curve, and
the neutron porosity another matrix parameter, appar-
ent matrix volumetric photoelectric factor (Umaa), can
be determined (as shown in Figure 4.19), or its value
can be calculated from (Western Atlas, 1995):
4.13
where:
Ufl = fluid volumetric cross section (0.398
barns/cm3 for fresh water, 1.36 barns/cm3 for salt
water)
φND = porosity from the neutron-density crossplot
This apparent matrix crossplot then uses apparent
matrix density, ρmaa, and apparent matrix volumetric
cross section, Umaa, to determine formation lithology
(Figure 4.20). As with the ρmaa–∆tmaa crossplot, the
three common lithologies are connected in a mineral
triangle, but any three unique mineralogies can be
used to estimate a three-mineral solution.
Figures 4.16 and 4.19, and Tables 4.17 and 4.20
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52 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Table 4.17. Log values from Figures 4.1, 4.3, and 4.5, and a list of values of apparent matrix density determined from the crossplot.

Raw Data Apparent Matrix Values MID Plot

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI DTmaa Rhomaa Umaa Lithology
11,508 51 2.73 5.0 0.005 2.74
11,522 47 2.75 3.2 0.090 2.89

11,545 57 2.67 3.7 0.130 2.88

11,560 48 2.96 4.8 -0.010 2.97

11,593 50 2.70 5.6 0.000 2.70

11,615 51 2.97 5.1 -0.010 2.99
11,631 67 2.50 3.8 0.290 3.07
11,645 52 2.82 3.5 0.140 3.15
11,655 57 2.64 3.5 0.160 2.91
11,665 52 2.68 5.5 0.010 2.70
11,696 50 2.76 5.1 0.010 2.77

Table 4.18. Log values from Figures 4.1, 4.3, and 4.5, and a list values of apparent matrix transit time determined from the crossplot.

Raw Data Apparent Matrix Values MID Plot

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI DTmaa Rhomaa Umaa Lithology
11,508 51 2.73 5.0 0.005 51.0 2.74
11,522 47 2.75 3.2 0.090 43.0 2.89

11,545 57 2.67 3.7 0.130 47.5 2.88

11,560 48 2.96 4.8 -0.010 48.0 2.97

11,593 50 2.70 5.6 0.000 50.0 2.70

11,615 51 2.97 5.1 -0.010 52.0 2.99
11,631 67 2.50 3.8 0.290 43.0 3.07
11,645 52 2.82 3.5 0.140 44.0 3.15
11,655 57 2.64 3.5 0.160 45.5 2.91
11,665 52 2.68 5.5 0.010 51.0 2.70
11,696 50 2.76 5.1 0.010 49.5 2.77
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Porosity Logs 53

Table 4.19. Log values from Figures 4.1, 4.3, and 4.5, apparent matrix values from Figures 4.16 and 4.17, and a list of the estimates of lithology determined from the crossplot.

Raw Data Apparent Matrix Values NDS MID Plot

Depth
DT RHOB PE NPHI DTmaa Rhomaa Umaa Lithology
11,508 51 2.73 5.0 0.005 51.0 2.74 Dolomitic sand
11,522 47 2.75 3.2 0.090 43.0 2.89 Dolomite

11,545 57 2.67 3.7 0.130 47.5 2.88 Dolomite (w/anhydrite?)

11,560 48 2.96 4.8 -0.010 48.0 2.97 Anhydrite

11,593 50 2.70 5.6 0.000 50.0 2.70 Sandy limestone

11,615 51 2.97 5.1 -0.010 52.0 2.99 Anhydrite
11,631 67 2.50 3.8 0.290 43.0 3.07 Dolomite?
11,645 52 2.82 3.5 0.140 44.0 3.15 off chart
11,655 57 2.64 3.5 0.160 45.5 2.91 Dolomite
11,665 52 2.68 5.5 0.010 51.0 2.70 Sandy limestone (w/dolomite?)
11,696 50 2.76 5.1 0.010 49.5 2.77 Sandy dolomite

Table 4.20. Log values from Figures 4.1, 4.3, and 4.5, and a list of values of apparent matrix transit time determined from the crossplot.

