Plant Reproduction -plants that protect their seeds within

the body of a fruit

-make up ¾’s of all plants, including:

trees, shrubs, herbs

Structure of a flower

Non-Vascular (Bryophytes)

-no true roots

Moss -needs hard substrates

-inverted plants

-have sporophyte (capsule which

contains spores) and gametophyte (determines
the gender of plant) parts.
-root (rhyzoids)
-no conducting tissue (xylem and
phloem)
Seedless Vascular (Pteridophytes)
Male reproductive organ (Stamen)-
filament (supports the anther), anther (where
meiosis occurs to produce haploid pollen)
Female reproductive organ (Pistil)-
stigma (receives pollen from anther) , style
(where the pollen grows) , ovary (meiosis occurs
to produce ovules)

-have roots but do not have typical Petals- attract pollinators

structure of plants
Sepals-surround and protect the flower bud
-Ferns (“ancient plants”)
Flowers can be:
-Have roots (rhizome) , leaves (blade;
Complete Flower – flower with sepals,
frond), midvein (rachis)-holds the blade
petals, stamens and pistil
Types of flowers:
Incomplete Flower – lacks one or more
Simple flower floral whorls

Compound flowers Perfect Flower – flower with both

stamen and pistil, a bisexual structure
Angiosperm (Flower-bearing plants) (monoecious)
 Imperfect Flower – flower with either Ferns (sporophyte)
staminate or pistillate, unisexual flower
(dioecious) -produce haploid spores in sporangia;
grouped into clusters called sori
Life cycle of plants
-sporophyte continues to grow until
-2 generations: gametophyte dies

1. Sporophyte generation Moss (gametophyte)

-diploid cells From ovule to seed

-mitosis After double fertilization, ovule

develops into seed
-starts when fertilization occurs
-seed dehydrates as it nears the end of
2. Gametophyte generation maturation
-haploid
-the seed is enclosed in a seed coat
-meiosis Seed structure
Alternation of generation DICOT
-haploid and diploid can take turns producing
each other

Radicle-root of the embryo; where germination

begins

Hypocotyl-where cotyledons are attached

MONOCOT
 Fruits

Simple Fruits

- single ovary
- Can be fleshy (cherry) or dry
(soybean pod)

Aggregate Fruit

- A fruit that results from a single

flower that has several separate
carpels; blackberries, strawberries

Multiple Fruit

- Develops from a group of separate

flowers tightly clustered together;
pineapple, papaya
 Digestion and Nutrition 2. Filter feeders

3 dietary structures: -straining food from the water as it

passes through a filtering device.
Carnivores
-eg. Balin- brush-like teeth that acts as
Omnivores filter for whales
Herbivores 3. Deposit feeder
*Saprophagus- animals feed on -consume the organic matter (detritus)
decaying organic matter that accumulates on the substratum; others use
Ruminant-eats grass, 4 stomachs appendages to gather organic deposits and
move them to the mouth.
-rumen (digests cellulose, specializied
stomach), reticulum, omasum, abomasum (true Predators
stomach)
Mammals
Why we eat: -have teeth that are specialized for
Fuel for cellular work, essential different functions:
nutrients, biosynthesis Incisors- biting, cutting, stripping leaves
Feeding mechanisms Canines- seizing, piercing, tearing
Particulate matter Premolars and molars- grinding,
-planktons, bacteria, and non-living crushing
matter (dirt) Herbivores
-Types of plankton: zooplankton, -have special devices for crushing and
phytoplankton cutting
1. Suspension feeders
-snails have radula for scraping algae;
-have ciliated surfaces to capture insects have mandibles for cutting and grinding
particulate matter Fluid Feeders
*Phylum Annelida -bite and rasp at host tissues
Class Oligochaeta- earthworms (deposit Stages of Food processing
feeders)
1. Ingestion-act of eating; involves
Class Polychaeta- marine worms reception (sensing the taste of food-
(suspension feeders)
mouthparts and salivary glands) and
Setae-fringed legs conduction (delivery of food to next
process-esophagus)
 2. Digestion-process of breaking down
molecules small enough to absorb
(involves enzymatic hydrolysis)
-storage (stomach), grinding/churning
(stomach, gizzard, proventriculus in
insects), initial (stomach)/terminal
digestion (chemical digestion-intestine)
3. Absorption-uptake of nutrients; food/h
H2O; small/large intestines
4. Elimination-undigested material passes
out of the digestive system; anus/cloaca
*Function of digestive tract- absorb nutrients;
main organ- small intestine
Intracellular Digestion
-food particles are engulfed by
endocytosis and digested within food vacuole
(protozoa, sponges)
-most important organ is lysosomes
(contains hydrolytic enzymes--- lysozyme)
*Pseudopodia- false foot
Extracellular Digestion
-breakdown of food particles outside
cells; digestion occurs in the alimentary canal
(complete digestive tract)
Complete digestive system- alimentary canal
with two openings, a mouth, and an anus
Hydra- have no complete digestive tract; have
gastrovascular cavity (mechanical breakdown
occurs)
Mammalian Digestive System
-consists of the alimentary canal and various
accessory glands that secrete digestive juices
through ducts.
Enzymes-essential in the breakdown of food
into small, absorbable units
-proteins are broken down into amino acids,
complex carbohydrates are broken down into
monosaccharides; fats into fatty acids
*Food moves through the alimentary canal by
cilia, specialized musculature (smooth muscle
for humans), or both.
Motility in Alimentary Canal
Types of gut movement:
1. Segmentation
-alternate constriction of rings of
smooth muscle that move the
contents around, mixing with
enzymes.
2. Peristalsis
-waves of contraction behind the
food mass that move it through the
gut.
Receiving region:
Mouthparts – mandibles, jaws, teeth,
radula, bills.
Buccal cavity – mouth
Muscular pharynx – throat
Salivary glands – produce lubricating
secretions that may also contain toxic enzymes
or salivary enzymes to begin digestion.
Amylase begins hydrolysis of starches.
Tongue-chemosensor
Mouth-carbohydrate absorption
Stomach-protein absorption (pepsin); produces
gastric acid
Gastric ulcers-lesions in the lining mainly *Animals store excess calories as glycogen in
caused by bacterium Heliobacter pylori the liver and muscle

