D.O.

S in Mechanical Engineering
University B.D.T College of Engineering DAVANGERE – 577 004
(A Constituent College of V.T.U, Belgaum)
INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND ERGONOMICS (10ME842)

Part A Unit-1 Productivity & Work Study 6 hours

Definition of productivity, factors affecting productivity, definition, objective & scope of work study,
human factors in work study, work study & management, work study & supervisor, work study
&worker.

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex
processes, systems, or organizations.
Industrial engineers work to eliminate waste of time, money, materials, person-hours, machine
time, energy and other resources that do not generate value.
According to the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers, they create engineering
processes and systems that improve quality and productivity.
Industrial engineering is concerned with the development, improvement, and implementation
of integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information, equipment, energy,
materials, analysis and synthesis, as well as the mathematical, physical and social sciences
together with the principles and methods of engineering design to specify, predict, and
evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems or processes.
While their industrial engineering is a longstanding engineering discipline subject to (and
eligible for) professional engineering licensure in most jurisdictions, its underlying concepts
overlap considerably with certain business-oriented disciplines such as operations management.
Depending on the sub-specialties involved, industrial engineering may also be known as, or
overlap with, operations research, systems engineering, manufacturing engineering, production
engineering, management science, management engineering, financial engineering, ergonomics
or human factors engineering, safety engineering, or others, depending on the viewpoint or
motives of the user.

1.2 DEFINITION OF PRODUCTIVITY

The definition of productivity according to management expert Peter Drucker.

“Productivity means the balance between all factors of production that will give the greatest output for
the smallest effort.”

Productivity is expressed or measured as a mathematical division of two important parameters

(functions) viz., output and input.

The concept of productivity is depicted in the following illustration.

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 1
Meaning of Productivity

Productivity is a relationship between output and input. It is expressed or measured as a ratio of

output and input. In other words, it equals output divided by input.

Some examples of productivity measurement are as follows:

1. Productivity of a manufacturing unit can be measured in terms of the number of goods

produced in some fixed amount of time (usually in hours).
2. Generally, productivity of a service industry is measured in terms of income generated by an
employee within an organization.

Nowadays, organizations give more importance to productivity and less importance to efficiency.

The three main indicators of higher productivity are as follows:

1. Best utilization of the available human and material resources.

2. Minimum wastage and losses of materials.
3. Quantitative and qualitative production of goods at lower cost.

1.3 BENEFITS OF HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY

The following image depicts a list of nine benefits of higher productivity.

The nine main benefits of higher productivity are:

1. Higher profit,
2. Employees welfare,
3. Better return
4. Nice relations,
5. Customer satisfaction,
6. Good credit rating,
7. Goodwill,
8. Better credit terms, and
9. Low turnover.

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 2
Now let's discuss briefly these important benefits of higher productivity.

1. Higher profit : Higher productivity enables the company to produce more output. This results in
more profit to it. This profit can be used for expansion and other activities.
2. Employees welfare : Higher productivity brings more profit to the company. This profit can be
used to provide better facilities and working conditions to the employees. So, it results in
welfare of the employees.
3. Better return : The company gets better return on investment due to higher productivity. So,
they pay a better dividend (share of profit) to the shareholders. The market price of the share
will also increase.
4. Nice relations : Higher productivity results in nice relations between the management and the
employees. Good working conditions, facilities and incentives motivates employees to give
their best to the organization.
5. Customer satisfaction : Higher productivity results in better customer satisfaction. This is
because customers are provided with good-quality products at low prices. Satisfaction of
customers will result in their loyalty towards the company.
6. Good credit rating : Higher productivity results in a good credit rating by financial institutions.
This will enable the company to get cheap funds from the market to meet working and fixed
capital requirements.
7. Goodwill : Due to higher productivity, the company will have a good corporate image (goodwill)
in the minds of social entities. This includes: The shareholders, government, suppliers, financial
institutions, customers, etc.
8. Better credit terms : Higher productivity helps the company to get better terms from the
suppliers. The suppliers may give better credit terms due to its goodwill.
9. Low turnover : Higher productivity enables the company to provide better facilities and
working conditions to the employees. This will make the employees loyal. Hence, employee
turnover and absenteeism will reduce.

