EXCAVATING MACHINES

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS

Hydraulic excavators are hydraulically powered machines

with a backhoe of front end. Hydraulic excavators have a
number of advantages over cable controlled excavators
including:

- Faster cycle time

- Higher bucket operations force
- More precise digging
- Easier operator control

In addition to backhoe and shovel front ends, there are a

number of attachments available for hydraulic excavators
like, clamshells, augers, vibratory plate compactors, and
hammers.
 Shovels
Hydraulic shovel (see fig1) is also called front shovel or hydraulic
excavator front shovel.

Hydraulic shovel digs with a combination of crowding force and

breakout force as illustrated in fig 2.

Crowding force is generated by the stick cylinder and acts at the

bucket edge on a tangent to the radius through point A.

Breakout force is generated, by the bucket cylinder and acts at

the bucket edge on a tangent to the arc of the radius through
point B.

The bucket is rolled up after filled with material to reduce pillage

during the swing cycle.
 Shovels
Discharging of hydraulic shovel buckets are either:

- front-dump
- bottom-dump

Front-dump buckets are heavier, provide greater reach dump

clearance and less spillage.

Shovels have limited ability to dig below track level. It is more

efficient when digging above track level.

Shovel needs a vertical face (digging face) to dig against for most
effective digging. Thus embankment digging or loading into a haul
unit provides the best application of the shovel.
 Usage of Shovels
- Shovel can form its own roadway as it
advances.

- dressing slopes

- loading hoppers or trucks

- digging shallow trenches

 Production Estimating

Production (Lm3 / hr) = C  S  V  B  E

Where:
C: Cycles/h (Table 4.1)
S: Swing factor (Table 4.1)
V: Heaped bucket volume (Lm3)
B: Bucket fill factor (Table 4.2)
E: Job efficiency
 Machine Size

Small (Under 5 yd) Medium (5-10 yd) Large (Over 10 yd)

(3.8m3) (3.8m3-7.6 m3) (7.6 m3)

Bottom Front Bottom Front Bottom Front

Material
dump dump Dump Dump Dump Dump
Soft(sand,
190 170 180 160 150 135
gravel, coal)
Average
(common earth,
170 150 160 145 145 130
soft clay, well-
blasted rock)
Hard
(tough clay,
150 135 140 130 135 125
poorly blasted
rock)
Adjustment for
swing angle
Angle of Swing (deg)

45 60 75 90 120 180
Adjustment
1.16 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.94 0.83
factor
Bucket fill factors for excavators

Material Bucket fill factor

Common earth, loam 0.80 - 1.10

Sand and gravel 0.90 - 1.00

Hard clay 0.65 - 0.95

Wet clay 0.50 - 0.90

Rock, well blasted 0.70 - 0.90

Rock, poorly blasted 0.40 - 0.70

 Example

Find the expected production in loose

cubic yards (Lm3) per hour of a 3 yd (2.3
m3) hydraulic shovel equipped with a
front dump bucket. The material is
common earth with a bucket fill factor of
1.0. The average angle of swing is 75o
and job efficiency is 0.80.
 Solution

Standard cycles=150/60 min

Swing factor=1.05
Bucket volume=3.0 LCY (2.3 Lm3)
Bucket fill factor=1.0
Job efficiency=0.80

Production=150x1.05x3.0x1.0x0.80=378 LCY/hr
[=150x1.05x2.3x1.0x0.80=290 Lm3/hr]
 Job Management
The two major factors controlling shovel production:

- angle of swing
- lost time during production cycle.

Angle of swing between digging and dumping position should be

kept at a minimum.

The floor of the cut should be kept smooth to facilitate movement

in the cut area.

The shovel should be moved up frequently to keep it at an

optimum distance from the working face.

Keeping dipper teeth sharp will increase production.

DRAGLINES
 DRAGLINES
 Dragline has the longest reach for digging and
dumping of any member of the crane-shovel
family.

 Draglines can dig from above machine level to

significant depth in soft to medium and hard
materials.