Small intestine- longest section (6m long), Insulin- produced when blood glucose level rise

-divided into regions: Glucagon-produced by pancreas when blood

glucose is low
1. Duodenum- acid chyme from the
stomach mixes with digestive juices from the
pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and intestine itself

2. Jejunum

3. Ileum

-increasing the surface area of the intestine

increases the area available for absorption

Pancreas-produces proteases (protein-digesting

enzymes), lipases for breaking up fat, amylase
for hydrolyzing starches, and nucleases which
degrade RNA & DNA into nucleotides.

Accessory organs-liver (secretes bile into bile

duct which drains the duodenum), pancreas, gal
bladder

Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis

moves the mixture of chyme and digestive
juices along the small intestine.

Large intestine/colon-water absorption (1.5m)

Rectum-where feces are stored until

they can be eliminated

Parts: Ascending colon, transverse

colon, descending colon

Hunger centers in the brain regulate food

intake; a drop of in blood glucose level
stimulates craving for food

Hormones- help coordinate secretion of

digestive juices
 Types of Respiratory Surfaces
1. Simple diffusion across plasma
membrane
2. Trachea
3. Cutaneous exchange (skin)
4. Gills
5. Lungs
Mammalian Respiratory System
-function: gas exchange; takes place in the
alveoli
1. Nasal Cavity- moistens air, traps incoming
foreign particles
-lateral walls have projectors called
conchae (increases surface area and air
turbulence)
-separated from oral cavity by the
palate
2. Pharynx (Throat)- muscular passage from
nasal cavity to larynx
-regions: nasopharynx (behind nasal
cavity, oropharynx (behind mouth),
laryngopharynx (attached to larynx)
3. Larynx (Voice box)-routes air and food into
proper channels; plays role in speech
-Structures of cartilage:
Thyroid cartilage-largest
hyaline cartilage; protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s
apple)
Epiglottis-superior opening to
the larynx; routes food to the larynx and air
towards trachea
Vocal cords (vocal folds)
Glottis-opening between vocal
cords
4.Trachea (Windpipe)-connects larynx with
bronchi; lined with ciliated mucosa (traps dust
particles); walls are lined with C-shaped hyaline
cartilage
Primary Bronchi-formed by the division of the
trachea
Bronchioles-smallest branches of the bronchi
; all but bronchioles have reinforcing cartilage
Lungs-occupy most of the thoracic cavity
Parts: Apex (near clavicle), Base (rest on
the diaphragm)
Divided into lobes: Left (2 lobes), Right
(3 lobes)
Gas Exchange
-gas crosses the respiratory membrane by
diffusion (oxygen enters the blood, co2 enter
the alveoli)
Events of respiration
Pulmonary ventilation-moving air in and
out of the lungs
External respiration-gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
Respiratory gas transport-transport of
oxygen and co2 via the bloodstream
Internal respiration-gas exchange
between blood and tissue cells in systematic
capillaries
Pulmonary ventilation- completely mechanical
process
 -Phases: Inspiration (flow of air into
lung), expiration (air leaving lung)
Non-respiratory air movements
Cough and sneeze, laughing, crying, yawn,
hiccup
Respiratory Volumes and capacities
-normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air
-factors affecting respiratory capacity:
Person’s size, age, sex, physical
condition
-Residual volume of air: about 1200 ml of air
remains in the lungs
-Factors affecting respiratory rate and depth:
Arachnids – BOOK LUNGS (paired
invaginations of the ventral body wall
that are folded into a series of leaflike
lamellae)
Vertebrates Respiratory System
Cutaneous Respiration
Gills (made up of thin, moist,
vascularized layer of epidermis to
permit gas exchange across thin gill
membranes)
Lungs (internal sac-shaped respiratory
organ)
Bimodal breathing (ability of an
organism to exchange respiratory gases
simultaneously with both air and water)

Physical factors (increase in body

temperature, exercise, talking, coughing)

Volition (conscious control)

Emotional factors

Chemical factors (CO2 and O2 levels)

Invertebrate Respiratory System

Single-celled protists – diffusion across

the plasma membrane

Earthworms – integumentary gas

exchange

Polychates - parapodia

Aquatic invertebrates (crustaceans and

molluscs)– gills

Terrestrial invertebrates – tracheal

system (made up of highly branched
chitin-lined tubes)