Raw Data Apparent Matrix Values MID Plot

Depth PhiND
DT RHOB PE NPHI DTmaa Rhomaa Umaa Lithology
11,508 51 2.73 5.0 0.000 0.000 51.0 2.74 13.7
11,522 47 2.75 3.2 0.090 0.070 43.0 2.89 9.2

11,545 57 2.67 3.7 0.130 0.110 47.5 2.88 11.2

11,560 48 2.96 4.8 -0.010 0.000 48.0 2.97 14.3

11,593 50 2.70 5.6 0.000 0.000 50.0 2.70 15.2

11,615 51 2.97 5.1 -0.010 0.000 52.0 2.99 15.3
11,631 67 2.50 3.8 0.290 0.230 43.0 3.07 12.4
11,645 52 2.82 3.5 0.140 0.100 44.0 3.15 11.1
11,655 57 2.64 3.5 0.160 0.130 45.5 2.91 10.7
11,665 52 2.68 5.5 0.010 0.010 51.0 2.70 15.0
11,696 50 2.76 5.1 0.010 0.005 49.5 2.77 14.5
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54 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Table 4.21. Log values from Figures 4.1, 4.3, and 4.5, apparent matrix values from Figures 4.16 and 4.19, and a list of the estimates of lithology determined from the crossplot.

Raw Data Apparent Matrix Values MID Plot

Depth PhiND
DT RHOB PE NPHI DTmaa Rhomaa Umaa Lithology
11,508 51 2.73 5.0 0.005 0.000 51.0 2.74 13.7 Limestone
11,522 47 2.75 3.2 0.090 0.070 43.0 2.89 9.2 Dolomite

11,545 57 2.67 3.7 0.130 0.110 47.5 2.88 11.2 Dolomite w/limestone
and anhydrite
11,560 48 2.96 4.8 -0.010 0.000 48.0 2.97 14.3 Anhydrite

11,593 50 2.70 5.6 0.000 0.000 50.0 2.70 15.2 Limestone

11,615 51 2.97 5.1 -0.010 0.000 52.0 2.99 15.3 Anhydrite
11,631 67 2.50 3.8 0.290 0.230 43.0 3.07 12.4 ???
11,645 52 2.82 3.5 0.140 0.100 44.0 3.15 11.1 ???
11,655 57 2.64 3.5 0.160 0.130 45.5 2.91 10.7 Dolomite w/anhydrite
11,665 52 2.68 5.5 0.010 0.010 51.0 2.70 15.0 Limestone
11,696 50 2.76 5.1 0.010 0.005 49.5 2.77 14.5 Limestone w/anhydrite?

show the calculation of apparent matrix values. Figure
4.20 and Table 4.21 show the application of those
apparent matrix values to determine lithology.
Beyond the three-mineral model
For more complex mineralogical solutions, the use
of other log measurements is required. These tech-
niques go beyond the crossplotting techniques dis-
cussed here. Some techniques are deterministic in
nature (as are the crossplot techniques) but rely on
iterative computational techniques for a solution.
Other techniques rely on the use of statistical tech-
niques to estimate the most likely solution.
Figure 4.21 is an example of a deterministic solu-
tion. In this case, shale volume is calculated independ-
ently (the gamma ray was used for this example) and
was used as one of the input curves. With the addi-
tional inputs of interval transit time, neutron porosity,
bulk density, and Pe, the software solved for four min-
erals (beyond the shale volume): calcite, dolomite,
anhydrite, and quartz. In the figure, porosity and fluid
saturations (from the deep resistivity log) were also
determined and are shown incorporated into the same
display.
Implications for Correlation and Mapping
Standard correlation (and mapping) practices use
the raw logs (gamma ray, resistivity, etc.) to trace for-
mation boundaries in the subsurface. With the exis-
tence of software that can easily and quickly estimate
formation lithologies and porosities, the correlation
process might be better served (and be more accurate)
if correlations were made on the actual quantities of
interest (like lithology), instead of on the raw logs,
many of which respond to multiple properties of the
formations in the subsurface.
This section summarizes the crossplot methods
previously discussed.
CONSISTENCY IN LITHOLOGY PREDICTION
Seven methods to determine lithology have been
covered in this chapter. One is based on pattern recog-
nition (quick-look neutron-density), three on the
simultaneous use of two porosity tools, and three on
the simultaneous use of three porosity tools. Table
4.22 compares the lithology prediction results of these
methods. With some exceptions, the results are fairly
consistent, but they are not identical. The variation in
the results has many sources. Borehole conditions may
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Porosity Logs 55

