Unit 1auto

Unit - I
L T P C
ME 2354 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
3 0 0 3
http://www.the-crankshaft.info/
UNIT I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES 9
Types of automobiles, vehicle construction and different layouts, chassis, frame and body, resistances to
vehicle motion and need for a gearbox, components of engine-their forms, functions and materials
UNIT II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 9

Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, Electronically controlled diesel injection
system (Unit injector system, Rotary distributor type and common rail direct injection system), Electronic
ignition system, Turbo chargers, Engine emission control by three way catalytic converter system.
UNIT III TRANSMISSION SYSYTEMS 9

Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear shift mechanisms, Over drive,
transfer box, fluid flywheel –torque converter, propeller shaft, slip joints, universal joints, Differential, and
rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and Torque Tube Drive.
UNIT IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS 9

Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-Power Steering, Types of Front Axle, Types of
Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems, Antilock Braking System and Traction
Control.
UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES 9

Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas. Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and Hydrogen in
Automobiles- Engine modifications required –Performance, Combustion and Emission Characteristics of SI
and CI engines with these alternate fuels – Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Fuel Cell.
Note: A Practical Training in dismantling and assembling of engine parts and transmission systems may be
given to the students.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Kirpal Singh, “ Automobile Engineering Vols 1 & 2 “, Standard Publishers, Seventh Edition ,1997, New
Delhi
2. Jain,K.K.,and Asthana .R.B, “Automobile Engineering” Tata McGraw Hill Publishers, New Delhi, 2002
REFERENCES:
1. Newton ,Steeds and Garet,” Motor Vehicles “, Butterworth Publishers,1989
2. Joseph Heitner, “Automotive Mechanics,”, Second Edition ,East-West Press ,1999
3. Martin W. Stockel and Martin T Stockle , “ Automotive Mechanics Fundamentals,” The Goodheart
–Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978
4. Heinz Heisler , ‘Advanced Engine Technology,” SAE International Publications USA,1998
5. Ganesan V..” Internal Combustion Engines” , Third Edition, Tata Mcgraw-Hill ,2007
PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 1

Unit - I
Development of the Automobile
• The progress of means for transportation has been intimately associated with the
progress of civilization.
• Transportation on land has evolved from the slow moving oxcart to the high-speed
automobile.
• A self-propelled vehicle used for transportation of goods and passengers on land is
called an automobile or automotive or motor vehicle.
• In general, modern automobile is a complex piece of machinery performing in a
safe, economical and efficient manner.
• It is comprised of a chassis and a body.
• The chassis is made up of a frame supporting body, power unit, clutch or fluid
coupling, transmission system and control systems.
• Wheels and tyres through suspension system and axles, support the frame.
• The power delivered by the power unit (engine) is transmitted through the clutch
or fluid coupling, transmission system, and axles to the wheels.
• The automobile is propelled on road due to friction between the tyre and road
surface.
• The various sub-systems are properly designed and held together for efficient
functioning individually as well as whole unit.
• The protection and comfort is provided by the body and the suspension system.
• The automobile has its limitations in regard to the load it can carry and the speed
as well as the distance it can carry the load.
Types of Automobiles:
• The different types of automobiles found on roads are presented in Chart in a comprehensive manner.
• There are in general three main classifications of the various types of vehicle.
• Based on the Purpose : 1) Passenger Vehicles – Car, Jeep, Bus 2) Goods Vehicles – Truck
• Based on the Capacity: 1) Light Motor vehicles – Car, Motor cycle, scooter 2) Heavy Motor vehicles –
Bus, coach, and tractor.
• Based on the Fuel Used: 1) Petrol vehicles, 2) Diesel vehicles, 3) Alternate fuel
• Based on the No. of wheels: 1) Two wheelers 2) Three wheelers 3) Four wheelers 4) Six wheelers 5)
Ten wheelers etc.
• Based on the Drive of the vehicles: 1) Single wheel drive 2) Two wheel drive 3) four wheel drive. Also
Front wheel drive, rear wheel drive and all wheel drive.
• Based on the body style: closed cars, open cars and special styles
• Based on the transmission: Conventional, semi-automatic, fully automatic
• They are: (i) The single-unit vehicles or load carriers. (ii) The articulated vehicles. {iii)The heavy tractor
vehicles.
Classification of vehicles:

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Construction of an Automobile:
• Basic structure, The Power plant, The transmission system, The auxiliaries, The controls, The
superstructure
Basic Structure:
• This is the unit on which are to be built the remainder of the units required to turn it into a power
operated vehicle.
• It consists of the frame, the suspension systems, axles, wheels and tyres
Power Plant:
• It provides the motive power for all the various functions which the vehicle or any part of it, may be
called upon to perform.
• It generally consists of an IC engine which may be either of spark-ignition, or of compression ignition
type.
The Transmission system:
• It consists of a clutch, a gear box, a transfer case, a propeller shaft, universal joints, final drive, and
differential gear.
The auxiliaries:
• It consists of
• supply system (Battery and generator), the starter, the ignition system, and ancillary devices ( Driving
lights, signaling, other lights, Miscellaneous items like radio, heater, fans, electric fuel pump,
windscreen wipers, etc.)
The Controls
• It consists of steering system and brakes.
The superstructure
• It may be body attached with frame, frameless construction.
Layouts of Automobile:

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Main Parts of the Automobile:

• The modern automobile can be categorized into two distinct sub-assemblies, the body and the chassis.
The body:
• The main function of the body is to provide comfort and protection to the passengers besides giving a
good look.
• The body includes the passenger compartment, the trunk, the bumpers, the fenders, the radiator grill, the
hood, interior trim, glass and paint.
• A wide variety of body styles, like two doors or four doors, sedans or hardtop, convertible or station
wagons are available for each chassis model.
A car body. A car chassis.
The chassis:
• The chassis forms the complete operating unit and is capable of running with its own power.
• It is an assembly of a vehicle without body.
• The chassis includes frame, wheels, axles, springs, shock absorbers, engine, clutch, gearbox, propeller
shaft and universal joints, differential and half shafts, steering, brakes and accelerator, fuel tank, storage
battery, radiator, and silencer.
• The engine is generally located at the front of the vehicle, followed by clutch, gear box, propeller shaft,
universal joint, differential, rear axle etc.
• The drive from the gearbox is transmitted through a short shaft to the front universal joint of the
propeller shaft.
• From the propeller shaft it is conveyed to the rear wheels through a sliding splined type of universal
joint.
• The bevel gear of the short shaft is driven by the rear universal joint.
• This bevel gear meshes with a large bevel gear, which drives the two rear axle shafts through the
differential gear.

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• There are two methods of body and chassis construction, the separate body and chassis construction and
the integral construction.
• In the separate body and chassis construction, the body is fitted to the chassis frame by means of a
number of body bolts, passing through the base of the body and the frame.
• Pads of anti-quake or vibration materials such as rubbers are placed between the body and the frame at
the bolts to prevent quakes and rattles.
Integral body construction

• In the integral construction, the body and the chassis frame are combined as one eliminating the
mountings.
• The integral construction is also called as chassis-less or unibody construction.
• Unlike commercial vehicles, which have a separate cab attached to a chassis, car bodies are now mostly
of integral construction, which is frameless mono-box construction.
• These body shells are made up from pillars, rails, sills, and panels all welded together, and a reinforcing
channel-section under-frame with an extended sub-frame at the front is provided to replace the chassis.
Vehicle Assemblies
• The main components of an automobile can be sub-grouped in the following assemblies: (i) Engine or
power plant, (ii) Running gear or basic structure, (iii) Driving system, (iv) Basic Control system, (v)
Electrical system, (vi) Accessories

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Vehicle Assemblies
Engine:
• The prime movers used in almost all vehicles are either gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines.
• Some specialty automobiles use a different type of engine.
• The diesel engine consumes considerably less fuel than the gasoline engine, when operated at low
speeds.
An automobile engine with clutch and gearbox.

• The rotating combustion chamber engine is gaining popularity in small cars, and its use will probably
increase.
• Turbine engines show promise, especially in commercial vehicles.
• They are powerful, light weight and produce less hydrocarbons and carbon monoxides.
• They are ideally suited to replace diesel engines in over-the-road load carrying vehicles.
• Battery or electric vehicles are also being introduced to conserve fossil fuels and to minimise pollution.
• The engine is located either in the front, mid-ship or rear.
• Front mounted engines are more common in automobiles.

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• The engine contains mechanical parts, fuel system, cooling system, lubricating system and exhaust
system.
• Figure shows an automobile engine with its clutch and gearbox.
• The radiator is located at the front of the engine.
Running Gear:
• The running gear comprises of the frame, suspension, springs, shock absorbers, wheels, rims and tyres.
• The tyres are the only place where the automobile touches the road.
• All of the engine power, steering and braking forces must operate through these tyre-to road contact
areas.
• Control of the vehicle is reduced or lost when the tyre does not contact the road or when skidding
begins.
• The suspension keeps the tyre in contact with the road as much as possible in all road conditions.
• The suspension system must be strong enough to resist axle twisting from high engine power and from
brake reaction.
• The suspension system consists of springs, shock absorbers and linkages or arms.
• The frame is a rigid structure that forms a skeleton to hold all the major units together.
• The wheels and tyre assemblies support the frame and the units are attached to it, through front and rear
suspension systems so as to follow the road irregularities.
Driving System:
• The driving system comprises of the clutch, transmission, driveline, differential and rear axle.
• The driving system carries power to the driving wheels from the engine.
• A clutch or torque converter is connected to the engine crankshaft to effectively disconnect or connect
the engine with the driveline.
• The function of the transmission is to provide gear reduction, which produces high torque to start the
automobile from rest and drive it up the steep grades.
• It also provides a reverse gear for backing the automobile.
• A propeller shaft is required to transmit the engine power to the rear axle.
• It has universal joints on each end to provide flexibility as the suspension position changes.
• A differential incorporated with a rear axle, splits the incoming power to each drive wheel.
• This also allows the drive wheels to turn at different speeds as they go over bumps and round corners.
Control System:
• The steering and braking systems form the basic control system.
• The steering gear controls the direction in which the front wheels are pointed.
• The steering systems have some parts (i.e. the steering gear) bolted to the frame, some parts (i.e. the
steering column) bolted to the body and some parts closely integrated with the front suspension system.
• The brake system slows down the speed of the vehicle or stops it at the driver's will.
• The entire brake system is located in the chassis.
• The brakes are mounted inside the wheels.
• The brake designs are either drum type or disc type.
• Four-wheel disc brakes are more common in use.
Electrical System:
• The electrical system is a part of both chassis and body.
• The system includes the starting, charging, ignition, lighting and horn circuit.

