Food Waste Valorization: New Manufacturing Processes for Long-Term

Sustainability
Gerrard EJ Poinern and Derek Fawcett, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Abstract 1
Introduction 1
Food Waste Valorization 2
Valorization Strategies and Manufacturing Processes 2
Thermal Conversion Processes 2
Solvent Extraction Processes 3
Chemical and Biotechnology Processes 3
Microwave Assisted Processes 4
Ultrasound Assisted Processes 4
Future Prospects and Conclusion 4
References 5
Further Reading 5

Abstract

Food production, security and sustainability are major priorities facing the world today. Increasing food production levels to feed an
ever-growing global population has also created a large and ever-growing amount of food waste. The disposal of increasingly larger
amounts of food waste also has several serious impacts on the environment. In recent years there has been a significant interest in
developing sustainable eco-friendly practices and innovative strategies that can valorize food waste. Food waste is a renewable
resource that is predominantly composed of organic materials. Waste valorization strategies are designed to convert food waste
into different value-added products such as bioactive compounds, biofuels and pharmaceuticals. However, to fully exploit this
largely under-utilized renewable resource new manufacturing processes are needed, and conversional manufacturing processing
need to be re-engineered to handle food waste. This chapter summarizes current waste valorization strategies and the various phys-
ical, physicochemical and biological processes that can be used to manufacture valorized products. While future perspectives are
also discussed and considered in this chapter.

Introduction

Food security and sustainability have become major priorities for the international community in recent years. The United Nations’
Sustainable Development Goals have identified food security and sustainable agricultural practices as major challenges facing
humanity in future years. International policy makers believe that sustainable food production, intelligent management of
resources and effective food distribution are key factors that will deliver effective food security and deliver food production levels
capable of feeding the predicted 12.3 billion people in 2100 (Gerland et al., 2014). Future modelling also predicts increasing global
temperatures, growing energy usage, scarcity of natural resources and increasing pollution. At the same time, food production will
continue to have a major impact on the environment. Current food production practices depend heavily on natural resources and
ecosystems that are already under stress and in some regions are in decline. At first glance, easily recognizable factors contributing to
this stress include human urbanization, extraction of mineral resources and industrialization. But factors like modern farming and
fishery practices also have a significant detrimental effect on natural resources and ecosystems. Typically, a food supply chain
involves agricultural production, food processing and packaging, distribution, retail and ultimately consumption. The supply chain
also uses environmental inputs such as land, water and energy. In addition to producing food, the supply chain also produced
detrimental outputs to the environment that include, greenhouse gases, contaminated waste water, packaging and food waste.
Globally, approximately one-third (1.3 billion tons) of all food produced by the supply chain (from farm to consumer) is lost every
year (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2011). This large and ever-increasing amount of food waste is currently a major source of
economic and environmental problems that will only increase in magnitude in future decades with an increasing global population
and diminishing natural resources. Today, food security not only needs to consider sustainable food production, but it also needs to
address the high level of food waste. Traditionally, waste management protocols involved treatment, reduction, and prevention
strategies to reduce the detrimental impact to the environment from disposal methods such as incineration and landfill. Therefore,
new manufacturing processes and waste valorization strategies are needed to convert renewable food waste sources into more useful
products such as industrial important chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biomaterials, and fuels. Because of the potential applications and
economic impact, food waste valorization has attracted considerable scientific and research and development interests in recent

1
2 Food Waste Valorization: New Manufacturing Processes for Long-Term Sustainability

years. However, due to the diversity and variability of food waste there is a number of practical challenges that need to be overcome
such as determining the most effective type of conversion process, its efficiency (i.e. the degree of waste valorization), and its
financial viability as a commercial operation. These challenges will only be overcome by multi-disciplinary approaches that
incorporate disciplines such as biochemistry, environmental science, biotechnology, food production practices, government
legislation and policy, and economics that deliver innovative sustainable waste valorized manufacturing processes incorporating
green chemical principles. These new waste valorized manufacturing processes are critical to securing sustainable food security
by fully utilizing all food resources used within the food supply chain. This chapter briefly summarizes current waste valorization
strategies for the sustainable manufacture of industrial important chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biomaterials, and fuels through the
development of various physical, physicochemical and biological production strategies. Also discussed here are future perspectives
and challenges.