 Bucket teeth and weight produce digging

action as the drag cable pulls the bucket
across the ground surface.
 DRAGLINES

The maximum bucket size to be used on a

dragline depends on:

- Machine power
- Boom length
- Material weight
 Production Estimate

To estimate dragline production using

the given tables: determine the ideal
output from Table 4.3, adjust it by
multiplying by swing depth factor Table
4.4 and job efficiency factor. Optimum
depth of cut can be obtained from Table
4.5.
Actual depth of cut
% Optimum depth of cut =
Optimum depth of cut
 Table 4.3 - Ideal Dragline Output-Short Boom {BCY /hr (BCM/hr)}*

Bucket Size {yd3 (m3)}

Type of 0.75 1.0 1¼ 1½ 1¾ 2 2½ 3 3½ 4 5

Material (0.57) (.75) (.94) (1.13) (1.32) (1.53) (1.87) (2.29) (2.62) (3.06) (3.82)

Light moist clay 130 160 195 220 245 265 305 350 390 465 540
or loam (99) (122) (149) (168) (187) (203) (233) (268) (298) (356) (413)

125 155 185 210 235 255 295 340 380 455 530
Sand and gravel
(96) (119) (141) (161) (180) (195) (226) (260) (291) (348) (405)

104 135 165 190 210 230 265 305 340 375 445
Common earth
(80) (103) (126) (145) (161) (176) (203) (233) (260) (287) (340)

90 110 135 160 180 195 230 270 305 340 410
Tough Clay
(69) (84) (103) (122) (138) (149) (176) (206) (233) (260) (313)

55 75 95 110 130 145 175 210 240 270 330

Wet sticky clay
(42) (57) (73) (84) (99) (111) (134) (161) (183) (206) (252)
 Table 4.4 - Swing depth factor for draglines

Angle of swing (deg)

Depth of cut
(% of optimum) 30 45 60 75 90 120 150 180

20 1.06 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.81 0.75 0.70

40 1.17 1.08 1.02 0.97 0.93 0.85 0.78 0.72
60 1.25 1.13 1.06 1.01 0.97 0.88 0.80 0.74
80 1.29 1.17 1.09 1.04 0.99 0.90 0.82 0.76
100 1.32 1.19 1.11 1.05 1.00 0.91 0.83 0.77
120 1.29 1.17 1.09 1.03 0.98 0.90 0.82 0.76
140 1.25 1.14 1.06 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.81 0.75
160 1.20 1.10 1.02 0.97 0.93 0.85 0.79 0.73
180 1.15 1.05 0.98 0.94 0.90 0.82 0.76 0.71
200 1.10 1.00 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.79 0.73 0.69
 Table 4.5 - Optimum depth of cut for draglines {ft (m)}

Bucket size {yd3 (m3)}

0.75 1.0 1¼ 1½ 1¾ 2 2½ 3 3½ 4 5
Type of
(0.57) (.75) (.94) (1.13) (1.32) (1.53) (1.87) (2.29) (2.62) (3.06) (3.82)
Materials

Light moist clay

6.0 6.6 7.0 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 11.0
loam, sand and
(1.8) (2.0) (2.1) (2.2) (2.3) (2.4) (2.6) (2.7) (2.9) (3.0) (3.3)
gravel

7.4 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 9.9 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 13.0
Common earth
(2.3) (2.4) (2.6) (2.7) (2.9) (3.0) (3.2) (3.3) (3.5) (3.7) (4.0)

8.7 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3 11.8 12.3 12.8 13.3 13.8 14.3
Wet, sticky clay
(2.7) (2.8) (3.0) (3.2) (3.4) (3.6) (3.7) (3.9) (4.1) (4.2) (4.4)
 Example
Problem: Find the production of the dragline as
details given below. Dragline size=2 cu yd
(1.53 m3)

Swing angle=120°
Average depth of cut=7.9 ft (2.4 m)
Material=common earth
Job efficiency=50 min/hr
Soil swell=25%
 Solution
Ideal output=230 BCY/h (176 Bm3/h) (Table 4.4)

Optimum depth of cut=9.9 ft (3.0m) (Table 4.5)

Actual depth/optimum depth=(7.9/9.9)*100=80%

[=(2.4/3.0)*100=80%]
Swing-depth factor=0.90 (Table 4.3)

Efficiency factor=50/60=0.833

Volume change factor=1+0.25=1.25

Estimated production=230x0.90x0.833x1.25=216 LCY/hr

[=176x0.90x0.833x1.25=165 Lm3/hr]
 Job Management

Trial operations may be necessary to

select the boom length, boom angle,
bucket size and weight, and the
attachment position of the drag chain
that yield maximum production. The
most efficient digging area is located
within 15° forward and back of a vertical
line through the boom point
 BACKHOES
 Backhoes (=hoe) is designed to excavate below the level of the
machine.

 Cable operated backhoes very rarely exist. Backhoe attachments

are also available for loaders and tractors.

 Backhoes are widely used for trenching works, excavating trench,

laying pipe bedding, placing pipe, pulling trench shields, and
backfilling.