Table 4.22: Comparison of lithology estimation from the various crossplot methods.

Lithology
Neutron- Neutron-
Zone Neutron- Neutron- Neutron- Spectral- Density- Spectral-
Depth range Density Density Sonic Density M-N Sonic Density
Quicklook Crossplot Crossplot Crossplot Crossplot MID Plot MID Plot
11,508 11,490- Limestone Limestone Sandy Limestone Sandy Dolomitic Limestone
11,518 limestone (with dolomite sand
anhydrite?)
11,522 11,518- Dolomite Dolomite Dolomite Dolomite Limy Dolomite Dolomite
11,528 dolomite
11,528- Dolomite
11,543 with
anhydrite
11,545 11,543- Dolomite Dolomite Limestone Limy Dolomite Dolomite Dolomite and
11,546 dolomite (with with limestone
anhydrite?) anhydrite
11,560 11,546- Anhydrite Anhydrite Anhydrite Anhydrite Anhydrite Anhydrite Anhydrite
11,570
11,570- Dolomite
11,580 (with
anhydrite?)
11,593 11,580- Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Sandy Limestone
11,598 limestone
11,615 11,598- Anhydrite Anhydrite Anhydrite? Anhydrite Anhydrite Anhydrite Anhydrite
11,625
11,631 11,625- Dolomite Dolomite Dolomite Limy Dolomite Dolomite? off chart
11,641 (with dolomite
anhydrite?)
11,645 11,641- Dolomite Dolomite Dolomite Limy Dolomite? off chart off chart
11,649 (with (with dolomite
anhydrite?) anhydrite?)
11,655 11,649- Dolomite Dolomite Limy Limy Dolomite Dolomite Dolomite
11,659 dolomite dolomite with with
anhydrite anhydrite
11,665 11,659- Limestone Limestone Sandy Limestone Dolomite Sandy Limestone
11,680 limestone limestone
(with
dolomite?)
11,696 > 11680 Limestone Dolomitic Sandy Limestone Dolomite Sandy Limestone
with limestone limestone (with dolomite (with
anhydrite anhydrite?) anhydrite?)
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56 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI
play a part in the variation, especially since, in this
case, the data were used directly from the logs with no
attempt at environmental corrections. Formation thick-
ness and, hence, the effect of adjacent beds on the
measurement in the target bed also play a part.
The variability of the formations themselves proba-
bly has a more significant effect. In a geologic envi-
ronment like this one (Figure 4.21), it can be expected
that the lithologies encountered are not always pure.
The response of the individual measurements to that
mixture vary between measurements and contribute to
the variation seen here.
The results of the crossplots, while not wildly vari-
able, underscores the need for other data, in this case,
samples of the formations themselves. Cores through
the section would be ideal, but their cost would prob-
ably be prohibitive. Cuttings samples would be a good
source of lithology informaton, even given the poten-
tial mixing and contamination problems. Sidewall
cores, either in this well (if the log analysis could be
completed quickly) or in subsequent wells in zones
with questionable predicted lithology, would help to
reconcile the results shown here.
REVIEW
1. The three common types of porosity logs are:
• sonic
• density
• neutron
2. The sonic log is a porosity log that measures the
interval transit time (delta t, or DT, or ∆t) of a com-
pressional sound wave through the formation. The unit
of measure is microseconds per foot (µsec/ft) or
microseconds per meter (µsec/m). Interval transit time
is related to formation porosity.
3. The density log is a porosity log that measures
the electron density of a formation. The formation’s
electron density is related to a formation’s bulk densi-
ty (RHOB or ρb). Bulk density is measured in g/cm3 or
Kg/m3. Bulk density, in turn, can be related to forma-
tion porosity.
4. Density logs made since about 1980 also have a
photoelectric curve (Pe, PE, or PEF) that responds pri-
marily to formation lithology and is affected in only a
minor way by porosity and the type of fluids in the
pore space.
5. The neutron log is a porosity log that measures
the hydrogen concentration in a formation. In shale-
free formations where porosity is filled with water, the
neutron log can be related to water-filled porosity
(PHIN, or NPHI, or φN).
6. In gas reservoirs, the neutron log records a lower
porosity than the formation’s true porosity because gas
has a lower hydrogen concentration than oil or water
(gas effect).
7. The neutron-density combination is the most
widely used porosity measurement combination.
Porosity, adjusted for lithology, can be determined
from the neutron-density combination either by a
crossplot chart or by formula.
8. Additional uses of the neutron-density combina-
tion are:
• detection of gas bearing zones
• determination of lithology
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Porosity Logs 57