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• Some electrical circuits are for engine operation, some for power transmission and others for lighting
and operation of protective devices and accessories.
Accessories:
• Accessories are used to make driving more pleasant.
• They include car heater, air-conditioner, radio, windscreen wiper, indicators etc.
Engine Position:
Front Engine:
• There are a number of reasons for locating the engine at the front of a car as shown in Fig.
• The large mass of an engine at the front of the car provides the driver protection in the event of a head-
on collision, and engine-cooling system becomes simpler.
• Also the cornering ability of a vehicle becomes better due to concentration of weight at the front.
Front-engine car
Rear Engine:
• With the engines mounted at the rear of the vehicle the components like the clutch, gearbox and final
drive assembly can be installed as a single unit.
• This arrangement requires the use of some form of independent rear suspension.
• Rear-engine layout is mostly confined to small cars, as this adversely effects on the “handling” of the
car.
• Also it takes up a larger space in comparison to the front-engine car for carrying luggage.
• However, a rear-engine layout increases the load on the rear driving wheels, providing better grip on the
road.
• Figure presents one of the rear-engine cars.
• The front seats are close to the front wheels than a front-engine car, and the floor is quite flat.
Rear-engine car Mid-engine car
Central and Mid-engine:

• This engine location is generally confined to sports cars because this provides both good handling and
maximum traction from the driving wheels.
• This arrangement, however, is not convenient for everyday cars as the engine takes up space that is
normally occupied by passengers.
• The mid-engine layout, shown in Fig., combines the engine and transmission components in one unit.
Drive Arrangements
• Rear-wheel Drive. In this layout (Fig.) the rear wheels act as the driving wheels and the front wheels
swivel for steering of the vehicle.
• The location of the main components in this arrangement makes each unit accessible.
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• A major drawback is the protrusion of the transmission components into the passenger compartment due
to which a larger bulge is produced in the region of the gearbox and a raised long tunnel down to the
centre of the car floor is formed to accommodate the propeller shaft.
• In this driving arrangement, the load transfer takes place from the front to rear of the vehicle during hill
climbing or acceleration providing good traction.
• However, if the wheels lose adhesion, the driving wheels move the rear of the car sideways causing the
car to 'snake'.
Rear-wheel drive. Front-wheel drive Four-wheel drive
Front-wheel Drive:
• This layout (Fig) is compact as the engine is mounted transversely and hence very popular for use on
cars.
• From space considerations the length of the engine is the critical, but the use of V-type engines for
larger power units has enabled to place the engine transversely.
• Consequently, the placement of all the main components under the bonnet (hood), and the removal of
floor bulges and tunnel provide maximum space for the rear passengers.
• Transverse mounting of the engine also simplifies the transmission.
• The use of bevel-type final drive is eliminated; instead a simple reduction gear along with a differential
transmits the power through short drive shafts to the road wheels.
• Each drive shaft is fitted with an inner and outer universal joint.
• The outer joint accommodates the steering action and is specially designed to transmit the drive through
a large angle.
• When the front wheels are used for steering, the driving force acts in the same direction as the wheel is
pointing.
• Also the vehicle is being 'dragged' behind the front driving wheels. These features improve vehicle
handling especially in slippery conditions.
• Mounting the main units in one-assembly some-times makes it difficult to gain access to
some parts, but this problem has largely been overcome now a days.
• One disadvantage is that the driving wheels have fewer grips on the road when the vehicle is
accelerating and negotiating a gradient.
• This problem can be partly rectified by placing the engine well forward to increase
the load on the driving wheels, but the car is then liable to become 'nose-heavy' causing the
steering more arduous.
• In cases where the driver's steering effort becomes excessive, the car is
often fitted with power-assisted steering.
Four-wheel Drive:

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• This arrangement (Fig.) is safer because of distribution of the drive
to all four wheels.
• The sharing of the load between the four wheels during acceleration reduces
the risks of wheel spin specifically on slippery surfaces like snow and mud.
• In addition the positive drive to each wheel during braking minimizes the possibility of wheel lock- up.
• On an icy road or across off-highway a two-wheel-drive vehicle soon becomes non-drivable due to the
loss of grip of one of the driving wheels which causes the wheel to spin.
Specifying an Automobile
• For describing an automobile, the various factors taken into consideration are:
• (a) Type: Whether scooter, motor cycle, car, lorry, truck etc.
• (b) Carriage capacity: Whether 1/4 tonne, 1 tonne, 3 tones, etc. or 2 seater, 4 seater, 6 seater, 30 seater,
40 seater etc.
• (c) Make. The name allotted by the manufacturer. It is generally the name of the power unit indicating
kW or number of cylinders or shape of the engine block.
• (d) Model: The year of manufacture or a specific code number allotted by the manufacturer.
• (e) Drive, (i) Whether left hand or right hand drive, i.e. the steering is fitted on the left hand side or right
hand side. (ii) Two wheel drive, four wheel drive, or six wheel drive.
• As an example for specifying a truck, the typical specifications are given below: (i) Type : Truck 312 L
(ii) Capacity : 17,025 kg (iii) Drive: Right hand, 6x4 wheels, (iv) Make: Tata Mercedes-Benz
(v) Model: OM 312
The Single-unit Vehicles or Load Carriers:

• These vehicles are conventional four-wheel types with two-axle design in which the front axle is a
steering non-driving axle and the rear axle is the driving axle.
• With the advancement, many changes have been incorporated in the number of axles as well as the
driving system.
The Articulated Vehicles

• A larger powered three-wheeler with single steering wheel in front and a conventional rear-driving axle
falls in this category.
• It can be turned about its own tail due to the three-wheel construction and has a greater handling ability
in unusual places.
• The coupling mechanism between semi-trailer and tractor in most of these vehicles is designed for
automatic connection and coupling up.
• A lever is provided within the driver's approach for coupling operation.
• A pair of retractable wheels in front can be raised or lowered automatically along with the coupling and
uncoupling operation.
The Heavy-tractor Vehicles

• To move heavy loads tractor or independent tractor vehicles are used.
• They commonly operate in pair either in tendon or as puller or pusher.
• The latter arrangement provides stability while descending appreciable gradients.
• The digital figures like 4x2, 4x4, 6x4 etc. are commonly used in the classification of vehicles, where the
first figure represents the total number of wheels and the second figure the number of driving wheels.
• By increasing the number of axles, the load per axle can be reduced, which protects the tyres from
overloading and the road surface from damage.
• Wheel axles are called "live" if drive and called "dead" if non-drive.
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• A live axle supports the payload and provides driving tractive effort, whereas a dead axle just supports
the load.
The Motor Car

• The motorcar carries passengers in the sitting position and also accommodates their luggage.
• Space is also provided for the engine, the transmission system, the steering, the suspension layout, and
the braking system.
• Finally, consideration is given to the styling of the body to meet various aesthetics and application
requirements.
• The light motor vehicles designed to carry passengers and sometimes goods are broadly classified as
follows: (i) Saloon car (ii) Coupe (iii) Convertible (iv) Estate car (v) Pick-up.
Saloon Car:
• Saloon cars have an enclosed compartment to accommodate a row of front and row of rear seats without
any partition between the driver and rear-passenger seats.
Saloon car. Hatchback car.
• A separate luggage space is made either at the front or the rear, based on the location of the engine.
• One or two doors are provided on each side of the car, but if the car is a hatchback, a door replaces the
luggage space.
Coupe:
• The couple is the outcome of changes is saloon-car design and has two doors, two front seats, and a hard
roof.
• When two additional small seats are provided at the rear, the layout is known as "two-plus-two".
Coupe car. Convertible car.
Convertible :
• Normally cars of this type have two doors and two seats, but sometimes two extra seats are also
provided.
• Generally these have a soft folding roof and wind-up windows to make the compartment either open or
closed.
Estate Car:
• In this type, the passenger roof of saloon is completely extended to the back end so that rear space is
increased.
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• For access a rear door is provided and sometimes the rear seats are designed to collapse to provide
additional space for carrying goods.
Estate car. Pick-up.

Pick-up:
• This type of vehicle is generally classified as a two-door front-seating van with an open back (with or
without canvas roof) to carry mixed collection of goods.
Vans
• Vans are light goods vehicles used for long distances or door-to-door delivery.
• They have seats in the front for the driver and for only one or two passengers.
• The engine is usually located over or just in front of the front axle.
Medium-sized van.
• Hinged or sliding type doors are located on each side opposite the seats.
• There are double doors at the rear of the van, which open outwards for easy loading.
• Small vans combine the cab and the body with integral or nomo-box construction.
• Large vans sometimes have separate cab and body, mounted on an independent chassis frame.
• The rear axle may have twin road- wheels to have higher load carrying capacity.
Coaches
• Coaches carry passengers traveling on long distance, and hence the interior is designed to provide the
best possible comfort and to minimize fatigue.
• Seats are located facing the front to provide passengers the benefit of looking ahead.
• For better visibility of passengers large paneled windows are provided on either side extending the full
length of the vehicle and across the back seats.
• There is a door adjacent to the driver.
• The passenger's doors are located opposite side of the driver's seat one towards the front and the other
towards the rear.
• An emergency door is usually provided towards the centre on the opposite side of passenger's doors.
• Most coaches have the two-axle arrangement, but sometimes an extra axle is also used.
• As shown in the figure, engines may be mounted longitudinally in the front (Position 1), or in the mid-
position horizontally (Position 2) or at the rear transversely (Position 3).
• The location of the engine and transmission depends much on the length of the coach, the number of
passenger seats, the luggage space, and high or low floorboard and seat-mounting requirements.

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Coach Double-decker bus

Double-decker Bus
• These buses are used to transport large numbers of people having little luggage for short distances,
usually in high-density traffic.
• The double-decker bus occupies the minimum amount of road space.
• These vehicles require a stair space for people to climb up to the upper deck (first floor).
• The ground floor of the bus is arranged for seating and standing provision of the passengers.
• The size and quality of seats are normally minimal due to short journeys.
• Visibility for passengers inside the bus is provided sufficiently so that they can see where they are and
where to get off.
• Most modern buses have two sets of doors. Passengers can enter through the front side door and pay
their fare, and can disembark by the rear side door.
• The engine is normally located transversely across the back of the bus or sometimes longitudinally to
one side at the back.
Lorries
• Commercial vehicles used for the transportation of heavy goods are generally referred to as lorries.
• These vehicles are grouped into two categories such as rigid trucks and articulated vehicles.
Rigid Trucks
• These vehicles unlike articulated vehicles are constructed to have all the axles attached to a single
chassis frame.
• A simple truck has two axles and four wheels.
• More number of axles and wheels are added to increase load-carrying capacity.
Classification of a Rigid Truck.