Food Waste Valorization

Traditional waste management strategies for dealing with food waste include animal feed, composting, incineration, convert-
ing waste to energy (e.g., anaerobic digestion) and landfill. In recent years, problems associated with disposal strategies such
as incineration and landfill has increased interest in finding novel alternative methods to reduce the environmental damage
caused by these strategies. Food wastes are a renewable resource that are predominantly composed of organic materials, which
can be converted into different value-added products such as chemicals, natural dyes, bioactive compounds, biofuels and
pharmaceuticals. At present there is considerable interest in replacing petrochemical-derived materials with renewable material
sources such as food waste and co-products produced during food processing (Vandermeersch et al., 2014). In fact, food
wastes are interesting renewable materials that can be converted into a wide variety of value-added products. The process
of converting food wastes (waste valorization) is an attractive approach for producing more useful and higher value products.
Valorizing food waste components has existed for a long time, generally associated with waste management protocols, but it
gaining wider appeal due to its ability to have a significantly impact on developing sustainable and cost efficient methods for
producing high value products. Waste valorization is of particular importance today, since there is high global demand for
biofuels, enzymes, pharmaceuticals, solvents and surfactants. This high demand has prompted many countries to create strat-
egies for the development of large-scale facilities for converting different food waste streams into a variety of valorized prod-
ucts (Snyder, 2015). For example, it is expected that materials derived from crop sources will form around 25% of the
chemical feedstock of United States of America by 2030 (Sengupta and Pike, 2012). Present bioenergy studies have shown
that anaerobic digestion can be used on a wide range of food and grain wastes to produce bioethanol, biodiesel and biogas.
Furthermore sugarcane, maize, rice, barley and potato wastes can be used to produce succinic acid. While surfactants can be
produced from tropical oil producing grains and biopolymers, solvents and adhesives can be produced from rapeseed and
sunflower wastes.

Valorization Strategies and Manufacturing Processes

Waste valorization is an appealing concept for promoting and developing manufacturing processes that converts renewable sources
of food waste into valuable marketable products (Mirabella et al., 2014). In recent years interest in waste valorization has increased
since the extraction of individual biomolecules, bio-molecular groups and compounds can be achieved using a variety of physical,
physicochemical and biotechnology based processes. These processes have the potential to deliver innovative, eco-friendly and
sustainable protocols to convert food waste into higher value products. The five presented process methods (thermal conversion,
solvent extraction, chemical/biotechnology, microwave, and ultrasound) represent some of the most important waste valorization
strategies.

Thermal Conversion Processes

Historically, solid waste products resulting from agricultural practices that were fibrous, wood and non-woody have been burnt to
produce thermal energy for a variety of domestic and commercial applications including space heating, water heating and power
generation. However, thermal conversion processes can also be used for the sustainable production of high-value products from
a wide range of food wastes. The two fundamental thermal conversion processes are hydrothermal carbonization and pyrolysis.
Hydrothermal carbonization is a low temperature process (180–350  C) that is carried out under autogenous gas pressures. The
hydrothermal carbonization process was used by (Parshetti et al., 2014) to convert urban food wastes in Singapore into high value
hydro-chars that could then be used to remove textile dyes from contaminated water. The second thermal conversion process is
pyrolysis and involves heating bio-mass at high temperatures in the absence of oxygen to generate decomposed products. Pyrolysis
is an established method for char generation, but to date there are no pyrolysis processes specifically developed for food waste
valorization. However (Heo et al., 2010), have used pyrolysis to convert waste sawdust into a bio-oil product. At 450  C to the
process produced a bio-oil yield of around 57%, but at higher temperatures the sawdust decomposed into smaller gaseous
molecules. Also, a microwave-assisted pyrolysis process has also been used to produce syngas with tune-able hydrogen/carbon
 Food Waste Valorization: New Manufacturing Processes for Long-Term Sustainability 3

monoxide ratios or bio-oil-derived biofuels from a variety of renewable bio-wastes (Luque et al., 2012). Furthermore, pyrolysis can
also be used to manufacture high-value advanced nanometer scale materials such as carbon nanospheres, carbon nanotubes and
graphene-like materials.

