Wieland Alexander Worthoff, Hans Georg

Krojanski, Dieter Suter

Medical Physics

Exercises and Examples

DE GRUYTER
Contents

Preface V

Parti Physics of the Body

1 Breathing and Metabolism 3

Overview 3

1.1 Breathing 4

1.2 Human Elevation Limits 6

1.3 Oxygen Transfer in the Brain 7

1.4 Photosynthesis 9
1.5 Erythrocytes: Oxygen Transport in the Body 11

1.6 Network Theory of the Human Breathing Apparatus

1.7 Transport Phenomena at the Cell Membrane 15

1.8 Dielectric Measurement of Exocytosis Processes 18

1.9 Diffusion and Scale Qualities 20

2 Biomechanics 23

Overview 23

2.1 Achilles Tendon 25

2.2 Bone Structures of the Ulna and Radius 26

2.3 Ski Bindings 31

2.4 Elasticity of the Vertebrae 33

2.5 Lifting a Patient 38

2.6 Animal Proportions 42

2.7 Bones of Uniform Strength 44

2.8 Lifting Weights 45

3 Fluid Dynamics of the Circulatory System 47

Overview 47

3.1 From the Aorta to the Capillaries 49

3.2 The Blood as a Power Fluid 50

3.3 Branching 53

3.4 Bypass 54
3.5 Hemorheometry Using a Rotating Sphere Viscometer —

3.6 Flow Coefficients 57

3.7 Narrowing of the Aorta 59

3.8 Stepwise Narrowing of the Aorta 63

3.9 Blood Pressure in the Aorta 65

3.10 Pulsatile Blood Flow 66

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3.11 Cardiac Output 69

3.12 Mitral Valve Opening Surface 70

3.13 Dialysis 71

4 The Senses 73

Overview 73

4.1 Information Processing 77

4.2 Glasses 77

4.3 Geometry of Glasses Lenses 79

4.4 Optical Illusions 81

4.5 Retina Implantation 82

4.6 Threshold of Vision of the Human Eye 83

4.7 Visual Angle and Resolution 83

4.8 The Aphakic Eye 85

4.9 Threshold of Hearing, and Thermal Motion in Comparison

4.10 Sound Propagation 88

4.11 Loudspeakers 89

4.12 Threshold of Hearing 89

4.13 Sound Interference with Point Sources 90

4.14 Echolocation 91
4.15 Impedance Matching 91

4.16 Acoustic Pain Threshold 94

5 Electric Currents, Fields, and Potential 95

Overview 95
5.1 Nerve Conduction in the Giant Axons of Squid 97

5.2 Nerve Stimulation 98

5.3 Electrical Model of a Cell Membrane 98

5.4 Measurement of Cell Membrane Potentials 99

5.5 EKG and Cardiac Dipole 100

5.6 Electric Shock 103

6 Heat 105

Overview 105

6.1 Skiwear 106

6.2 Heat Loss 108

Part II The Physics of Diagnostics and Therapy

7 X-Ray Diagnostics and Computer Tomography 113

Overview 113

7.1 Bouguer-Lambert Law 116

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7.2 X-Ray Tubes 119

7.3 Spectrum of an X-Ray Tube 120

7.4 Intensity Attenuation 121

7.5 Contrast 121

7.6 Scattered Radiation 125

7.7 Quantum Noise of an X-Ray Image Intensifier 126

7.8 Fourier Reconstruction of an Image 127

7.9 Radon Transform of a Circular Object 129

7.10 Beam Hardening and Partial Volume Artifacts in CT 130

7.11 Modulation Transfer Function of a CT Scanner 131

8 Ultrasound 135

Overview 135

8.1 Doppler Ultrasound 138

8.2 Impedance Matching for Sound Waves 139

8.3 Bats 142

8.4 Ultrasound Transducer Array 142

8.5 Material of an Ultrasonic Lens 144

8.6 Measurement of the Lens of the Eye using Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo

Technique 145

8.7 Ultrasound Transducers 146

9 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 147

Overview 147

9.1 Zeeman Effect and Nuclear Spin Resonance 152

9.2 Magnetization and its Relaxation 153

9.3 NMR Pulses and the Rotating Coordinate System 154

9.4 Fat Signal Suppression through Inversion Recovery 156

9.5 Gradient Echo 158

9.6 Contrast in MRI Imaging 159

9.7 BOLD 162

9.8 FOV and Resolution 162

9.9 Slice Selection 163

9.10 Longitudinal Relaxation Time 164

9.11 Frequency and Phase Encoding 165

9.12 Gradient Strength and Field of View (FOV) 166

9.13 Muscle Stimulation Using Pulsed Gradients 167

9.14 Multislice Technique In Spin-Echo Procedure 167

9.15 Turbo Spin-Echo Sequences 168

9.16 Radiation Protection in MRI (HF Absorption) 169

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10 Nuclear Diagnostics and Positron Emission Tomography

Overview 171
10.1 Decay Reaction 173

10.2 Age of a Mummy 174

10.3 Iodine 175

10.4 Photomultiplier 176

10.5 Radionuclide Generator 178

10.6 Positron Emission Tomography 178

11 Reconstruction Techniques 181

Overview 181

11.1 Discrete Fourier Transform 184

11.2 Transfer Function 184

11.3 Filtered Back Projection 187

12 Radiation Medicine and Protection 193

Overview 193
12.1 Interactions of a High-Energy Primary Photon 196
12.2 Pair Production in Radiation Therapy 197
12.3 Compton Scattering 198
12.4 Radiation Damage from Potassium 198
12.5 Lethal Energy Dose 199
12.6 Fatal Dose Equivalents 199

12.7 Dose Burden from Milk Consumption 202

13 Laser Therapy 203

Overview 203

13.1 Lasers in Ophthalmology 204

13.2 Optical Sizing of Bacteria 205

13.3 Small Particles in Optical Tweezers 207

A Constants, Material Parameters, and Values 213

A.l Table of Values 213

B Relevant Literature 215

B.l Physics 215

B.2 Medical Physics 215

B.3 Mathematics 216

B.4 Medicine, Biology, and Chemistry 216

B.5 Manuscripts and Additional References 217