• The number of wheel hubs and the number of drive axle hubs classify the rigid trucks as follows :
1. A four-wheeler (4 x 2) truck with two driving wheels
2. A six-wheeler (6 x 4) truck with four driving wheels
3. A six-wheeler (6 x 2) truck with two driving wheels.
4. An eight-wheeler (8 x 4) truck with four driving wheels
Rigid4x2 truck.

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Rigid 6x4 truck. Rigid 8x4 truck.
Articulated Tractor and Semi-trailer:

• Articulated vehicles use a tractor unit for providing the propulsive power and a semi-trailer for carrying
the payload.
• The tractor uses a short rigid chassis and two or three axles.
• The front axle carries the steered road-wheels, and the rear axle is the driving (live) one.
• The middle axle may either function as an additional drive axle or for dual steering.
• The semi-trailer has a long rigid chassis with a single-axle, tandem-axle, or tri-axle layout at the rear
end.
• All the trailer axles are dead axles.
• The front end of the trailer chassis is supported on the rear of the tractor chassis.
• At this point it is free to swivel about a pivot known as the fifth wheel coupling.
• The fifth-wheel coupling is the swivel mechanism used to attach the trailer to the tractor unit.
• It contains a turntable, fixed to the rear of the tractor unit, to support the underside front end of the trailer
with a kingpin, which pivots between two half jaws.
• For hitching and unhitching of the trailer and the tractor, the half jaws are moved either together to
secure the kingpin or apart to release it.
Rigid 4x2 tractor and single-axle 2 articulated Rigid 6x4 tractor and tandem-axle 4 articulated
trailers. trailers.

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Rigid 6x2 tractor and tri-axle 6 articulated trailers.
Classification of Articulated Vehicle:

• Different sizes of articulated tractor and trailer are available which can be classified as follows.
1. Four-wheeler and two-wheel trailer (rigid 4x2 tractor and single-axle 2 articulated trailer)
2. Six-wheeler tandem-drive-axle tractor and four-wheel trailer (rigid 6x4 tractor and tandem-axle 4
articulated trailer)
3. Six-wheeler dual-steer-axle tractor and six wheel trailer (rigid 6x2 tractor and tri-axle 6 articulated
trailer)
Articulated Vehicles Compared with Rigid Trucks:

Advantages:
• The trailer and tractor units are interchangeable and a tractor can be immediately coupled to another
loaded trailer unit.
• Articulated vehicles have much smaller turning circles than rigid trucks of the same length.
Disadvantages:
• Less traction is available, because only the front end of the semi-trailer is supported by the tractor.
• Tractor-and-trailer assembly have a tendency to jack about the fifth wheel under certain steered and
barking conditions.
• The tractor and trailer have only a small degree of pivoting in the vertical plane due to which they
behave unstable over rough ground.
• Articulated-trailer wheels do not follow the same path as the tractor wheels, and tend to cut in or across
the road while turning a corner.
Body and Chassis

• Automobile chassis and frame (structure) support various components and body of the vehicle in
addition to loads it is supposed to carry.
• There are two principal types of auto body construction. The unibody construction, and the body and
chassis frame construction.
• In the unibody or integral construction, individual metal parts are welded together to make up the body
assembly and provide overall body rigidity through an integral all steel welded construction.
• The attachment provisions for the power train and suspension systems are provided by the under body
area, which also contributes to the strength of the vehicle. The floor plan and related sections become an
integral part of the chassis frame.
• Although a separate frame is used on commercial vehicles, the majority of modern cars use integral
construction, which produces a stronger and lighter vehicle and is cheaper on mass production.
• Whether it is a car or a truck, the automobile structure has to withstand various static and dynamic loads.
• To appreciate the design and construction of a vehicles chassis, an understanding of the operating
environment is necessary.
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• The chapter presents the automobile structure as a whole.
The Chassis
• The chassis frame supports the various components and the body, and keeps them in correct positions.
• The frame must be light, but sufficiently strong to withstand the weight and rated load of the vehicle
without having appreciable distortion.
• It must also be rigid enough to safeguard the components against the action of different forces.
• The chassis design includes the selection of suitable shapes and cross-section of chassis-members.
• Moreover the design looks into the reinforcement of the chassis side- and cross-member joints, and the
various methods of fastening them together.
• The materials most commonly used for frame construction is cold-rolled open-hearth steel, but
sometimes heat treated alloy steel that has equivalent strength with less weight is also used.
• The steel is usually cold-pressed into channel sections so that the frame becomes strong and light.
Heavy-duty trucks sometimes use frames made from I-sections and other structural forms.
• Figure illustrates the two views of a typical frame.
A typical vehicle frame
Chassis Operating Conditions

• The design of an automobile chassis requires prior understanding of the kind of conditions the chassis is
likely to face on the road.
• The chassis generally experiences four major loading situations that include,
(i) vertical bending, (ii) longitudinal torsion, (iii) lateral bending, and (iv) horizontal lozenging.
Vertical Bending:
• Considering a chassis frame is supported at its ends by the wheel axles and a weight equivalent to the
vehicle's equipment, passengers and luggage is concentrated
around the middle of its wheelbase, then the side-members are subjected to vertical bending causing
them to sag in the central region.
Longitudinal Torsion:
• When diagonally opposite front and rear road-wheels roll over bumps simultaneously, the two ends of
the chassis are twisted in opposite directions so that both the side and the cross-members are subjected
to longitudinal torsion (Fig.), which distorts the chassis.

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Longitudinal torsion Lateral bending Lozenging.
Lateral Bending.
• The chassis is exposed to lateral (side) force that may be due to the camber of the road, side wind,
centrifugal force while turning a corner, or collision with some object.
• The adhesion reaction of the road-wheel tyres opposes these lateral forces.
• As a net result a bending moment (Fig.) acts on the chassis side members so that the chassis frame tends
to bow in the direction of the force.
Horizontal Lozenging:
• A chassis frame if driven forward or backwards is continuously subjected to wheel impact with road
obstacles such as pot-holes, road joints, surface humps, and curbs while other wheels produce the
propelling thrust.
• These conditions cause the rectangular chassis frame to distort to a parallelogram shape, known as
'lozenging' (Fig.).
Chassis Frame Sections

• During movement of a vehicle over normal road surfaces, the chassis frame, is subjected to both bending
and torsional distortion as discussed in the previous section.
• Under such running conditions, the various chassis-member cross-section shapes, which find
application, include. (i) Solid round or rectangular cross-sections, (ii) Enclosed thin-wall hollow round
or rectangular box-sections, (iii) Open thin-wall rectangular channeling such as 'C, T, or 'top-hat'
sections.
Chassis-member sections.
Unit - I
(A) Square solid bar (B) Round solid bar (C) Circular tube with longitudinal slit (D) Circular closed
tube (E) C-section (F) Rectangular box section (G) Top-hat-section (H) I-section
(I) Channel flitch plate.
Side-member Bending Resistance:
• The chassis side-members, which span the wheelbase between the front and rear axles must be able to
take the maximum of the sprung weight.
• The sprung weight is the weight of the part of the vehicle supported by the suspension system.
• The binding stiffness of these members must resist their natural tendency to sag.
• The use of either pressed-out open-channel sections or enclosed thin-wall hollow round or rectangular
box-sections can provide the maximum possible bending stiffness of chassis members relative to their
weight.
• A comparison of the bending stiffness of different cross-sections having the same cross-sectional area
and wall thickness is presented in Fig.
• Considering a stiffness of 1 for the solid square section, the relative bending stiffness for other sections
are,
Square bar 1.0
Round bar 0.95
Round hollow tube 4.3
Rectangular C-channel 6.5
Square hollow section 7.2
• Practically, a 4 mm thick C-section channel having a ratio of channel web depth to flange width of about
3:1 are used as chassis side-members.
• This provides a bending resistance of 15 times greater than that for a solid square section with the same
cross sectional area.
• For heavy-duty applications, two C-section channels may be placed back to back to form a rigid load-
supporting member of I-section (Fig. H).
• To provide additional strength and support for an existing chassis over a highly loaded region (for
example, part of the side-member spanning a rear tandem-axle suspension), the side-members may have
a double-section channel.
• This second skin is known as a flitch frame or plate (Fig. I).
Side-and Cross-member Torsional Resistance:

• The open-channel sections exhibit excellent resistance to bending, but have very little resistance to twist.
• Therefore, both side and cross-members of the chassis must be designed to resist torsional distortion
along their length.
• Figure C to F illustrates the relative torsional stiffness between open-channel sections and closed thin-
wall box-sections.
• Comparisons firstly between the open and closed circular sections and secondly between the rectangular
sections are made, considering the open section has a resistance of 1 in each case.
Longitudinal split tube = 1.0
Enclosed hollow tube = 62.0
Open rectangular C-channel = 1.0
Closed rectangular box-section = 105.0
• This clearly explains the advantages of using channel sections over the hollow tube due to high torsional
stiffness.
• The chassis frame, however, is not designed for complete rigidity, but for the combination of both
strength and flexibility to some degree.

Unit - I
Chassis Frame Design
• A frame suitable for a light truck or minibus is shown in Fig.
• The frame uses a non-independent suspension system and is consisted of two channel-shaped side-
members, which are joined together with the help of a series of cross-members.
• These cross-members are placed at points of high stress and are cold-riveted to the side-members.
• The channel section must be chosen to minimize deflection.
• Most frames of light vehicles are made of low-carbon steel having the carbon content of 0.15 - 0.25
percent.
• Since the load varies at each point of the frame, so to reduce its weight either the depth of channel is to
be decreased, or a series of holes are to be drilled along the neutral axis in the regions where the load is
relatively less.
Frame for light truck.

• To safeguard the frame against lozenging, gusset plates are fitted to reinforce the joins between the
side- and cross-members, or an *X' type bracing is placed between two or more of the cross members.
• The frame shown in Fig. does not have sufficient rigidity against torsion, so the body has to meet this
requirement.
• If the body is not designed to resist these stresses, the problems like movement between doors and
pillars, broken windscreens and cracking of the body panels may occur.
• Since body jigs for pressing the integral bodies are generally very expensive, it is usual to use a separate
chassis frame when the production of a given model is not large in number.
• Most of the cars have independent suspension, so the frame must be extremely rigid at the points of
joining the main components with the body.
• To achieve this, box-section members are welded together and suitably reinforced in the regions of high
stress (Fig.)
• Figure presents a backbone frame, an alternative construction to the conventional rectangular frame.
• In this construction two longitudinal box section members are welded together at the centre and
separated at the front and rear to accommodate the main components.
• A series of out-rigger frame members are welded to the spine to support the floor of the body.
Box section frame. Backbone-type frame.
Energy-absorbing Frame:
• The chassis frames in older designs were made very stiff in order to improve safety for the occupants of
a car when involved in a collision.