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 3
1.3 FACTORS THAT AFFECT PRODUCTIVITY

The following chart shows eight factors that affect productivity.

The eight main factors that affect productivity are:

1. Technical factors,
2. Production factors,
3. Organizational factor,
4. Personnel factors,
5. Finance factors,
6. Management factors,
7. Government factors, and
8. Location factors.

Now let's discuss briefly above listed important factors that affect productivity.

1. Technical factors: Productivity largely depends on technology. Technical factors are the most
important ones. These include proper location, layout and size of the plant and machinery,
correct design of machines and equipment, research and development, automation and
computerization, etc. If the organization uses the latest technology, then its productiveness will
be high.
2. Production factors: Productivity is related to the production-factors. The production of all
departments should be properly planned, coordinated and controlled. The right quality of raw-

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 4
 materials should be used for production. The production process should be simplified and
standardized. If everything is well it will increase the productiveness.
3. Organizational factor : Productivity is directly proportional to the organizational factors. A
simple type of organization should be used. Authority and Responsibility of every individual and
department should be defined properly. The line and staff relationships should also be clearly
defined. So, conflicts between line and staff should be avoided. There should be a division of
labor and specialization as far as possible. This will increase organization's productiveness.
4. Personnel factors : Productivity of organization is directly related to personnel factors. The
right individual should be selected for suitable posts. After selection, they should be given
proper training and development. They should be given better working conditions and work-
environment. They should be properly motivated; financially, non-financially and with positive
incentives. Incentive wage policies should be introduced. Job security should also be given.
Opinion or suggestions of workers should be given importance. There should be proper
transfer, promotion and other personnel policies. All this will increase the productiveness of the
organization.
5. Finance factors: Productivity relies on the finance factors. Finance is the life-blood of modem
business. There should be a better control over both fixed capital and working capital. There
should be proper Financial Planning. Capital expenditure should be properly controlled. Both
over and under utilization of capital should be avoided. The management should see that they
get proper returns on the capital which is invested in the business. If the finance is managed
properly the productiveness of the organization will increase.
6. Management factors : Productivity of organization rests on the management factors. The
management of organization should be scientific, professional, future-oriented, sincere and
competent. Managers should possess imagination, judgment skills and willingness to take risks.
They should make optimum use of the available resources to get maximum output at the
lowest cost. They should use the recent techniques of production. They should develop better
relations with employees and trade unions. They should encourage the employees to give
suggestions. They should provide a good working environment, and should motivate employees
to increase their output. Efficient management is the most significant factor for increasing
productiveness and decreasing cost.
7. Government factors: Productivity depends on government factors. The management should
have a proper knowledge about the government rules and regulations. They should also
maintain good relations with the government.
8. Location factors: Productivity also depends on location factors such as Law and order situation,
infrastructure facilities, nearness to market, nearness to sources of raw-materials, skilled
workforce, etc.

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 5
Role of Work Study in Improving Productivity

In order to understand the role of work study, we need to understand the role of method study and
that of time study.

Method study (also sometimes called Work Method Design) is mostly used to improve the method of
doing work. It is equally applicable to new jobs. When applied to existing jobs and existing jobs,
method study aims to find better methods of doing the jobs that are economical and safe, require less
human effort, and need shorter make-ready / put-away time. The better method involves the optimum
use of best materials and appropriate manpower so that work is performed in well-organized manner
leading to increased resource utilization, better quality and lower costs.

It can therefore be stated that through method study we have a systematic way of developing human
resource effectiveness, providing high machine and equipment utilization, and making economical use
of materials.

Time study, on the other hand, provides the standard time, that is the time needed by worker to
complete a job by the standard method. Standard times for different jobs are necessary for proper
estimation of

 manpower, machinery and equipment requirements

 daily, weekly or monthly requirement of materials
 production cost per unit as an input to better make or buy decision
 labor budgets
 worker's efficiency and make incentive wage payments.

