Concepts – A concept is a generally accepted bundle of meanings or characteristics

associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors. Classifying
and categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics beyond any single
observation create concepts.
Examples: vocabulary, spelling, syntax
Consumer satisfaction, purchase intentions, reinforcement habits, gender,
education attainment, etc.

Constructs – As used in research in the social sciences, a construct is an image or idea

specifically invented for a given research and/or theory-building purpose. We build
constructs by combining simpler concepts, especially when the idea or image we intend
to convey is not directly subject to observation.

Example: language skill construct – vocabulary, spelling, syntax

Employee profile construct – age, gender, civil status, educational attainment

Theory- a theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and

propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts).

Proposition – we define a proposition as a statement about concepts that may be judged

as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena.

Variables – A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The
values can differ at various time for the same object or person, or the values can differ at
the same time for different objects or persons.

The numerical value assigned to a variable is based on the variable’s properties.

a) dichotomous – variables which have only two values, reflecting the presence or
absence of a property.
Examples: employed-unemployed; male –female

b) Discrete – variables that take values representing added categories, such as the
demographic variables of race or religion.

c) Continuous – these variables take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an
infinite set.
Examples – income, temperature, age, test score, etc.

Types of Variables
Five main types of variables
1. The dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable)
2. The independent variable (also known as the predictor variable)
3. The moderating variable
4. The intervening variable
5. The extraneous variable

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Defining Independent and Dependent Variables
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Presumed cause Presumed effect
Stimulus Response
Predicted from Predicted to
Antecedent Consequence
Manipulated Measured outcome
Predictor Criterion

Dependent Variable
The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The
researcher’s goal is to explain or predict the variability in the dependent variable. In
other words, it is the main variable that lends itself as a viable issue for investigation.
Through the analysis of the dependent variable (i.e. what variables influence it), it is
possible to find answers to solutions to the problem. The researcher is interested in
quantifying and measuring this variable, as well as the other variables that influence this
variable.

Organizational Effectiveness

Dependent Variable

Independent Variable
An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive
or a negative way. That is, when the independent variable is present, the dependent
variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there
is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. In other words, the variance in
the dependent variable is accounted for the independent variable.

Workforce Diversity Organizational Effectiveness

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Moderating Variable – The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent
effect on the independent variable – dependent variable relationship. That is, the
presence of a third variable (moderating variable) modifies the originally expected
relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.

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 Workforce Diversity Organizational effectiveness

Independent Variable Managerial Dependent Variable

expertise

Moderating variable

Intervening Variable – An intervening variable is one that surfaces between the time the
independent variables operate to influence the dependent variable and their impact on the
dependent variable. There is thus a temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening
variable. The intervening variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable(s)
operating in any situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the
independent variable(s) on the dependent variable.

Workforce Creative Organizational

Diversity Synergy Effectiveness

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Managerial
expertise

Moderating variable

Extraneous Variable – An almost infinite number of extraneous variables (EV) exists

that might conceivably affect a given relationship. Some can be treated as independent or
moderating variables, but most must either be assumed or excluded from the study.
Fortunately, the infinite number of variables has little or no effect on a given situation.
Most can be safely ignored. Others may be important, but their impact occurs in such a
random fashion as to have little effect.

Research Paradigms

A. Descriptive/ Status Study

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B. Correlational/ Associational Study

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C. Cause and Effect

D. Causation, with Moderator Variables(s)

E. Causal Sequence

F. Multiple Causes

G. Regression/ Prediction Study

4
Hypothesis Development
Once we have identified the important variables in a situation and established the
relationships among them through logical reasoning in the theoretical framework, we are
in a position to test whether the relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold
true. By testing these relationships scientifically, through appropriate statistical analyses
or through negative case analysis in qualitative research, we are able to obtain some
reliable information on what kinds of relationships exist among the variables operating in
the problem situation. The results of these tests offer us some clues as to what could be
changed in the situation to solve the problem. Formulating such testable statements is
called hypotheses development.

Definition of Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess about a problem’s solution. It can be defined as
a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form
of testable statements. These relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of
associations established in the theoretical framework formulated for the research study.