Unit - I
• This is not truly correct because on impact the structure provides the occupants an extremely high
deceleration and the force acting on the human body as it dashes against a hard surface is likely to cause
serious injury or death.
Energy-absorbing frame
• This problem has been overcome in most modern frames by constructing the front- and rear-end of the
frame in a manner so that it crumples in a concertina manner during collision and absorb the main shock
of the impact.
• Actually the body panel in the vicinity of these crumple zones are generally damaged beyond repair, but
this is a small price to pay to minimize the injury to the occupants.
• Figure 21.9 illustrates the principle of designing a frame to absorb the energy of front-end and rear-end
impacts.
Chassis Side- and Cross-member Joints

• Cross- and side-members are joined together to form a rectangular one-piece frame.
• Open-channel sections are commonly used for cross members, but for special applications some times
tube sections are also used.
Chassis side- and cross-member reinforcement joints

(A) Top-hat-section cross-member joined to side-member flanges and web
(B) C-section cross-member with extended flanges joined to side-member flanges
(C) C-section cross-member with reinforcement gussets joined to side-member web
(D) 'Top-hat'-section cross-member with alligator-jawed enforcement joined to both flanges and web
(E) Tubular-section cross-member with reinforcement flat bracket joined to side-member web.
• The individual channel members do not have adequate stiffness against twist, but when joined together
they form a relatively rigid structure capable of withstanding both bending the torsional loading.
• The attachment of the cross-members to the side channels needs special attention, because the junction
points are subjected to maximum bending as well as torsional stresses.

Unit - I
• Commercial-vehicle side-members are generally made from flat strip pressed into C-channel of
appropriate section.
• The web section of C-channel resists any vertical bending and the top and bottom flanges prevent the
web from buckling along its length and provide additional resistance to both bending and torsional
stresses.
• Since the flanges or the outer regions of the web are the maximum stressed parts of the channel, any
attachment should, therefore, preferably be in the web section. In actual practice, joints are made
between flanges or a combination of both web and flange joints for convenience.
• Figure A shows a cross-member of 'top-hat' section joined between the web and both flanges.
• Sometimes just the web alone is joined, or alternatively the upper and lower flanges from the
attachments.
• These joints are mostly used for light and medium-duty work.
• Figure B shows a pure channel-section flange joint and the cross-member flanges have been widened to
provide reinforcement to the joint. This joint is used only for medium duty work.
• Figure C shows side- and cross-member joint where the cross-member has a lap-welded end gusset
(triangular) bracket, joined to the side channel web only.
• This method of joint reinforcement allows the flange to be out of holes, which generally serve as a point
for stress concentration. These joints are widely used for heavy-duty trucks.
• Figure D shows a pressed-out two-piece cross-member that opens up at the end to form an alligator-jaw
flange-and-web reinforced joint.
• This form of cross-member and attachment is often used when it is necessary to have an under slung
bridging member to clear the engine's sump-pan.
• Figure E shows a round tube-section cross-member with a fillet-welded rectangular end bracket joined
directly to the side-member web.
• Tubular-section cross-members are specifically suitable for withstanding both bending and torsional
stresses at concentrated points, such as spring shackle-hangers and tandem-axle suspension pivoting
supports.
Chassis Side- and Cross-member fastening:

• The service life of a chassis structure also depends on the type of joints in which the various members
are fixed together.
• Riveting, bolting, and lap welding are the three different methods of joining available.
Chassis-member joint
(A) Riveted joint (B) Bolted joint (C) Lap-welded joint.
Riveted Joints:
• Cold-riveted joints (Fig. A) are most commonly used to join two chassis members.
• The unformed rivet has a shank and a set head. In the process of cold forging the second head, the shank
spreads out in a pair of holes in the members to be joined, and occupies any clearance existing in the
hole.
• These joints provide a moderately large compressive force between the plates so that relative movement
is prevented.

Unit - I
Bolted Joints:
• For heavy-duty applications, the bolted joints (Fig. B) are preferred, specifically if additional
components are to be fastened.
• The tightening of nuts and bolts sets up compressive forces between the plates, so that the corresponding
friction forces generated prevent relative movement.
• If the nuts are not adequately tightened, or if they become loose due to continuous flexing and vibration
of the chassis, relative movement between the joined plates due to any clearance may cause to fretting,
noise, corrosion and finally fatigue failure.
Welded Joints:
• Generally chassis side- and cross-members are not welded together.
• However subsections are frequently joined by lap welding.
• The problem with welded joints (Fig. C) is that they produce thermal distortion and, in case of the rigid
frame, high stress concentration develops at the joints, which may eventually crack.
• Additionally, welding destroys any previous heat treatment around the joint thereby weakening the
structure.
• Although precautions are available to prevent these problems but they are expensive to apply.
Body work and Integral Construction:

Some Terminology Pertaining to Body:
• Cab: It is the driver's cabin, which may be a closed region separated from the rest of the body (as in
truck) or may be an open region being a part of the body (as in car).
• Fascia. It is the frontage of the vehicle visible to the driver. It includes the dash board (instrument
board), tape recorder housing, globe box etc.
• Dash board. It houses various indicators such as fuel level indicator, engine temperature indicator,
speedometer, voltmeter, ammeter, odometer, air-conditioner's control panel, ignition switch, light
switches, side indicator switch, various controls switches, automatic operation switches, etc.
• Legroom. It is the space provided for the movement of legs of the driver and passengers. Sufficient
legroom is essential for a comfortable driving, riding and traveling.
• Headroom. It is the vertical distance inside the body between the floor to ceiling. This dimension is
based on the stability consideration of the vehicle, as position of CG from the ground level depends on
this height.
• Shoulder Room. It is the clear horizontal distance available inside the body.
• Boot Space. This is the storing space available below the rear hood.
Body Work:
Requirements:
• The body work has to be structurally strong, easily accessible and of good finish.
• Some of the important considerations for a good body work include the following :
1. Attractive body styling.
2. Upholstery work should be well trimmed and comfortable.
3. Body structure should be rust preventing.
4. Paint work and other finishing should be appealing.
5. Body should be structurally strong and light. Therefore, construction material should be of light
weight, strong and cheap.
6. Doors and windows should be conveniently located, and easier to operate.
7. Controls should be located at convenient positions and should be easily approachable.

Unit - I
8. Arrangement of hand controls and foot pedals should be fool proof and untiring.
9. Provision of sufficient space for accommodating accessories, instruments and controls.
10. Driver's and passengers seats should be comfortable and adjustable, and should be conveniently
located.
11. Interior cabin should be dust proof and sound proof.
12. Body should be equipped with sufficient safety provisions.
Main Parts:
• The body work includes the following main parts.
1. Body safety,
2. Bonnet,
3. Side pillars,
4. Rear hood,
5. Front side panel,
6. Rear side panel,
7. Door pillars,
8. Windshield pillar,
9. Rear quarter pillar,
10. Body sill,
11. Roof,
12. Door Panels,
13. Front bumper,
14. Rear bumper
Integral Construction:
• Around 1934, the all-steel body construction was introduced so that a separate frame could be
eliminated.
• This frameless or integral construction provides a stiff, light construction, which is specifically suitable
for mass-produced vehicles.
• Since 1945 light cars have used integral construction.
• When suitably designed the body shell is capable of withstanding the various frame stresses.
Integral body construction.

Unit - I
• Figure illustrates some of the forces that act on a car body and the arrangement of the various body
panels to form a unitary structure of sufficient strength to resist these forces.
• The floor and roof panels resist the sagging effect caused by the weight of the occupants.
• Since these two members are widely spaced, thin sheet metal is used to form a strong and lightweight
box like structure.
• To increase torsional stiffness of the body the scuttle at the front is strengthened and behind the rear seat
squab cross ties are used or a ribbed metal panel is fitted.
• The thickness of the sheet metal depends on the stress to be taken by the panel.
• Structural members such as sills, rails and pillars are often about 1.1 mm thick, whereas panels such as
the roof are 0.9 mm thick.
• Component attachment points are reinforced with thicker section.
• Some cases use a separate sub-frame to mount engine and other members.
• Sometimes this sub-frame is connected to the body by rubber insulation mountings.
• Very low (0.1 percent) carbon steel is used to provide extremely good ductility required for the pressing
of the panels.
• The low strength, 278 MPa, of this steel requires stiffening of the structural members, which is achieved
by spot welding into position of intricate sections, formed out of thin steel sheet.
• A modified construction is necessary in case the roof cannot be fully utilized as a compression member.
• This situation occurs on drop-head coupe models and where a sunshine roof, or very thin door pillars are
used.
• To achieve the required strength in these cases a strong underbody frame is used.
• In addition, the body-shell parts, which are subjected to torsion, are provided with extra stiffness.
• A body-shell is normally fabricated either by spot-welding the panels, pillars and pressings together to
form a strong box, or by buildings a skeleton or space frame (Fig.), which provides a high structural
strength.
• To this frame is attached the shell, aluminium or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) body panels, doors,
roof, etc.
• Steel is the most common material used for manufacturing of vehicle in high volume, because
production costs become lower once the initial investment on body jigs and other facilities has been
recovered.
• The vibration of the panels, which produces an unwanted noise called drumming, is avoided by fixing a
sound-damping material on the inside of the panels.
• The driver and passengers are enclosed in a rigid cell for their safety.
Space frame Crumple zones
• The front and rear of this rigid compartment are fixed with sub-frames, which are designed to concertina
on impact (Fig.).

