Implications on Mathematics

No. Theory Proponent(s) Characteristics Strengths and Weaknesses

Teaching and Learning
1. Behaviourism Ivan Pavlov - Developed the classical Strengths: - Teachers provide a comfortable
conditioning. - It helps an individual protect learning condition for students.
itself.
- Involves placing a neutral - It can be applied in everyday
signal before a reflex. life.
- It has produced a high success
- Focuses on involuntary, rate in behaviour modification.
automatic behaviours.
Weaknesses:
- There are four components of - It does not help to create new
condition: behaviours.
a. Conditioned stimulus - It comes with numerous
b. Unconditioned stimulus variables and making it difficult
c. Conditioned response to understand.
d. Unconditioned response - It can trigger the development
of phobias in humans.
Edward - Learning is the result of Strengths: - Learning experiences should be
Thorndike associations forming between - Practice is emphasised. according to the mental level of
stimuli and responses. - Continuous assessment maturity of the child.
opportunities provided to make
- The bonds between stimuli and students answer to problems. - The task can be started from the
responses are strengthened by - Reward is important as it easier aspect towards its
satisfaction and weakened by promotes learning. difficult side.
annoyance. - Preparation for learning is the
most important. - Drills and practice in learning
process.
 - Consists of three primary laws: - Learning materials presented - Reward and punishment are
a. Law of effect from simple to complex. used in learning process.
b. Law of readiness - Materials taught relevant to
c. Law of exercise real-life situations and not just - Motivates students in the
abstracts. classroom.
- Transfer of learning depends on
the presence of identical Weaknesses:
elements in the original and - Learning is continuous process
new learning situations. and not a discrete.
- Problem solving learning does
not depend on trials and errors.
- Remembering and forgetting
are neglected.
- Practice or excessive drill of the
same thing may lead to
functional fixedness and one’s
ability to solve problems.
B. Frederick - Developed the operant Strengths: - Give positive reinforcement to
Skinner conditioning. - People are more aware of how students.
to control behaviour which has
- Learning is behavioural become very important in - Give the students immediate
change. parenting techniques. feedback.
- When student is rewarded for a
- Changes occur because of behaviour, it is more likely for - Break down the task into small
response to stimuli in the it to occur again. steps.
environment.
- Work from the most simple to
the most complex tasks.
 - When a particular S-R pattern Weaknesses:
is reinforced, the individual is - Negative reinforcement could
conditioned to respond. affect an individual in a bad
way.
- There are three types of - Does not work with everyone.
reinforcements:
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Negative reinforcement
c. Punishment
Albert - Extends behaviourism. Strengths: - Development of social
Bandura - Easily handles inconsistencies modelling.
- Believes that students learn by in behaviour.
observing or watching and - Accurate and easy to - Students are more likely to
imitating other people. understand. repeat the behaviour if they see
- Allows and accounts for positive consequences from a
- There are four mediational cognitive processes. particular type of behaviour and
processes: - Optimistic. vice versa.
a. Attention
b. Retention Weaknesses: - Encourage students to develop
c. Reproduction - Does not explain all behaviour. their individual self-efficacy
d. Motivation - Does not take into account through confidence building
physical and mental changes. and constructive feedback.
2. Cognitive Jean Piaget - Learning is cumulative. Strengths: - Students should be assigned
Learning - It develops problem-solving tasks that are age and stage
Theory - Learning is the process of skills among students. appropriate.
Jerome relating new information with - It develop a deeper
Bruner what was previously learnt. understanding among students - Teacher has to enhance the
meaningfulness of new
 David - Learning results from internal as they are encouraged to take a material to increase the chances
Ausubel mental activity and not from hands-on approach in learning. of its being anchored to what is
externally imposed stimuli. - It promotes long term learning. already known.