 Dippers have different sizes and widths for varying trench sizes.
Backhoes, in addition to trenching can be used in excavating
basements, clearing roadside ditches, and grading
embankments.
 Production Estimating

Production (Lm3)= CxSxVxBxE

Where:

C=Cycles/hr (Table 4.6)

S=Swing depth factor (Table 4.7)
V=Heaped bucket volume (Lm3)
B=Bucket fill factor (Table 4.2)
E=Job efficiency
Table 4.6 - Standard cycles per hour for hydraulic backhoes

Machine Size

Medium Large
Small
Excavator Excavator
Wheel Excavator 1
11/4-21/4 yd Over 21/2
tractor yd (0.76 m3)
(0.94-1.72 yd
or Less
m3) (1.72 m3)
Type of Material

Soft (sand, gravel,

170 250 200 150
loam)

Average (common
135 200 160 120
earth, soft clay)

Hard (tough clay,

110 160 130 100
rock)
 Table 4.7 - Swing-depth factor for backhoes

Angle of swing (deg)

Depth of cut 45 60 75 90 120 180

(% of optimum)

30 1.33 1.26 1.21 1.15 1.08 0.95

50 1.28 1.21 1.16 1.10 1.03 0.91

70 1.16 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.94 0.83

90 1.04 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.75

 Table 4.2 - bucket fill factors for excavators

Material Bucket Fill Factor

Common earth, loam 0.80-1.10
Sand and gravel 0.90-1.00
Hard Clay 0.65-0.95
Wet Clay 0.50-0.90
Rock, well blasted 0.70-0.90
Rock, poorly blasted 0.40-0.70
 Example
Problem:

Find the expected production in loose cubic

yards (Lm3) per hour of a small hydraulic
excavator. Heaped bucket capacity is 3/4 cu
yd (0.57 m3). The material is sand and gravel
with a bucket fill factor of 0.95. Job efficiency
is 50 min/hr. Average depth of cut is 14 ft (4.3
m). Maximum depth of cut is 20 ft (6.1 m) and
average swing is 90°.
 Solution

Cycle output=250 cycle/60min

Swing-depth factor=1.00
Bucket volume=0.75 LCY (0.57 m3)
Bucket fill factor=0.95
Job efficiency=50/60=0.833

Production=250x1.00x0.75x0.95x0.833=148 LCY/hr
[=250x1.00x0.57x0.95x0.833=113 Lm3/hr]
 Job Management

Conditions to select a backhoe:

- maximum depth of excavation
- working radius
- dumping height required

During working check:

- Clearance for the carrier
- Superstructure
- Boom during operation
 CLAMSHELLS
When a crane is equipped with clamshell bucket, it
becomes an excavator and called as clamshell.
Clamshell has ability of excavating to great depths.
However, it is difficult to control digging action
especially lateral control.

Clamshells are used for

- excavating vertical shafts and footings

- unloading bulk materials from rail cars and ships
- moving bulk material from stockpiles to bins, hoppers
or haul units.
 CLAMSHELL BUCKET
A clamshell bucket is shown in fig 4.9. Bucket halves are
forced together by the action of the closing line. When
the closing line is released, the counter weight cause
the bucket halves to open. Bucket penetration
depends on weight of bucket. Buckets are available in:
- Light weight: used for handling loose materials, such
as sand and gravel.
- Medium weight: used for general purposes, including
excavating loose soil
- Heavy weight: used for digging medium to hard soils.
 Production Estimate

There is no standard production table

available for the clamshell. So,
production estimation can be done by
using the equation:

Production = Volume per cycle Cycles per hour

 Example
Problem:
Estimate the production in loose cubic yards per hour for a
medium-weight clamshell excavating loose earth. Heaped bucket
capactiy is 1 cu yd (0.75 m3). The soil is common earth with a
bucket fill factor of 0.95. Estimated cycle time is 40 s. Job
efficiency is estimated at 50 min/h.

Solution

3600 50
Production =  0.75 0.95  53 Lm3 / hr
40 60
 Example
Problem:
Estimate the time required to load 680 m3 of gravel into
trucks using a clamshell having a heaped bucket
capacity of 0.75 m3. Estimated cycle time is 35 seconds.
Job efficiency is estimated to be 50 min/hr.

Solution:

production Lm3/hr = 0.75x3600/35x50/60 = 64.285 Lm3/hr

Time required (hrs) = 680/64.285 = 10.578 hrs
 Job Management
The maximum allowable load (bucket weight plus soil weight) on
a clamshell should be obtained from manufacturer's clamshell
loading chart.

If the chart is not available limit this load to 80% of the safe lifting
capacity by the crane capacity chart for rubber-tired equipment or
90% for crawler mounted equipment.

use the lightest bucket that is capable of digging the material to

increase the production.

Cycle time is reduced by organising the job so that the dumping

radius is the same as digging radius.

Keep the boom angle to avoid swinging uphill or downhill.