Unit - I
• The crumple zones of the body absorb the shock of a collision so that the rate of deceleration
experienced by the occupants is reduced.
• Nowadays, it is mandatory to obtain an impact test certificate from an approved centre before vehicles
can be sold.
• The vehicle can pass this severe destructive test, provided a required standard on the level of safety of
the occupants is witnessed.
• The doors must remain closed during impact and must open after the test.
• The inclusion of this test feature justifies the common use of special anti-burst locks at present.
• The vehicles safety belts, or some other approved body restraint system, must be provided for the driver
and all passengers.
• These belts must be securely anchored to suitable strengthened parts of the body.
• Internal body trim, fittings and controls must all conform to safety standards.
• The improvements made during recent years in the design of parts such as steering wheels and control
knobs have considerably increased the safety of the occupants.
Body Shape
• Body shape depends on a number of factors; these include appealing shape to the buyer, providing
comfort, and a good performance during its movement through the air.
• A car body with the aerodynamic shape passes with least resistance through the air; as a consequence
the fuel economy is improved.
• For a vehicle without aerodynamic shape of the body, a lot of engine power is required to drive through
the air.
• This expression shows that the air resistance increases very fast as the velocity of the vehicle relative to
the air becomes high (Fig.).
• The air resistance of a vehicle is measured through wind tunnel tests.
• Knowing the cross-sectional area of the vehicle and its velocity relative to the air, aerodynamic drag
coefficient (Cd) can be determined.
• Values of Cd for different types of vehicle are given in Table.
Force required for overcoming air resistance

• A streamlined body has a low Cd so that it provides minimum resistance when passes through the air.
• Since most of the resistance is caused by the low-pressure region at the rear of the vehicle, the body
shape returns the air to this region with the minimum of turbulence after the air has flowed over the
body.
Unit - I
• Since resistance is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area, a low and sleek sports-type car can
provide good performance.
Table: Aerodynamic drag coefficient for different types of vehicles.
Cd
Types of Vehicles
(dimensionless)
Racing Car 0.25 - 0.30
Passenger Car 0.30 - 0.60
Convertible 0.40 - 0.65
Bus 0.60 - 0.70
Truck 0.80 -1.00
Tractor and Trailers 1.25-1.35
Motor Cycle 1.75-1.85
• Separation of flow at the downstream side of the vehicle, and the difference in pressure on the up stream
and down stream side of the vehicle give rise to the phenomenon called wake.
• As wake is undesirable, it should be avoided or minimized by proper profiling of the body.
• The contour of body should be such that in addition to minimizing drag coefficient, the separation of
flow on any part of the body should not occur and the above pressure difference should be minimum.
• Wake depends on the body shape and drag coefficient depends on wake. To minimize wake rear spoiler
is added to aerodynamic styling of the body.
• Several improvements are incorporated in the body to reduce air drag.
Air dam and spoiler.

(A) Air dam. (B) Rear spoiler.
• These include the recessing of protruding items such as door handles and the shaping of the body below
the front bumper to form an air dam (Fig. A).
• Airflow control devices are sometimes fitted to the rear of the vehicle.
• These devices, depending on their shape and location, smooth out the air flow to reduce the disturbance,
or act as a spoiler to deflect the air upwards so that the adhesive force acting on the rear wheels is
increased (Fig. B).
• Although these arrangements are beneficial on racing cars, their usage on domestic cars may be regarded
as 'image creation' embellishments.
Vehicle Components Attachment and Location

• The automobile has the following essential components and it is important to have knowledge of their
mountings and locations: (a) engine (b) gearbox (c) clutch (d) propeller shaft and universal joints, (e)
drive shafts, (f) final drive, (g) steering, and (h) brakes.
Engine, Clutch, Gearbox, and Final-drive Support Mountings

• The engine, clutch, and gearbox combination and (with front-wheel drive layouts) the final drives are
usually supported on a three-point mounting system.
• This configuration permits the best possible freedom of movement about an imaginary roll-centre axis.
Unit - I
• However this arrangement provides certain rigidity for withstanding the torque reaction when the engine
is developing power.
• To mount various components, rubber blocks bonded on to steel plates are generally used.
• Sometimes these mounts are positioned at 45 degrees to the horizontal so that the rubber is subjected to
a combination of both compression and shear elastic distortion.
• This method of loading the rubber provides a flexible mount, whose stiffness increases with increase in
driving torque.
• Mountings are used to (a) absorb the torque reaction during transmission of power, (b) cushion the
rocking movement created by the out-of balance forces of the engine, (c) prevent transmission of
vibrations from engine and transmission systems to the body structure, and (d) accommodate any
misalignment of the engine or transmission units relative to the body frame.
Location and Mounting with Front-mounted Engine and Rear-wheel Drive:

• In this layout of the vehicle, the engine, clutch and gearbox are bolted together in series.
• The complete assembly is then supported between both the front-wheel suspensions by a three point
mounting system.
• The gear box is connected to the final drive by the propeller shaft and universal joint.
• In case the final drive is unsprung, as with the rigid rear axle (Fig. A), the drive is transferred within the
axle-casing to the road-wheels.
• On the other hand, if the final drive is sprung and mounted underneath the body structure by a three-
point rubber mounting (Fig. B), the drive is transferred through each drive shaft and universal joint to
the independently suspended road wheel.
Front-mounted engine and rear-wheel drive

(A) Unsprung rigid rear axle
(B) Independent rear suspensions and rear-wheel drive and rear-wheel drive.
Advantages:
1. A front-mounted engine provides a forward centre of gravity, which tends to stabilize
the car handling at speed.
2. Certain amount of safety is provided against crash to the driver and passengers with
the engine mounted in front.
3. The radiator can be best located in the front to utilize the air-stream ramming effect
as the car moves forward
4. A very small slope of the propeller shaft between the gearbox and the final drive permits the use of
simple Hooke's universal joints.
5. While climbing a steep slope, a partial weight transfer to the rear wheels takes place improving tyre-
to-road grip.
6. The control linkages from the clutch, gearbox, and engine to the driver's cabin can be simple and
direct.
7. The longitudinal-mounted engines at the front are easily accessible for routine maintenance.

Unit - I
8. Tyre wear on wheels, which only steer, is marginally less than on wheels, which both steer and
drive.
Disadvantages:
(a) A single or split propeller shaft with universal joints and supporting bearings between the front-mounted
gearbox and the rear axle may generate vibration, drumming, howl, and other noises under certain operating
conditions.
(6) The floor tunnel, necessary to provide clearance for operation of the propeller-shaft system, may
interfere with passenger leg-room.
(c) In case of a rigid casing for the axle and final drive, more weight is not supported by the suspension
system so that the quality of the suspension ride may be reduced.
(rf) Additional universal j oints and drive shafts are required for independent rear suspension.
(e) A rear-wheel-drive vehicle, when stuck in mud, tends to plough further into the ground when attempts
are made to drive away.
r
Fig. 21.18. Front-mounted engine and front-wheel drive. A. Transverse front-mounted engine and
front-wheel drive.
B. Longitudinal front-mounted engine and front-wheel drive.
21.9.3.
Location and Mounting with Front-mounted Engine and Front-wheel Drive.
This kind of layouts has the engine, clutch, gearbox, and final drive built together to form a single integral
assembly. In the transverse engine arrangement (Fig. 21.18A), the engine, clutch, and gearbox are bolted
together in series. The final drive forms part of the clutch bell housing and gearbox casing. The drive shafts
and their respective universal joints are placed on each side of the final-drive housing, to transfer the
propelling power to each front drive stub-axle and road-wheel.
The longitudinal-mounted engine (Fig. 21.18B) has the engine, clutch, final drive, and gearbox bolted
together in that order. The power from the final drive is transferred to each drive shaft and then to the road
wheels through its universal joint. In both layouts, the complete power and transmission-unit assembly is
supported by a three point rubber mounting arrangement.
Unit - I
Advantages.
(a) The road adhesion and acceleration are improved due to the concentration of engine, transmission, and
final-drive components on the front driving wheels.
(b) The elimination of the propeller shaft permits the use of a low floor profile and also in some cases the
centre of gravity of vehicle is lowered.
(c) The engine, gearbox, clutch, and final drive form a compact single assembly, which can be handled
easily.
(d) Front-wheel-drive steered wheels are capable of driving out of pot-holes, ditches, loose soil, and boggy
ground.
(e) Simplified rigid or independent rear suspension can be used requiring minimum service.
(/) A transverse-mounted engine provides relatively more passenger room.
(g) Fixing the final drive to the power and transmission unit reduces the unsprung weight, so that the quality
of ride is improved.
(h) Since steering and driving road-wheels are combined, the wheel traction and road holding on bends are
improved.
(i) Due to a forward centre of gravity, handling characteristics such as oversteer and understeer have a
tendency towards more desirable understeer response.
(j) The actuating linkages for engine, gearbox, and clutch become simple.
Disadvantages.
(a) To drive the live stub-axles, constant-velocity universal joints are required to be built
into the front suspension and steering system.
(6) Initial costs of the total arrangement are generally higher and also the maintenance,because of the
replacement of components, is usually faster compared with the conventional rear-wheel-drive cars.
(c) During hill-climbing the centre of gravity of the car is moved slightly backwards causing less weight to
act on the front driving wheels so that reduction of tyre traction results.
(d) Because of all the power and transmission components positioned in front, the driver and passengers
may be subjected to more noise, heat, and fumes.
(e) The concentration of weight at the front gives rise too slightly heavier steering.
21.9.4.
Location and Mounting with Rear-mounted Engine and Rear-wheel Drive.
In this case also the power and transmission assembly is supported on the three-point mounting. In one
layout of this type of location and mounting, a horizontally opposed four-cylinder engine is connected in
series with the clutch, final drive, and gearbox (Fig. 21.19A). At the final drive housing the power is split
and transferred by the drive shaft and coupling joints to the rear road-wheels.
In an alternative layout, a transverse in-line four-cylinder engine is connected in series with the clutch,
gearbox, the final drive, where the power flow is divided and transferred to each rear driving road-wheel
through the respective couplings and drive shafts (Fig. 21.19B).