By the application of method study and time study in any organization, we can thus achieve greater
output at less cost and of better quality, and hence achieve higher productivity.

Work Study and Ergonomics

The work study and the ergonomics are the two areas of study having the same objective: design the
work system so that for the operator it is safe, and the work is less fatiguing and less time taking.

Historical Developments

The Work of Taylor

Frederick W. Taylor is generally considered to be the founder of modern method and time study,
although time studies were conducted in Europe many years before Taylor’s time. In 1760, Jean
Rodolphe Perronet, a French engineer, made extensive time studies on the manufacture of No. 6
common pins.

Taylor began his time study work in 1881 while associated with the Midvale Steel Company in U.S.A..
He evolved a system based on the “task”, and proposed that the work of each employee be planned
out by the management in advance. Each job was to have a standard time, deter mined by time studies
made by experts. In the timing process, Taylor advocated dividing the work into small divisions of

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 6
effort known as "ele ments." Experts were to time these individually and use their collective values to
determine the allowed time for the task.

Early presentations of Taylor’s findings were received with little enthusiasm, because many interpreted
his findings to be somewhat new piece-rate system rather than a technique for analyzing work and
improving methods. Both management and employees were skeptical of piece rates, because many
standards were earlier typically based on the supervisor's guess or even sometimes inflated by bosses
to protect the performance of their departments.

In June 1903, at the American Society of Mechanical Engineers meeting, Taylor presented his famous
paper, "Shop Management," which included the elements of scientific management: time study,
standardization of all tools and tasks, use of a planning department, use of slide rule and similar
timesaving implements, instruction cards for workers, bonuses for successful performance, differential
rates, mnemonic systems for classifying products, routing systems, and modern cost systems. Taylor 's
techniques were well received by many factory managers, and by 1917, of 113 plants that had installed
"scientific management," 59 considered their installations completely successful, 20 partly successful,
and 34 failures.

In 1898, while at the Bethlehem Steel Company, Taylor carried out the pig-iron experiment that
became the most celebrated demonstrations of his principles. He established the correct method,
along with financial incentives, and workers carrying 92-pound pigs of iron up a ramp onto a freight car
were able to increase their productivity from an average of 12.5 tons per day to between 47 and 48
tons per day. This work was performed with an increase in the daily rate of $1.15 to $1.85. Taylor
claimed that workmen per formed at the higher rate "without bringing on a strike among the men,
without any quarrel with the men and were happier and better contented."

Another of Taylor 's Bethlehem Steel studies that became famous was on shovel ing work. Workers
who shoveled at Bethlehem would use the same shovel for any job—lifting heavy iron ore to lifting
light rice coal. Taylor designed shovels to fit the different loads: short- handled shovels for iron ore,
long-handled scoops for light rice coal, and showed their usefulness in improving productivity.

Not as well-known as his engineering contributions is the fact that in 1881, he was a U.S. tennis
doubles champion. Here he used an odd-looking racket he had designed with a spoon curved handle.

The Work of Gilbreths

Frank and Lilian Gilbreth are considered as the founders of the modern motion study technique, which
may be defined as the study of the body motions used in performing an operation, for the purpose of
improving the operation by eliminating unnecessary motions, simplifying necessary motions, and then
establishing the most favorable motion sequence for maximum efficiency. Frank Gilbreth originally
implemented ideas into the bricklayer's trade in which he was employed. After introducing methods
improvements through motion study, including an adjustable scaffold that he had invented, as well as
operator training, he was able to increase the average number of bricks laid from 120 to 350 per
worker per hour.

More than anyone else, the Gilbreths were responsible for industry's recognition of the importance of
a detailed study of body motions to arrive at the best method of performing an operation that would

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 7
increase production, reduce operator fatigue. They developed the technique of filming motions for
study, known as micromotion study.