Solvent Extraction Processes

Solid-liquid extraction is a popular method that is designed to separate soluble components from a solid matrix using an
appropriate solvent. And in spite of the process requiring high energy inputs, the use of hazardous organic solvents and long
extraction periods, it is widely used in a variety of industrial applications. Typical industrial applications include the removal of
a specific extracts from particular plant materials for further processing as in the case of aroma extraction for perfumes and food
preparations. In these applications the type of solvent used, its interaction with the plant matrix, and extraction parameters such
as temperature, pH and time, must be fully optimized to extract the desired molecular compounds at maximum yields. For example,
alcohol-based extraction is a commonly used method that can be used for recovery of valuable antioxidants, phenolic compounds,
organic acids and vitamins from food wastes. The process involves blending a food waste with a water and alcohol mixture. The
influence of process parameters such as temperature, time and alcohol concentration (alcohol concentration ranging from 50%
to 90%) determines the yield of molecular compounds. After sufficient time the blend is filtered and the resulting liquid can either
be used directly or it can be further refined to separate individual molecular groups and compounds. However, not all alcohols can
be used as a solvent in extraction processes if the resulting extract is to be used in food products. For instance, ethanol is considered
a food friendly solvent, unlike the lower priced methanol that is deemed toxic. Recently (Amado et al., 2014), used water and
ethanol mixtures to extract antioxidant compounds from potato peel waste (Solanum tuberosum). Thus demonstrating the viability
of using a solvent based extraction process for waste valorization by recovering a valuable antioxidant compounds. Other extraction
processes that use different forms of solvent include steam, pressurized fluid and supercritical fluid. Some researchers have used
steam to extract volatile compounds (pyrazines and aldehydes) from potatoes (Buttery et al., 1973). While the higher temperatures
of pressurized fluids increases the penetration of the fluid (solvent) into the sample matrix allowing greater rates of solute diffusion
in the solvent. When the fluids pressure and temperature are greater than its critical values (i.e. outside the vapor–liquid coexistence
curve), the fluid is termed supercritical. A commonly used supercritical fluid is liquid carbon dioxide. This is due to its low critical
values (31.1  C and 73.8 MPa), its chemical stability and lack of overall toxicity. Importantly, its solvating power is similar to many
liquid organic solvents and solute separation from the fluid is straightforward. Supercritical fluid extraction has been used in
processing such as fragrances and essential oils, but its wider commercial application is limited due to equipment and facility costs.
In addition, ionic liquids are low melting point salts in the liquid state that can be used to extract pharmaceuticals as well as
materials to process woody and cellulosic food waste materials.

Chemical and Biotechnology Processes

In food processing industries, commonly used chemical conversion methods such as hydrolysis and oxidation reactions are used to
produce high-value biomolecules and chemical compounds from food waste. Furthermore, chemo-enzymatic and biotechnological
approaches can be also be used depending on the type of food waste. The production of food waste derived biomolecules and
chemical compounds is a sustainable strategy. Since it maximizes the use of a renewable resource and reduces waste generation.
For example, food wastes rich in starch can be used as feedstock for the production of ethanol by fermentation. However, prior
to fermentation the waste needs to be hydrolyzed into fermentable sugars using either an acidic or enzyme-based treatment. The
drawback of using an acidic treatment is that food waste requires a further neutralization step before fermentation. However,
enzyme-based treatments are considered more eco-friendly since they are biodegradable, perform in aqueous solutions under
mild processing conditions (Yamada et al., 2009). Furthermore, enzymes such as cellulases and hemicellulases can hydrolyze
cell walls of plant-based materials to promote greater cell wall permeability. Thus, allowing greater extraction of chemical
compounds such as antioxidants, flavors, oils, pigments and polysaccharides.
Alternatively, recent research is investigating the use of food waste and eco-friendly technologies for producing sustainable
sources of bioenergy in the forms of biodiesel, bioethanol and biogas. The advantage of using waste grains, fruits and vegetables
is that it does not depend on crops being specifically grown for biofuels. Thus, waste utilization reduces the demand for arable
land needed for biofuel production. However, studies have revealed the high cost of pre-treatment facilities, fermenters and
inefficient conversion processes as the main factors restricting the commercialization of large scale processing facilities (Banerjee
et al., 2010). Waste conversion processes can provide bioenergy, and at the same time, fully utilize a renewable source of feedstock.
But further work in this field is needed to achieving this objective. There needs to be significant improvements in current plant and
equipment operating efficiencies, thus reducing conversion costs, and to develop more efficient food waste conversion technologies.
Another new and innovative approach for waste valorization is to use food waste in the manufacture of high-value metal and
metal oxide nanoparticles. This eco-friendly and green chemistry-based method is a bottom up approach that synthesizes metallic
ions from precursor materials and promotes their self-assemble to form nanoparticles. Many food wastes contain biomolecules and
chemical compounds that can act as metal reducing agents that can form the precursor metal ions in aqueous solutions. The metal
ions subsequently assemble under the influence of other biomolecules, which act as modelling agents to guide particle growth in
particular orientations. Also present in the solution are biomolecules that can act as capping agents to prevent nanoparticle
4 Food Waste Valorization: New Manufacturing Processes for Long-Term Sustainability

agglomeration (Shah et al., 2015). Nanoparticles are of particular interest because of their extremely small size and large surface area
to volume ratio that gives them unique physiochemical properties. Because of these unique properties gold (Au) nanoparticles have
been widely used in medicine for diagnostics, pharmaceuticals and treatments. While silver (Ag) nanoparticles have been used in
a wide range of commercially available antimicrobial pharmaceuticals and consumer products. However, using food wastes for the
manufacture of high-value nanoparticles is a fairly new field of research and only a relative few studies have been reported. The
major advantage of this waste valorization strategy comes from the fact that nanoparticles produced from food wastes are free
from toxic solvents and chemicals that are normally used in conventional physical and chemical manufacturing processes. Thus,
reducing the harmful risks to human health and environment (Ghosh et al., 2017).