Figure 4.1. Example sonic log with

gamma ray log and caliper.
This example is shown to illustrate a
common presentation format for sonic logs,
and to be used in determining a porosity
(SPHI) from interval transit time (DT) in
Figure 4.2.
Track 1: This track includes both the
gamma ray (GR) and caliper (CALI) curves.
Note that the gamma ray scale reads from
0 to 100 API units, increasing from left to
right in increments of 10 units. The gamma
ray curve is represented by a long-dashed
line.
The caliper scale ranges from 6 to 16
inches from left to right in one-inch
increments, and the curve is represented by
a short-dashed line.
Tracks 2 and 3: Both the interval transit
time (DT) scale and the porosity (SPHI)
scales are shown in these tracks. Sonic log
interval transit time (DT) is represented by
a solid line, on a scale ranging from 140
to 40 µsec/ft increasing from right to left.
The sonic porosity measurement (calculated
using a limestone matrix value, 47.6
µsec/ft) is shown by a long dashed line
on a scale ranging from –0.10 to 0.30
(–10% to 30%) increasing from right to
left.
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58 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Courtesy Halliburton Energy Services, ©1994 Halliburton Energy Services

Figure 4.2. Chart for converting interval transit time (∆t) to sonic porosity (φS).
Procedure:
1. Find the interval transit time (DT) taken from the sonic log in Figure 4.1 on the scale at the bottom of the chart.
2. To calculate sonic limestone porosity using the Wyllie time-average equation (labeled “Time Average”), follow the DT value vertically until it intersects the calcite line, then move
horizontally to intersect the y-axis and read the porosity value.
3. To calculate sonic dolomite porosity using the Wyllie time-average equation, follow the procedure in step 2 above, except intersect the dolomite line instead of the calcite line.
4. To calculate sonic limestone porosity using the Raymer-Hunt-Gardner (RHG) equation (curved lines, labeled “Empirical”), follow the DT value vertically until it intersects the curved calcite
line, then move horizontally to intersect the y-axis and read the porosity value.
5. To calculate sonic dolomite porosity using the Raymer-Hunt-Gardner (RHG) equation, follow the procedure in step 4 above, except intersect the curved dolomite line instead of the curved
calcite line.
NOTE: While the values in Table 4.6 are in decimal, the porosity values on the chart are in percent.
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Porosity Logs 59