The Gilbreths also developed the cycle graphic and chronocycle graphic analysis techniques for
studying the motion paths made by an operator. The cycle- graphic method involves fixing small
electric light bulb to the finger or part of the body being studied and then photographing the motion
while the operator is performing the operation. The resulting picture gives a permanent record of the
motion pattern employed and can be analyzed for possible improvement. The chrono-cyclegraph is
similar to the cyclograph, but its electric circuit is interrupted regularly, causing the light to flash.
Instead of showing solid lines of the motion patterns, the resulting photograph shows short dashes of
light spaced in proportion to the speed of the body motion being photographed. Consequently, with
the chronocyclegraph it is possible to determine direction and compute velocity, acceleration, and
deceleration, in addition to study of body motions.

The Work of Others

Carl G. Barth, an associate of Frederick W. Taylor, developed a production slide rule for estimating the
most efficient combinations of speeds and feeds for cutting metals of various harnesses, considering
the depth of cut, size of tool, and life of the tool. He is also known for his work on estimation of
allowances by establishing the number of foot-pounds of work a worker could do in a day. He
developed a relationship in which a certain push or pull on a worker's arms was equated with the
amount or weight that worker could handle for a certain percentage of the day.

Harrington Emerson applied scientific methods to work on the Santa Fe Railroad and wrote a book,
Twelve Principles of Efficiency, in which he made an attempt to lay down procedures for efficient
operation. He reorganized the company, integrated its shop procedures, installed standard costs and a
bonus plan, and introduced Hollerith tabulating machines for the accounting work. This effort resulted
in annual saving of $ 1.5 million and recognition of his approach, called efficiency engineering.

In 1917, Henry Laurence Gantt developed simple graph that would present performance while visually
showing projected schedules. This production control tool was adopted by the shipbuilding industry
during World War I. For the first time, this tool demonstrated the possibility of comparing actual
performance against the original plan, and to adjust daily schedules in accordance with capacity, back
log, and customer requirements. Gantt is also known for his wage payment system that rewarded
workers for above-standard performance, eliminated any penalty for failure, and offered the boss a
bonus for every worker who per formed above .standard. Gantt advocated human relations and
promoted scientific management in the back drop of an inhuman "speedup" of labor.

Motion and time study received added stimulus during World War II when Franklin D. Roosevelt,
through the U.S. Department of Labor, attempted to establish standards for increasing production. The
stated policy advocated greater pay for greater output but without an increase in unit labor costs,
incentive schemes to be collectively bargained between labor and management, and the use of time
study for setting production standards.

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 8
1. Definition of Work Study 2. Role of Work Study 3. Objectives 4. Advantages.

Definition of Work Study:

“Work study is a generic term for those techniques, particularly method study and work measurement,
which are used in all its context and which lead systematically to the investigation of all the factors,
which effect the efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed in order to effect
improvement.”

Definition: Work study may be defined as the analysis of a job for the purpose of finding the preferred
method of doing it and also determining the standard time to perform it by the preferred (or given)
method. Work study, therefore, comprises of two areas of study: method study (motion study) and
time study (work measurement).

Meaning of Work Study:

According to ILO — International Labour Organisation — work study is “a term used to embrace the
techniques of method study and work measurement which are employed to ensure the best
possible use of human and material resources in carrying out a specified activity.” In other words,
“work study is a tool or technique of management involving the analytical study of a job or operation.”
Work study helps to increase productivity.

 The main objective of work study is to improve productivity of men, machines and materials.
 The aim of work study is to determine the best method of performing each operation and to
eliminate wastage so that production increases with less fatigue.
 The work study is also used in determining the standard time that a qualified worker should
take to perform the operation when working at a normal place.

Work study is a technique which deals with the following problems:

(a) As to how should a job be done, and

(b) How much time a job should take for completion.

Answer for the first question is found by Motion Study or Method Study or Work Simplification.
Answer for the second question is found by the Time Study or Work Measurement.