Microwave Assisted Processes

Microwave heating is an efficient waste valorization technology that can be used for the separation and extraction of chemical
compounds from food wastes. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves ranging in frequency from 0.3 to 300 GHz that interact
with molecules by ionic conduction and dipole rotation. Thus, water present within the food waste rapidly absorbs microwave
energy until it is superheated. The superheated water disrupts the cell structures of the various wastes to release their contents.
The breakdown of the cellular structure permits the migration of various molecules and molecular compounds into the extraction
solvent, thus improving their recovery (Ho et al., 2015). Microwave assisted extraction can be carried out in two configurations,
namely closed and open. In the closed chamber configuration, the extraction process is carried out at high pressures and
temperatures during microwave heating. Under these operational conditions the extraction of molecules and molecular compounds
is fast, less solvent is used and extraction yields are higher. Thus, making the microwave-based extraction process efficient and
unique. Furthermore, its lower levels of solvents usage, means that it has a smaller detrimental environmental impact than other
solvent–extraction processes. On the downside, filtration or centrifugation is needed to remove unwanted solid residues remaining
after microwaving. Developing open microwave assisted extraction systems is also of interest, since this type of configuration could
revolutionize industrial scale waste valorization. This could be achieved by using a flow process that incorporates higher material
conversion rates via microwave heating, which in turn generates a continuous production stream. However, there are a number of
technical issues that would need to be resolved before this large-scale waste valorization process could be achieved. For example,
heat build-up in the microwave generators and ensuring effective heat transfer from the microwave generators to the waste stream
(Glasnov and Kappe, 2011).

Ultrasound Assisted Processes

Ultrasound transducers generate acoustic waves (frequencies greater than 20 kHz) that travel through the solvent (water or organic)
causing alternating compression and expansion cycles. The expansion cycle pulls molecules apart to create cavities or bubbles that
rapidly grow in the solvent. During the compression cycle there is a suddenly collapse of the bubble releasing large amounts of
energy. During the implosion of the bubble high pressures (approx. 200 atm.) and temperatures (approx. 5000 K) are produced.
Also produced are high-speed (280 m s 1) intense solvent jets that penetrate into cellular material. Thereby, increasing the surface
area between the cellular matrix and solvent, thus facilitating a higher mass transfer of targeted molecules and molecular
compounds towards the solvent. However, fully recovering the targeted molecules and molecular compounds depends essentially
on the nature of the food waste and the configuration of the ultrasound system. Moreover, there are several operating factors
that also influence the kinetics and extraction yields of the ultrasound system. Therefore, factors such as ultrasound power and
amplitude, type of extracting solvent, extraction time and temperature must also be optimized to achieve the desired results (Pingret
et al., 2013). Currently, ultrasound-assisted processing equipment and plant is not an off-the-shelf technology, but must be
designed and fabricated for specific applications. Nevertheless (Virot et al. 2010), has demonstrated that ultrasound assisted
extraction can be successfully used for the extraction of antioxidants from food processing by-products.

Future Prospects and Conclusion

Food security and sustainability are major priorities to the international community. At the same time, policy makers
identify the ever-increasing amount of food waste generated globally as a serious challenge facing humanity today. Food wastes
are a considerable economic cost to society and are major causes of problems in the environment. Waste valorization is an attractive
strategy that has gained considerable interest globally. Food wastes, because of their inherent diversity and variability, offer
numerous opportunities for extracting valuable molecules and chemical compounds using innovative processing operations.
However, waste valorization is still in its infancy and means investing in research, developing new eco-friendly and sustainable
recovery technologies, and/or new production lines. This also means investigating the feasibility of modifying existing technologies
and plants for food waste valorization. Furthermore, a multi-discipline approach that includes specialists from food sciences,
engineering, environmental sciences, biochemistry and biotechnology is also needed so that an integrated strategy is fully
investigated and developed. Since only new integrated strategies and innovative efficient technologies are capable of delivering
an economically sustainable and eco-friendly bio-economy for future generations.
 Food Waste Valorization: New Manufacturing Processes for Long-Term Sustainability 5

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Further Reading

Baiano, A., 2014. Recovery of biomolecules from food wastes - a review. Molecules 19, 14821–14842.
Chandrasekaran, M., 2012. Valorization of Food Processing By-products. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Galanakis, C.M., 2012. Recovery of high added-value components from food wastes: conventional, emerging technologies and commercialized applications. Trends Food Sci.
Technol. 26, 68–87.
Ghosh, P.R., Fawcett, D., Sharma, S.B., Poinern, G.E.J., 2016. Progress towards sustainable utilization and management of food wastes in the global economy. Int. J. Food Sci.,
3563478, 1–22.