Figure 4.3. Example density log with

gamma ray and caliper.
This example is shown to illustrate a
common presentation format for a density
log, and to be used in determining a
porosity (DPHI) from bulk density (RHOB)
in Figure 4.4.
Track 1: This track includes both the
gamma ray (GR) and caliper (CALI) curves.
Both scales increase from left to right. The
gamma ray values range from 0 to 100
API gamma ray units, and the caliper
measures the borehole diameter from 6
to 16 inches.
Track 2: The density log correction curve
(DRHO) ranges in value from –0.05
g/cm3 to +0.45 g/cm3 in increments of
0.05 g/cm3. It is shown as a light, dashed
line. The photoelectric effect curve (PEF)
ranges from 0 to 10 b/e and is shown as
a heavy, dashed line. (The dashes on the
PEF curve are longer than those on the
DRHO curve.)
Tracks 2 and 3: The bulk-density (RHOB)
scale ranges in value from 2.0 g/cm3 to
3.0 g/cm3 and the curve is a solid line.
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60 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Courtesy Halliburton Energy Services, ©1994 Halliburton Energy Services

Figure 4.4. Chart for converting bulk density (ρb, RHOB) to density porosity (φD, DPHI).
Procedure:
1. Find the bulk density (RHOB) taken from the density log in Figure 4.3 on the scale at the bottom of the chart. Note that the scale is displayed from high values on the left to low values
on the right.
2. Follow the RHOB value vertically until it intersects the proper matrix line [calcite (limestone) or dolomite] then move horizontally to intersect the y-axis representing the proper fluid
density, in this case 1.00 g/cm3 (fresh water, the middle scale) to read the porosity (DPHI).
NOTE: The values in Table 4.8 are decimal fractions, the porosity values on the chart are in percent.
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Porosity Logs 61

Figure 4.5. Example combination

neutron density log with gamma ray and
caliper.
This example is shown to illustrate a
common presentation format for a neutron
density combination, to be used in applying
a lithology conversion to the neutron
porosity in Figure 4.6, and in determining
lithology and crossplot porosity from the
neutron-density crossplot in Figure 4.8.
Track 1: This track contains both gamma
ray (GR) and caliper (CALI). Note that the
gamma ray scale reads from 0 to 100 API
units and the caliper measures a borehole
size from 6 to 16 inches.
Track 2: The photoelectric effect (PEF) is
displayed from 0 to 10 b/e. The density
correction (DRHO) is displayed from –0.05
to +0.45 g/cm3.
Tracks 2 and 3: Both neutron porosity
(NPHI) and density porosity (DPHI) are
plotted across tracks 2 and 3. The scale for
both is the same, ranging from –0.10
(–10%) to 0.30 (+30%), and is
expressed in limestone porosity units.
On this log the density porosity (DPHI) is
represented by a solid line, and the neutron
porosity (NPHI) is represented by a dashed
line.
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62 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Figure 4.6. Chart for correcting Halliburton DSN-II neutron-

porosity curve for lithology.
NOTE: For neutron logs, the chart used to correct the logged
porosity for lithology MUST correspond to the type of neutron log
run, and the company used to acquire the log data. A mismatch
between the actual log used and the chart used for the
conversion can lead to significant errors in the determination of
lithology.
Procedure:
1. Find the neutron porosity (NPHI) taken from the neutron
density log in Figure 4.2 on the scale at the bottom of the
chart. The original neutron log data is referenced to
limestone lithology.
2. Follow the NPHI value vertically until it intersects the
proper matrix line (Dolomite or Sandstone) then move
horizontally to intersect the y-axis the porosity, NPHI. Use the
smallest value Σma for each lithology to do the calculations.
NOTE: The values in the table are decimal fractions, but the
porosity values on the chart are in percent.

Courtesy Halliburton Energy Services, ©1994 Halliburton Energy Services

Figure 4.7. Chart for correcting Schlumberger CNL thermal-neutron

curves (NPHI and TNPH ) for lithology.
NOTE: For neutron logs, the chart used to correct the logged porosity for
lithology MUST correspond to the type of neutron log run, and the
company used to acquire the log data. A mismatch between the actual
log used and the chart used for the conversion can lead to significant
errors in the determination of lithology.
In the example, the Halliburton neutron log from Figure 4.5, is corrected
using a Schlumberger chart (NPHI curves). Note the difference in porosity
results between the charts.