Unit - I
r
Fig. 21.19. Rear-mounted engine and rear-wheel drive. A. Longitudinal rear-mounted engine and
rear-wheel drive. B. Transverse rear-mounted engine and rear-wheel drive.
Advantages.
(a) Due to concentration of weight on the rear wheels, driving traction during climbing hills is improved.
(6) The increased weight distribution at the rear end allows the rear wheels to be designed to take a larger
proportion of braking.
(c) Passengers do not experience excessive noise, heat, and fumes, as these are left behind during movement
of vehicle in the forward direction.
(d) With rear-wheel drive, the steering and suspension at front-wheels can be simplified and steering
interference does not exist due to worn transmission components.
(e) The weight on the front wheels being relatively less, steering is somewhat lighter than for other
arrangements.
(/) The exhaust pipe and silencer system can be short, direct, and compact.
Disadvantages.
(a) The control linkages for the engine, gearbox, and clutch are required to be extended
to the driver's position.
(6) To provide sufficient side-clearance for the front steered wheels the luggage-boot width
reduces.
(c) The relatively large weight at the rear tends to make the car unstable at speed.
(d) The relatively lighter front end tends to make the car over-steer and very sensitive to crosswinds.
(e) Installation of the cooling-system radiator and arrangement of its effective air supply are difficult.
Provision of interior heating for the driver and front passenger may be more complicated.
if) Servicing and repairs of the power and transmission units are more difficult, and time
taking as they are not easily accessible.
(g) In this layout the most convenient location for the petrol tank is in the front, which
may tend to become a safety hazard in a collision.
Automobile Engines Classification
Automobile engines are classified in many several different ways as follows :
(i) Types of Cycles : Two-stroke and four-stroke cycles. For details section 2.3 may be
referred.
(ii) Types of Fuel Used: Gasoline (petrol) and diesel. For details chapter 8 may be referred.
Unit - I
(Hi) Number of Cylinders : Passenger-car engines generally have three, four, five, six,
eight and twelve cylinders. Twelve and sixteen cylinder engines have been used in buses and
trucks.
(iv) Arrangement of Cylinders : The automobile engines vary according to the arrange-
ment of cylinders in the cylinder block. Refer section 2.5 for details.
(v) Firing Order : Firing order is the order in which the cylinders deliver their power
strokes. This is a built-in part of the engine design. The strokes are divided along the crankshaft
so that a well distributed pattern results, minimising the strain on the crankshaft. For finding
firing order, manufacturers' service manual for the engine is to be consulted. For firing order
details, section 2.6 may be referred.
(vi) Arrangement of valves: Engines may be classified according to the location and type
of valve system employed. Refer section 2.7 for detail.
U"w> Type of Cooling : Most automobile engines use a liquid, usually water mixed with
antifreeze, to maintain the engine at a constant operating temperature by transferring heat
from the metal surrounding the combustion chamber to the liquid. This system is called a liquid
cooling system. Some automobiles transfer the heat directly to the air without an intermediate
liquid cooling medium. Cooling the engine by this method is called air cooling. For further details
chapter 12 may be referred.
wiii) Reciprocating or Rotary Engines: Rotary engines are rotating combustion cham-
ber engines (Wankel engine) and turbines. Rotary engines have been discussed in chapter 5.
Engine Construction
The major components of an automobile reciprocating piston engine are the
cylinder block, oil pan, cylinder head, intake manifold, exhaust manifold, crankshaft,
flywheel, camshaft, oil seals, bearings, connecting rod, piston, piston rings, valve
train etc. This chapter deals with all these components with respect to their function,
construction, design considerations, materials, trends, etc.
3.1.
Cylinder Block
The cylinder block is the portion of the engine between the cylinder head and sump (oil pan)
and is the supporting structure for the entire engine. All the engine parts are mounted on it or
in it and this holds the parts in alignment. Large diameter holes in the block-castings form the
cylinder bores required to guide the pistons. These holes are called bores as they are made by
boring. The cylinders are provided with a web or bulkhead to support the crankshaft and head
attachments. Each main bearing bulkhead supports both a cam bearing and a main bearing.
The bulkhead is well ribbed to support and distribute loads applied to it. This gives the block
structural rigidity and beam stiffness. The cylinders are surrounded by cooling passages. The
block has drilled passages for the flow of coolant and lubricating oil separately. When a curved
passage is needed, intersecting drilled holes are used. After oil holes are drilled the unneeded
open ends are capped by pipe plugs, steel balls, or cup-type soft plugs. The head, pan, and timing
cover are fixed to the block with sealed joints for eliminating leakage. Gaskets are used in the
joints to take up machining irregularities and to absorb variations due to pressure and
temperature extremities.
Within the cylinder, combustion process produces rapid and periodic rises in temperature
and pressure. These induce circumferential and longitudinal tensile stresses, which act around
the cylinder and in the direction of the cylinder axis respectively. These induced stresses are of
pulsating nature, so that the cylinder is continuously stretched and contracted while in
operation. Combustion pressure loads are carried from the head to the crankshaft bearings
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through the block structure. Mounting pads or lugs on the block transfer the reaction loads
caused by the engine torque to the vehicle frame.
The cylinder head is fastened to the top surface of the block, called the block deck. The deck
has a smooth surface to seal against the head gasket. Threaded bolt holes are provided around
the cylinders to form an even holding pattern. These bolt holes go into reinforced areas within
the block that carry the load to the main bearing bulkheads.
The cylinders may be of a skirt-less design, flush with the top of the crankcase, or they may
have a skirt that extends into the crankcase. Extended skirt cylinders are used on engines with
short connecting rods. As a result a low overall engine height can be obtained since it has a
small block size for its displacement. In most skirtless cylinder designs, the cooling passages
extend nearly to the bottom of the cylinder. In skirted cylinder designs, the cooling passages are
limited to the upper portion of the cylinder.
Both spark-ignition cylinder blocks and compression-ignition cylinder blocks are similar,
but latter blocks are relatively heavier and stronger to withstand high compression ratios and
internal pressure.
3.1.1.
Types of Block
In-line Cylinders.
The in-line cylinder block assembly is available with many variations. One type uses a single
monoblock casting forming an integral cylinder block and crankcase (Fig. 3.1). Another type
uses a separate casting for cylinder head, cylinder block and crankcase (Fig. 3.2). The monoblock
cylinder block and crankcase is relatively easy to cast, is cheap to manufacture, and produces
a very stiff combined structure. This type is commonly used for small and medium engines. The
detachable bolt-on crankcase is used on some large diesel engines where an aluminium-alloy
crankcase is bolted on to a cast-iron block to minimize weight. The combined head and cylinder
block casting with a bolt-on crankcase has been used in heavy duty diesel engines to minimize
thermal distortion.
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Fig. 3.1. Monoblock cylinder block and crankcase. Fig. 3.2 Cylinder block with detachable crankcase.
Horizontally Opposed Cylinders.
Horizontally opposed cylinders generally have a separate crankcase with banks of two or
three cylinders bolted on opposite sides (Fig. 3.3) or two half integral cylinder block and
crankcase banks bolted together (Fig. 3.4). There is either a central camshaft to actuate the
valve push-rods, or twin camshafts, one for each bank.

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Fig. 3.3. Horizontally opposed cylinder Fig. 3.4. Horizontally opposed cylinder
with detachable crankcase. with divided crankcase.
V-banked Cylinders.
V-banked cylinders have compact and rigid arrangements and are common in engine of 2.5
liters or above. The angle between banks is generally 60 degrees for four- and six-cylinder
engines, and 90 degrees for eight-cylinder engines. An integral cylinder block and crankcase is
used with this block. In this arrangement a central camshaft actuates the valves in each cylinder
block (Fig. 3.5). However, in some heavy-duty diesel engines a separate crankcase is used with
a separate camshaft for each bank (Fig. 3.6).
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Fig. 3.5. Monoblock V cylinder Fig. 3.6. 'V cylinder block
block and crankcase. with detachable crankcase.
3.1.2.
The Coolant Passages
The coolant passages are cast in the cylinder block. These surround the cylinder walls
circumferentially and lengthwise covering approximately the full depth of the cylinders. The
coolant passages terminate near the bottom of the cylinders, where the cylinder walls merge
with the crankcase. At the top of the cylinder, the coolant passages end either at the level of the
block's joint face, called as an open deck (Fig. 3.7), or just below the block's machine face, known
as a closed deck (Fig. 3.8). In the closed deck cylinder block, the vertical drillings, which
communicate with corresponding holes in the cylinder head, provide coolant circulation. A closed
deck has better joint reliability than an open deck. On the other hand, it is easier to cast an
open-deck cylinder block.

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Fig. 3.7. Closed-deck cylinder block. Fig. 3.8. Open-deck cylinder block.
3.1.3.
The Crankcase
The crankcase supports the individual main journals and bearings of the crankshaft and
also maintains the alignment of the journal axes of rotation as they are subjected to rotary and
reciprocating inertia forces and the periodic torque impulses. A tunnel-roof construction of the
crankcase is partitioned-off by bulkhead cross-webs, which mount and support the crankshaft
main journals and bearings (Fig. 3.8). This semicircular ceiling construction with spaced-out
cross-webs offers a very stiff and relatively light crankcase structure.
Over the underslung crankshaft, the crankcase walls from a skirt, which is either separately
attached to the cylinder block's lower deck (Fig. 3.2) or merged into it as integral casting (Fig.
3.1). The crankcase skirt may enclose the crankshaft from cylinder block to crankshaft-axis level
(Fig. 3.1). However, to provide extra rigidity the walls also extend well below the crankshaft
(Fig. 3.2). This is suitable for both high-performance and heavy-duty engines. Ribs run from the
bottom of the cylinder block diagonally towards the main-bearing housings for additional
support to the cross-webs. In some aluminium-alloy integral cylinder-blocks and crankcases,
stiffening ribs are cast longitudinally and vertically downwards on the outside walls of the block
and crankcase.
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Fig. 3.9. V-type engine block. Fig. 3.10. Y-type engine block.
The crankcase walls are flanged at the bottom
to strengthen the casing and to attach the sump.
Two types of lower block designs are in use, name-
ly V-block (Fig. 3.9) and Y-block or deep block :
(Fig. 3.10). The base of V-block is close to the
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crankshaft centre. This block is compact and
lightweight. The Y-block improves the stiffness of
the entire engine, which provides smooth and
quite operation, and durability.
3.1.4.
Cylinder Block Material
The cylinder blocks are cast in one piece from
gray iron or iron alloy containing nickel or
chromium for high strength and wear resistance.
Some cylinder blocks are cast from a silicon
aluminium alloy. The cylinder block is a compli-
cated casting. A V-8 cylinder block is illustrated
in Fig. 3.11.
When cast in a monoblock form, the cylinder
block material should have adequate strength
and rigidity in compression, bending, and torsion.
This is necessary to resist the gas pressure loads
and also for the components, which convert the
reciprocating motion of individual piston into a
single rotary motion.
The cylinder-block material should
(a) be relatively cheap,
(b) readily produce castings with good impressions,
(c) be easily machined,
id) be rigid and strong enough in both bending and torsion,
(e) have good abrasion resistance,
(f) have good corrosion resistance,
ig) have high thermal expansion,
(h) have a high thermal conductivity,
(i) retain its strength at high operating temperatures, and
(J) have a relatively low density.
Although cast iron meets most of these requirements, it has a low thermal conductivity and
is comparatively heavier. Due to these limitations, light aluminium alloys have been used as
alternative cylinder-block materials for petrol engines. Cylinder liners (refer section 3.1.5) are
optional with cast-iron blocks; but are more essential with the relatively soft light aluminium
alloy blocks, as they cannot directly withstand wear resistance. Because of the lower strength
of the aluminium alloys, the blocks are cast with thicker sections and additional support ribs,
so that their weight becomes about half of the equivalent cast-iron blocks.