Role of Work Study:

1. To standardise the method of doing a work,

2. To minimise the unit cost of production,
3. To determine the standard time for doing a task,
4. To minimise the material movement, and operators movement,
5. To eliminate unnecessary human movements,
6. To utilise facilities such as man, machine and materials most effectively, and
7. To a systematic investigation of all factors.

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 9
Objectives of Work Study:

The following are the objectives of work study:

1. Increased efficiency,
2. Better product quality,
3. To choose the fastest method to do a job,
4. To improve the working process,
5. Less fatigue to operators and workers,
6. Effective labour control,
7. Effective utilization of resources,
8. To decide equipment requirements,
9. To pay fair wages,
10. To aid in calculating exact delivery,
11. To formulate realistic labour budgeting, and
12. To decide the required manpower to do a job.
13. Work study brings higher productivity.
14. Work study improves existing method of work for which cost becomes lower
15. It eliminates wasteful elements
16. It sets standard of performance
17. It helps to use plant and human more effectively
18. It improves by saving in time and loss of material also.

Advantages of Work Study:

The advantages of work study are the following:

1. Work study ensures higher productivity,

2. Better working conditions with less fatigue,
3. Higher wages to workers,
4. Uniform production flow,
5. Job satisfaction and job security to workers,
6. Reduction in unit cost of production,
7. Quality products to consumers,
8. Fast delivery schedule,
9. Harmonious employer-employee relation, and
10. Better service to customers.

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 10
“Work study is a generic term for those techniques, method study and work measurement which are
used in the examination of human work in all its contexts. And which lead systematically to the
investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being
reviewed, in order to effect improvement.”

Framework of work study

Work study is a means of enhancing the production efficiency (productivity) of the firm by
elimination of waste and unnecessary operations. It is a technique to identify non-value adding
operations by investigation of all the factors affecting the job. It is the only accurate and systematic
procedure oriented technique to establish time standards. It is going to contribute to the profit as
the savings will start immediately and continue throughout the life of the product. Method study
and work measurement is part of work study. Part of method study is motion study, work
measurement is also called by the name ‘Time study’.

Types of Work Study:

1. Method Study:

According to ILO, method study is “the systematic recording, analysis and critical examination of
existing and proposed ways of doing work and the development and application of easier and more
effective method”. In short, it is a systematic procedure to analyse the work to eliminate unnecessary
operations.

Objectives:

The objectives of method study are:

(i) It improves the proper utilisation of manpower, machine and materials;

(ii) It also improves the factory layout, work place, etc.;
(iii) It also improves the process and procedure;
(iv) It develops better physical working environment;
(v) It reduces undesirable fatigue.

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 11
Steps:

The steps of method study are:

(i) At first select the proper work which are to be studied;

(ii) Record all the facts of existing method;
(iii) Examine the facts very critically;
(iv) Develop the most practical, economic, and effective method;
(v) Install the method and the same should be maintained.

2. Time And Motion Study:

According to ILO, Time Study means “a technique for determining as accurately as possible from a
limited number of observations the time necessary to carry out a given activity at a different
standard of performance”. In other words, “time study is the art of observing and recording time
required to do each detailed element of an individual operation.” Practically, it studies the time taken
on each element of a job.

Motion study, on the other hand, is the study of the body motion used in performing an operation,
with the thought of improving the operation by eliminating unnecessary motion and simplifying
necessary motion and thus establishing the most favourable motion sequence for maximum efficiency.

So, in short, ‘Time Study’ means the determination of standard time that is taken by a worker of
average ability under normal working conditions for performing a job. But ‘Motion Study’ determines
the correct method of doing a job to avoid wasteful movements, for which the workers are
unnecessarily tired.

Steps:
1. Time and Motion studies eliminate wasteful movements;
2. They examine the proposed method critically and determine the most effective one;
3. They determine for each element having a stop-watch;
4. They record all the parts of a job which are done by the existing method;
5. They install the method as standard one;
6. They critically observe the workers who are engaged with the work;
7. They assess the proper speed of the operator who is working.

Industrial Engg and Ergonomics, Note compiled by – Dr. S B MALLUR, Professor, UBDTCE, Davanagere 12