Courtesy Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, ©1998 Schlumberger

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Porosity Logs 63

Figure 4.8. Example of the

generalized lithologic response of the
neutron and density logs, used as a
quick-look lithology technique.
The gamma ray (GR) and photoelectric
effect (PEF) are provided for additional
information.
Procedure:
The neutron-porosity and density-
porosity curves are scanned for their
relationship to each other and for
their values. The relative position of
the curves is an indicator of the
lithology encountered, and the
average of the two curves at any
depth is a good approximation of the
porosity (within two porosity units).
The gamma ray may be used to
distinguish ambiguous patterns, like
shale and dolomite patterns.
The photoelectric effect may be used
to distinguish ambiguous patterns
(sandy limestone from dolomitic
sand) or to confirm the neutron-
density interpretation.
Assumptions:
• There is liquid in the pore space,
either water or oil but not gas.
• The formations encountered do
not contain clay (except for the
shale).
• Both porosity curves are
referenced to limestone.
Note the lithology interpretations listed
on the log.
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64 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Figure 4.9. Example of the generalized lithologic response of the neutron and density logs, used as a quick-look lithology technique. This example is primarily for
showing log response in shaly formations, and when the porosity curves are referenced to sandstone.
Procedure:
The neutron-porosity and density-porosity curves are scanned for their relationship to each other, and for their values. The relative position of the curves is an indicator
of the lithology encountered.
Assumptions:
• There is liquid in the pore space, either water or oil, but not gas, except in the intervals where noted.
• The formations encountered do not contain clay (except in the intervals where noted).
• The density and neutron-porosity curves (PHID and PHIN) are referenced to sandstone. PHIE is the effective porosity, calculated from PHIN and PHID.
The Interpretation:
The neutron and density measurements depend on the amount of clay present in the formation and the physical properties of that clay. In general, the presence of clay in
a liquid-filled formation causes the neutron log to read higher than actual porosity, while the density log reads lower than actual porosity. In a liquid-filled sandstone
(when the measurements are referenced to sandstone), the curves separate with the neutron higher than the density.
Gas in the formation drives the neutron value lower than actual porosity and the density value slightly higher than actual porosity, resulting in the neutron log reading
lower than the density log, the classic crossover response.
With both gas and clays in the formation, the response is not fully predictable because the two effects simultaneously work in opposite ways on both measurements. In
very shaly formations with low to medium gas saturations, the presence of gas may be noted only by a decrease in the crossover effect. In formations with medium gas
saturations and small amounts of shale, there may be no noticeable gas effect, with the curves at approximately the same values.
The illustration here is but one of many possible examples of the log responses in shaly gas-bearing formations.
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Porosity Logs 65

Figure 4.10. An example of neutron and density porosity response in a gas zone.
The interval from 14,601 ft to 14,624 ft shows the (low) gamma ray response of a reservoir and the neutron-density crossover (NPHI < DPHI) of a gas-bearing
zone. The neutron- and density-porosity curves are referenced to the lithology of the zone.
NOTE: Curves recorded in apparent limestone units show a false crossover in a sandstone, because of the lithologic effect.
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66 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Figure 4.11. Neutron-density crossplot.

Lithology and porosity can be determined
from the neutron-density crossplot.
Procedure:
1. The point is located on the plot from
the intersection of the neutron and density
(limestone) values. Density may be bulk
density (left axis of chart) or density
porosity (right axis of chart).
2. The porosity of the point is determined
by its location relative to lines connecting
points of equal porosity on the two
lithology lines between which it is plotted.
Note that the neutron porosity (NPHI)
values in Table 4.13 are decimal fractions,
and the neutron limestone porosity values
in Figure 4.11 are in percent. A value
listed as 0.010 in the table is equal to a
value of 1% on the figure.
3. The lithology of the point is determined
by its location relative to the two lithology
lines, with the proximity to each line an
indication of the percentage of each of the
mineral pairs. Note that the lithology
determination can be ambiguous (e.g., a
point lying between the calcite and
dolomite lines also lies between the quartz
and dolomite lines). Use the smallest
value Σma for each lithology to do the
calculations.