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Fig. 3.11. A V-8 engine block.
A typical cast iron is a gray cast iron, which contains 3.5% carbon, 2.25% silicon, 0.65%
manganese, and the balance (93.6%) iron. The carbon improves lubrication property of graphite,
the silicon controls the formation of a laminated structure, called pearlite, which has good wear
resistance, and the manganese strengthens and toughens the iron structure. A common
aluminium alloy composition is 11.5% silicon, 0.5% manganese, and 0.4% magnesium, with the
balance (87.6%) aluminium. The high silicon content in this alloy reduces expansion but
improves cast-ability, strength, and abrasion resistance, while the other two elements
strengthen the aluminium structure. While this alloy provides a good corrosion resistance, it
can absorb only moderate shock loads.
Advantages of cast iron cylinder blocks are;
(i) Good casting properties.
(ii) Free graphite helps to give good wearing properties. The cylinder bore, for example,
can be machined directly in cast iron.
(Hi) Good sound damping properties.
(iv) Tapped holes (i.e., cylinder head studs) are less easily stripped than with aluminium.
Advantages of aluminium cylinder blocks are ;
(i) Lighter in weight.
(ii) Attractive appearance.
(Hi) Easier machining during production.
(iv) Better heat dissipation.
3.1.5.
Cylinder Liner
The liner increases cylinder bore life, as this can be made of an iron suitable more for its
wearing properties than for its casting properties. A single grade of cast iron used to cast cylinder
block cannot have all the optimum individual mechanical properties such as strength, tough-
ness, hardness, and corrosion and wear resistance. Separate cylinder liners are therefore used.
These provide prolonged cylinder life, which outweighs the extra cost. The liners can be made
from lightly alloyed cast iron. They are centrifugally cast into the cylindrical sleeve, machined,
the then heat-treated to produce the optimum wear-resisting properties.
These liners are of two classes :
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(i) Those, which are in direct contact with the cylinder bore walls of the cylinder block,
are known as dry liners.
(ii) Those, which are supported only at each end in the cylinder block and are elsewhere
in direct contact with the engine coolant, are known as wet liners.
Dry Liners.
Normally dry cylinder liners (Fig. 3.12) are provided under the following circumstances :
(a) When the cylinder block is made from aluminium alloy, the cylinder bore wall should
be stronger and of much harder wear resistant material.
(b) For heavy duty operating conditions, the normal wear resistance of a cast-iron cylinder
block can be improved through sleeves with superior properties.
(c) When the cylinder block is designed with siamesed adjacent cylinder bores in order to
reduce the over all length, then only dry liners are suitable.
(d) When a cylinder block has been rebored two or three times, then dry liners are used
to restore to the original size of the cylinder bore.
(e) If both bending and torsional rigidities are of concern, a cylinder block with cast-in
coolant passages and cylinder bores fitted with dry liners is more suitable than a block
using wet liners.
The three basic fits used with dry liners are (i) cast-in fit, (ii) force (press) fit, and (Hi) slip
fit.
(i) Cast-in-fit Liner.
For using dry cylinder liners in aluminium-alloy cylinder blocks, the
outside cylindrical surface of the liner is machined to form a helical groove running from top to
bottom. The liners are generally preheated to 473 K and are then placed correctly in the
cylinder-block casting dies before casting starts. This forms a strong metallic bond between the
aluminium-alloy block and the cast-iron sleeve after solidification.
(ii) Force-fit (Press-fit) Liner.
This liner (Fig. 3.12A) is a plain cylindrical sleeve. The
liner is positioned by drawing or pushing the sleeve into the cylinder block with force. This
operation requires suitable end-plates and guides, and either a screw-and-nut draw-bar attach-
ment or a hydraulic-press set-up. Typical interference fits between the sleeve and cast-iron
cylinder block are 0.050 mm and 0.075 mm for bore diameters of 75 to 100 mm and 100 to 150
mm respectively.
(ill) Slip-fit Liner.

This liner (Fig. 3.12B) is a cylindrical sleeve, flanged at one end for
positioning and securing in its location. There is little or no contact between the liner and the
block walls. The liner is inserted by hand pressure. The flange projects above the block face by
0.05 to 0.125 mm to prevent vertical movement relative to the block while in use.

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A. Plain force-fit- B. Flanged slip-fit.
Dry Liner Installation.
First the cylinder walls and their counter-bores are cleaned of
rust, carbon, and any burrs. Then diametrical distortion is checked with a micrometer or any
other similar instrument. For fitting the slip-fit liner, the matching between the flange and the
recess bore is checked by blueing the sleeve top face, upturning the sleeve, and rubbing it against
the counterbore face. The sleeve bore is checked for ovalness with a micrometer at two locations
at right angles to each other at the top, middle, and bottom of the sleeve. If the difference at any
of the locations checked exceeds 0.05 mm, the sleeve is rotated through 90 degrees in the cylinder
block and rechecked until the best position is obtained.
During boring out the cylinder block to take the sleeve or re-boring a cylinder block, the
same care for alignment, circularity, straightness, diameter, and surface finish is necessary.
The working tolerance for boring cylinder blocks is +0.0000 to 0.0125 mm.
Due to relatively thin walls the dry liners take up the contour of the finished wall profile.
' air pockets are formed by ridge marks from a rough single-point cutting tool, local hot spots
re produced causing distortion, rapid wear and even piston seizure.
Force-fit dry liners are normally supplied with an unfinished internal-bore diameter with
an allowance of between 0.35 mm and 0.50 mm. This allowance is removed by boring and honing
processes after the liners are installed in their respective cylinder-block bore holes. Slip-fit dry
liners may be supplied either as semi-pre-finished liners with an internal-bore allowance of
0.025 to 0.10 mm, which is removed by honing after fitting or as pre-finished liners with no
internal-bore allowance.
The liner bore surface is honed to an accuracy of 0.6 to 0.8 um centre-line (average) with a
Crosshatch angle of 120 degrees (Fig. 2.12A). This provides an optimum oil-retaining surface for
running in new piston rings and cylinder bores (ring bedding). This is required for both
gas-sealing and oil control.
Wet Liners.
Wet cylinder liners (Fig. 3.13) provide the following advantages if used in petrol engines
with aluminium alloy cylinder block having a high coefficient of expansion.
(a) Due to isolation of the bulk of the sleeve from the block, difficult expansion problems
can be resolved at one or two locations only.
(6) The use of wet liners simplifies the casting of the cylinder block. Also, castings of
suitable material can be used with an appropriate heat treatment for structural
requirements, rather than the cylinder-bore wear-resistance treatments.
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(A) Fig. 3.13. Wet cylinder liners. (B)
A. Single sleeve support with open-deck. B. Double sleeve support with closed-deck.
(c) With better outside surface finish and constant wall thickness the liner improves the
thermal conductance and uniformity of cylinder cooling.
The wet liner is more rigid than a dry liner as the normal cylinder wall is eliminated in this
case. Wet liners fit into the cylinder block at the top and near the bottom, and the remaining
portion of the sleeve is unsupported. O-rings are used to prevent leakage of the coolant. Some
wet liner sleeves have a flange at the top, which sits into a recess machined in the upper deck
of the block. Sometimes a soft copper-asbestos or composite gasket is fitted between the flangf
and the block recess. To hold in position, the sleeve flange protrudes above the block's top joir
face by 0.05 mm for bores up to 100 mm diameter and by 0.175 mm for cylinder diamete:
ranging from 100 to 150 mm.
The liner is sealed at the bottom by one or more rubber O-rings, usually fitted in grooves
(Fig. 3.13 A). Sometimes an inspection drain hole as shown in the figure is provided in the side
of the block between the seals, to check any leakage through the seals. In another wet
liner-sleeve arrangement, only the lower crankcase end of the liner is supported, which is
flanged to have contact with the corresponding machined face in the block. A flat gasket is used
between these two joint faces (Fig. 3.13B). Since the top of the liner sleeve has no side support,
it depends totally on vertical compression of the liner caused by the cylinder head and gasket
during tightening down. For correct compressive support, the liner's top face projects above the
cylinder block's deck by 0.03 to 0.10 mm, depending on the diameter of the cylinder bore, and
the tightening-down torque.
Wet Liner Installation.
The old gasket or/and sealing rings are removed and the portion
of the block that comes into contact with the liner is cleaned using a scraper and emery cloth.
The new liner is inserted into the block without sealing rings or gaskets. It is turned by hand
to find out if there is any tightness, which could cause distortion of the sleeve. The liner flange
must be smooth and square in the counter bore, otherwise the flange might break off while
tightening the cylinder head. Any burrs or dirt that might lift the flange is removed. The
projection of the liner flange above the block face is measured to ensure an adequate clamping
interface.
The seating rings are then fitted without overstretching or twisting them. A coating of
sealing compound may be applied and the liner sleeve is guided into place by hand, followed by
lightly tapping with a soft hammer. At this stage, the sleeve cylinder bore is checked for any
misalignment or distortion.
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Liner Materials.
Some commonly used liner materials are nitrided steels, nitrided cast irons, and heat treated
chromium and other alloy cast irons. The wear resistance of these metals is at least 50% more
than the cylinder block material. The typical specification of liner material is :
Iron 93.92 to 92.22%
Carbon 3 to 3.5%
Silicon 1.8 to 2.4%
Manganese 0.5 to 0.8%
Phosphorous 0.4 to 0.7%
Sulphur 0.08%)
Chromium 0.3%
3.1.6.
Gaskets
Gaskets or static seals are used between attaching engine parts to seal the joints for
preventing either internal or external leakage. A gasket must withstand the high pressure and
temperature of the engine. Therefore, the gasket
(i) must be impermeable to the fluids in contact,
(ii) must conform to any existing surface imperfections,
(Hi) must be resilient to maintain sealing pressure, even when the joints are slightly
loosened as a result of temperature changes or vibration,
(iv) must be resistant to all expected changes in its environment due to temperature,
pressure variations, and age, and
(v) must be stable under compression conditions, avoiding excessive setting.
The essential considerations of a gasket are
(a) adequate shear and tensile strengths, particularly for use with narrow sections,
(b) adequate provision for the cooling of the mating surfaces specifically the cylinder head
and for minimizing the effect of differential thermal expansion,
(c) maintenance of a gasket-thickness tolerance, and
(d) a gasket of simple construction, easy to assemble, and not readily damaged.
The gasket thickness and hardness must be chosen to match the degree of unevenness of
either joint face due to large tolerances, distortion, surface roughness, or other factors such as
lack of uniformity of bolt or stud loading. The following gaskets are commonly used in automobile
engines.
(a) Copper-asbestos gasket.
(b) Steel-asbestos gasket.
(c) Steel-asbestos-copper gasket.
(d) Single steel ridged or corrugated gasket.
(e) Stainless steel gasket.
(f) Asbestos-coated steel sheet with separate steel beading around bore.
(g) Laminated steel and graphitized asbestos sheet with formed steel bore bead.
(h) Asbestos impregnated rubber bonded with reinforced ferrule bead.
(i) Asbestos/steel wire-reinforced tissue.
The material used for gaskets depends on the sealing requirement and cost. Cork, one of
the oldest gasket materials, has limited use only to lightly loaded joints having uneven surfaces
such as rocker covers and oil pans. Aluminium coatings on cork gaskets help reduce heat
deterioration. In some cases cork gaskets are rubber coated. Cork gaskets are often replaced by
gaskets made of fibers such as cellulose, asbestos, or a mixture of two. Gasket fibers are bonded
together with a binder, and the binder is impermeable to oil in some cases and other cases it
swells on contact with oil, depending upon the use. Fiber gaskets require a better parting surface
smoothness than is needed by cork gaskets.
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Molded oil-resistant synthetic rubber is often used where the sealing requirements dictate
special seal designs such as oil pan corner joints and intake manifold ends. A new approach to
gaskets is a plastic gasket material in a tube used in place of paper and fiber-based gaskets.
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Fig. 3.14. Head gasket with a fire ring.
Sealing of the cylinder head at
the block parting surface is one of the
most difficult sealing jobs. Earlier
head gaskets were copper-coated as-
bestos. As engine design improved,
copper on the gaskets was replaced
by steel to withstand the higher
pressures and temperatures. Steel
rings, called fire rings, were applied
to the gaskets around the cylinder
openings to seal the combustion
chambers (Fig. 3.14).
A more recent head gasket
development uses a thin steel core
with a thin coating of asbestos rolled
on the outside. This provides the gas-
ket the desired resilient properties
needed to withstand the head and
block temperature changes and the
pressure variations within each
cycle. Most head gaskets must be
installed in a specified direction because the gasket is often used to help control engine coolant
flow. When this is required the gasket is marked top or front. Head gasket types are shown in
Fig. 3.15A,Band C.
Timing cover gaskets are usually made of thin fiber or paper. Cork, fiber and synthetic
rubber are used in different parts of the oil pan. The intake manifold uses embossed steel or
reinforced fiber gaskets. Cork or synthetic rubber sections are used on the lifter valley cover
portion of the intake manifold. After use, a gasket loses most of its sealing properties. It is
common practice to use a new gasket each time a part is assembled. Often, the gaskets are
coated with a special varnish, which
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melts and seals all the smaller inter-
sticks between the meeting surfaces
when the engine warms up.
3.1.7.
Cylinder Block Attachments
A number of parts are attached to
the engine to enclose it and to adapt it
to the vehicle. These include covers,
housings, and mounts.
Bell Housings.
A bell housing enclosing the
flywheel and clutch or torque con-
verter is attached to the rear of the
cylinder block. It is positioned with
dowel pins for alignment. Offset
dowels and shims between the block
and bell housing may be used to align
the bell housing in standard transmis-
sion applications, so that the clutch shaft matches the pilot bearing. Alignment of the automatic
transmission is simplified by using a flex plate transmission drive. Most automatic transmission
cases from the bell housing, while standard transmission have separate bell housings with cluth
lever attachments. Aluminium bell housings are normally used in passenger cars to minimize
weight.
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Fig. 3.15. Types of head gaskets.
A. With metal outside the asbestos.
B. Steel embossed.
C. Steel core with outside coating of asbestos.
Timing Covers.
The simplest timing covers are made of stamped steel or cast steel (Fig. 3.16A and B) and
attached with cap screws. Its only purpose is to protect the gears from foreign objects and to
keep the engine oil in. A cast cover also tends to muffle the timing drive noise. Some timing
covers are die-cast. The die-cast process produces an almost finished cover at extra tooling cost,
which balances the savings made in machining costs. In some designs the timing cover is made
more complicated (Fig. 3.16C) by including the oil pump and distribution drive along with the
fuel pump and water pump. With this type of cover, the block contains no accessory drives.