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Porosity Logs 67

Figure 4.12. Neutron-sonic

crossplot.
Lithology and porosity can be determined
from the neutron-sonic crossplot.
Procedure:
1. The point is located on the plot
from the intersection of the neutron
and sonic values.
2. The porosity of the point is
determined by its location relative to
lines connecting points of equal
porosity on the two lithology lines
between which it is plotted. Note
that the neutron porosity (NPHI)
values in Table 4.13 are decimal
fractions, and the neutron limestone
porosity values in Figure 4.12 are in
percent. A value listed as 0.010 in
the table is equal to a value of 1%
on the figure.
3. The lithology of the point is
determined by its location relative to
the two lithology lines, with the
proximity to each line an indication of
the percentage of each of the mineral
pairs. Note that the lithology
determination can be ambiguous
(e.g., a point lying between the
calcite and dolomite lines also lies
between the quartz and dolomite
lines). For this exercise, use the
curves labeled Empirical, which are
based on the Gardner-Hunt-Raymer
equation.
Note: On this graph, anhydrite plots at
the point where neutron limestone
porosity = –1% and interval transit time
= 50 ìsec/ft.

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68 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Figure 4.13. Spectral density crossplot (bulk density and

photoelectric effect).
Lithology and porosity can be determined from the spectral-
density crossplot.
Procedure:
1.The point is located on the plot from the intersection of
the bulk-density and Pe values.
2. The porosity of the point is determined by its location
relative to lines connecting points of equal porosity on the
two lithology lines between which it is plotted.
3. The lithology of the point is determined by its location
relative to the two lithology lines, with the proximity to each
line an indication of the percentage of each of the mineral
pairs. Note that the lithology determination can be
ambiguous (e.g., a point lying between the calcite and
dolomite lines also lies between the quartz and dolomite
lines).

Courtesy Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, ©1998 Schlumberger

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Porosity Logs 69

Figure 4.14. Sonic-density

crossplot.
Although this crossplot could be used in
the same way as the previous three
crossplots, it is not usually used in that
manner. The main reason is that the
estimated porosity varies significantly
depending on the assumed mineral pair.
This plot is valuable, however, in areas
where the reservoirs are radioactive. In
the case of radioactive reservoirs, the
data points from the reservoirs plot
among the lithology lines, while shales
plot in the lower right (southeast)
quadrant of the plot, usually well away
from the lithology lines. In this case,
even though the lithology and porosity
cannot be determined without significant
uncertainty, radioactive reservoirs can be
distinguished from shales in a
straightforward manner.

Courtesy Halliburton Energy Services, ©1994 Halliburton Energy Services

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70 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Figure 4.15. M-N lithology plot.

The M-N lithology plot can be used to estimate
lithology from the combination of neutron-porosity,
bulk-density, and interval-transit time measurements.
Unlike the previous two-measurement crossplots
which required the assumption of a two-mineral
matrix, this plot allows for a three-mineral matrix
assumption. Any three minerals which have unique
M and N values can be used, although the most
common mineral triads used are calcite-quartz-
dolomite and calcite-dolomite-anhydrite.
Procedure:
1. From Equations 4.9 and 4.10 (reproduced
below), calculate M and N using the values for
freshwater mud and fresh water.

∆tfl = 189 µsec/ft for freshwater mud and

185 µsec/ft for saltwater mud
ρfl = 1.0 g/cm3 for fresh water and 1.15
g/cm3 for salt water
φNfl = 1.0
2. Plot the points on the crossplot. The relative
mineral percentages are inversely proportional to
the distance from each mineral vertex. Points
lying along a line between two minerals is
composed of those two minerals only, with none
of the third mineral present.
Note that the numbers at the dolomite and quartz
sandstone points correspond to the expected
porosity range of the formation as follows: 1: φ =
0.00 (tight formation); 2: φ = 0.00 to 0.12; 3:
φ = 0.12 to 0.27; 4: φ > 0.27.
Courtesy Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, ©1998 Schlumberger
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Porosity Logs 71

Figure 4.16. Determination of apparent

matrix density.
This value of apparent matrix density (ρmaa)
will be used in Figures 4.18 and 4.20 to
estimate the formation lithology.
Procedure:
1. The point is located on the plot at the
intersection of the bulk-density and neutron-
porosity values.
2. The apparent matrix density of the point
is determined by its location relative to the
apparent-density lines. The value can be
interpolated when the point falls between
the lines.

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72 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Figure 4.17. Determination of

apparent matrix interval transit
time.
This value of apparent matrix
interval transit time (∆tmaa) will be
used in Figure 4.18 to estimate the
formation lithology.
Procedure:
1. The point is located on the
plot from the intersection of the
interval transit time and
neutron-porosity values.
2. The apparent matrix interval
transit time of the point is
determined by its location
relative to the apparent transit
time lines. The value can be
interpolated when the point falls
between the lines.

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Porosity Logs 73

Figure 4.18. Matrix identification plot,

using neutron, sonic, and density.
This plot uses the apparent matrix values
calculated in Figures 4.16 and 4.17 to estimate
formation lithology.
Procedure:
1. Plot the points on the crossplot. The
relative mineral percentages are inversely
proportional to the distance from each
mineral vertex. Points lying along a line
between two minerals will be composed of
those two minerals only, with none of the
third mineral present.

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74 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Figure 4.19. Determination of apparent

matrix capture cross section.
This value of apparent matrix capture cross
section (Umaa) will be used in Figure 4.20 to
estimate the formation lithology.
Procedure:
1. The point is located on the plot at the
intersection of the neutron-density crossplot
porosity (shown on the chart as the
apparent total porosity, φta) and the
photoelectric factor. The photoelectric factor
on the x-axis of the plot is determined by
starting with the bulk-density value on the
scale at the bottom of the page, and
connecting a line from that point to the
value of photoelectric factor (Pe) on the
scale immediately above. That line is
extended to the x-axis of the plot, then
extended vertically until it reaches the
porosity value drawn from the y-axis.
2. The apparent photoelectric cross section
of the point is determined by its location
relative to the apparent photoelectric cross
section lines. The value can be interpolated
when the point falls between the lines.

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Porosity Logs 75

Figure 4.20. Matrix

identification plot, using neutron and
spectral density.
This plot uses the apparent matrix
values calculated in Figures 4.16 and
4.19 to estimate formation lithology.
Procedure:
1. Plot the points on the
crossplot. The relative mineral
percentages are inversely
proportional to the distance from
each mineral vertex. Points lying
along a line between two
minerals will be composed of
those two minerals only, with
none of the third mineral present.

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76 ASQUITH AND KRYGOWSKI

Figure 4.21: Lithology determined by software using a four-

mineral model of the subsurface.
This is an example of a deterministic solution. In this case, shale
volume in calculated independently (the gamma ray was used for
this example) and was used as one of the input curves. The
software solved for four mineral volumes (in addition to the shale
volume): calcite, dolomite, anhydrite, and quartz.
The mineral volumes are displayed in the following order (from left
to right):
Calcite
Dolomite
Anhydrite
Quartz
Shale
The width of the track represents the total volume of the formation,
so any distance between the right edge of the track and the last
mineral curve (shale) indicates porosity. Because the program also
calculated porosity and fluid volumes, the fluids are also
represented. The distance between the right edge of the track and
the BVW (bulk volume water) curve, filled in blue, represents the
water saturation in the formation. The area between BVW and PHIE
(effective porosity), filled in green, represents the hydrocarbon
saturation of the formation.