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Fig. 3.16. Timing covers.
A. Stamped steel- B. Cast steel.
C. Cast with fuel pump, water pump, oil pump, and distributor attachments.
Engine Mount.
Engines are mounted on the chassis through rubber insulators. The engine mounts are
positioned close to vibration nodes, which are points of minimum vibra tion. The rubber used
in engine mounts is especially compounded to absorb vibrations, characteristic to each specific
engine model. The mounts are usually located about half way back on each side of the block.
The latest mounts (Fig. 3.17B) hold the engine even if the damper rubber breaks, in contrast to
earlier mounts (Fig. 3.17A).

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Fig. 3.17. Engine mounts.
A. Old style.
B. New style.
Car Body Styles:

 Closed Cars: a) Saloon or sedan b) Coupe c) Limousine
 Open cars: a) Sports b) Convertible
 Special Styles cars: a) Estate Car b) Station Wagon
Transport Vehicles:
 Van, Truck, Articulated Vehicle (a tractor & semi-trailer connected together by means of a fifty-
wheel coupling), Bus and Coach
Chassis Construction:
 The chassis of an automobile consists of following components suitably mounted:
 Engines and the radiator, Transmission system consisting of the clutch, gear box, propeller shaft and
the rear axle, suspension system, road wheels, steering system, brakes and fuel tank.
Classification of Chassis:
 Conventional control chassis: The engine is mounted in front of the driver’s cabin.
 Semi-forward control chassis: The engine is so mounted that half of it is in the drivers cabin,
whereas the other half is in front, outside the drivers cabin.
 Full forward control Chassis: The engine is mounted completely inside the driver’s cabin.
Frame:
 It is the basic unit to which various components are attached and body is bolted onto the frame later
on.
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 The frame is designed to support the weight of the body and absorb all of the loads imposed by the
terrain, suspension system, engine, drive train, and steering system.
Functions of Frame:
 To Support the chassis components and the body.
 To withstand static and dynamic loads without undue deflection or distortion.
Loads on the frame:
 Weight of the vehicle and the passengers and goods which causes vertical bending of the side
members.
 Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bump or hollow, which results in longitudinal torsion
due to one wheel lifted with other wheels at the usual road level.
 Loads due to road camber, side wind, cornering force while taking a turn, which result in lateral
bending of side members.
 Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause that particular wheel to remain obstructed
while the other wheel tends to move forward, distorting the frame to parallelogram shape
 Engine torque and braking torque tending to bend the side members in the vertical plane.
 Sudden impact loads during a collision, which may result in a general collapse.
Frame Constructions:
 There are two distinct forms of construction in common use
• The conventional pressed steel frame to which all the mechanical units are attached and on
which the body is superimposed.
• The integral or frameless construction, in which the body structure is so designed as to
combine the functions of body and frame, the units normally attached to the frame then being
attached directly to the body.
 The frameless construction is possible only in the case of a closed car, since the roof, screen pillars,
door pillars and rear panel are essential load-taking parts of the structure.
 In this type of construction heavy side members used in conventional construction are eliminated
and the floor is strengthened by cross-members and the body, all welded together.
 Body and frameless chassis components are welded together to form a rigid, integral units for extra
strength and durability.
 In some cases the sub-frames are also used along with this type of construction.
 Advantages of Frameless construction:
• Reduced weight and consequent saving in fuel consumption
• Lower manufacturing cost.
• During collision the body crumbles, thereby absorbing the shock due to impact and thus
providing safety to the passengers.
• Compared to framed construction lower body position may be obtained, thus resulting in
increased stability of the automobiles.
 Disadvantages of frameless construction:
• Reduction of strength and durability
• Economical only if frameless construction is adopted in mass production.
• Increased cost of repairs in case of damage to body during accidents.
• Topless cars are difficult to design with the frameless construction.
Sub Frames:

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 Many times, the various components of the automobile are mounted on a separate frame called sub-
frame.
 This sub-frame is further supported by the main frame at three points.
 In this way the components are isolated from the effects of twisting and flexing of the main frame.
 The mass of the sub-frame alone helps to damp vibrations
 The provisions of sub-frame simplifies production on the assembly line and facilitates subsequent
overhaul or repair,
Defects in frames:
 The dumb irons or side members may be bent.
 Cross members may be buckled.
 Some rivets may be loose or broken.
 The body protects and contains passengers and cargo.
 The body generally is bolted to the frame at a few points to allow for flexure of the frame.
 The frame also is subjected to the worst corrosive environment.
 Therefore, the frame of the vehicle was targeted for weight reduction and performance improvement.

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Unit - I

UNIT II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 9

UNIT III TRANSMISSION SYSYTEMS 9

UNIT IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS 9

UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES 9

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 1

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 2

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 3

Main Parts of the Automobile:

A car body. A car chassis.

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 4

Integral body construction

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 5

An automobile engine with clutch and gearbox.

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 6

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 7

Rear-engine car Mid-engine car

Central and Mid-engine:

Rear-wheel drive. Front-wheel drive Four-wheel drive

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 9

The Single-unit Vehicles or Load Carriers:

The Articulated Vehicles

The Heavy-tractor Vehicles

The Motor Car

Saloon car. Hatchback car.

Coupe car. Convertible car.

Estate car. Pick-up.

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 12

Coach Double-decker bus

Classification of a Rigid Truck.

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 13

Rigid 6x4 truck. Rigid 8x4 truck.

Articulated Tractor and Semi-trailer:

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 14

Rigid 6x2 tractor and tri-axle 6 articulated trailers.

Classification of Articulated Vehicle:

Articulated Vehicles Compared with Rigid Trucks:

Body and Chassis

A typical vehicle frame

Chassis Operating Conditions

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 16

Longitudinal torsion Lateral bending Lozenging.

Chassis Frame Sections

Side-and Cross-member Torsional Resistance:

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 18

Frame for light truck.

Box section frame. Backbone-type frame.

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Chassis Side- and Cross-member Joints

Chassis side- and cross-member reinforcement joints

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 20

Chassis Side- and Cross-member fastening:

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Body work and Integral Construction:

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 22

Integral body construction.

Space frame Crumple zones

PEC – DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 24

Force required for overcoming air resistance

Air dam and spoiler.

Vehicle Components Attachment and Location

Engine, Clutch, Gearbox, and Final-drive Support Mountings

Location and Mounting with Front-mounted Engine and Rear-wheel Drive:

Front-mounted engine and rear-wheel drive