- Students come with Weakness: - Students are encouraged to

knowledge, skills and related - It is a teacher based learning. discover solutions via
experiences to the learning appropriate tasks which require
situation. the application of relevant
critical thinking skills.
- Learning must be meaningful to
be effective and permanent.
3. Constructivism Jerome - Learning is a process of Strengths: - Teachers act as facilitators,
Bruner structuring meaning in an - Students learn more and enjoy supports, guides and models of
active way. learning more when they are learning.
actively involved rather than
Jean Piaget - Learning is subjective. passive listeners. - Experimentation replaces rote
- It concentrates on thinking and learning.
- Learning is shaped with understanding rather than on
Lev situations and conditions of the rote memorise. - Teaching utilises both skill-
Vygotsky environment. - Learning is transferable. based and open-ended
- Promotes social and approaches.
- Learning is a social process in communication skills.
Ernst von which students share their ideas - Provides for meaningful and - Learning is collaborative and
Glasersfeld and communicate. problem-based thinking. cooperative.

- Learning is an emotional Weaknesses:

process. - Lack of structure.
 - Learning is student-centered. - It may lead students to be
confused and frustrated
- Learning is developmental. because they may not have the
ability to form relationship and
- Learning includes conceptual abstracts between the
changes. knowledge they already have
and the knowledge they are
learning for themselves.
4. Information - - Cognitive processes could be Strengths: - Using mnemonics for rules of
Processing described in a stage-like model. - Infinite long term memory mixed operation.
Theory store.
- Consists of three main stages in - Humans have powerful - Present information in
the memory process: selective attentions. categories and teach inductive
a. Encoding reasoning.
b. Storage Weaknesses:
c. Retrieval - Low capacity and fast decaying - Review lesson for previous
working memory. day.
- Humans have three types of - Efficiency of access to long
memory: term memory really depends on - Connect new information to
a. Sensory register how well the individual has something already known.
b. Short term memory processed the information.
c. Long term memory

- Each type of memory has two

characteristics:
a. Capacity
b. Duration
5. Theory of Richard - Students construct schemata to Strengths:  Relational Understanding
Learning Skemp link their prior knowledge with  Relational Understanding - Using picture to proof the
Mathematics new learning. - It is more adaptable to new quadratic equations.
tasks.
- Students cannot form any - It is easier to remember.  Instrumental Understanding
particular concept until they - Relational knowledge can be - Identify and justify the
have formed all the subsidiary effective as a goal in itself. mathematics questions by using
concepts which are related - Relational schemas are organic formula.
because mathematics involves in quality.
an extensive hierarchy of
concepts.  Instrumental Understanding
- Instrumental mathematics is
- Emotions play a dominant part often easier to understand
in students’ learning style. within its own context.
- The rewards for following a
- Two kinds of learning in procedure and getting a correct
mathematics: answer are more immediate.
a. Relational understanding - Correct answers often come
b. Instrumental understanding more easily and reliably
because less knowledge is
- Relational understanding is a involved.
more meaningful learning in
which students are able to Weaknesses:
understand the links and  Relational Understanding
relationships which give - Time consuming.
mathematics its structure. - Difficult to assess.
 - Instrumental understanding is a  Instrumental Understanding
mechanical and rote learning. - Students would be unable to
continue if their memory of the
procedure failed.
6. Theory of van Hiele - Describes how students learn Strengths: - Teachers introduce new idea
Geometric geometry. - The progression of students and allow students to work with
Thinking from one level to the next it.
- Consists of three main depends more on teaching than
components: on the age of the students. - Teachers give works to students
a. Levels of geometric thinking - The informal activities at Level for practice so they get
b. Characteristics of the levels of 1 and 2 provide appropriate acquainted with the concepts
geometric thinking conceptual knowledge for the and learn it well.
c. Phases of learning formal activities at the next
level. - Students share their opinions
- Students progress sequentially about the relationships and
through five hierarchical levels Weakness: concepts they have discovered
of thinking in the process of - Students may develop two in the activity.
learning geometry: consecutive levels of reasoning
a. Level 0: Pre-recognition at the same time. - Students work independently
(proposed by Clements and with the new concepts using a
Battista in 1992) variety of applications.
b. Level 1: Recognition
c. Level 2: Analysis - Students summarise and reflect
d. Level 3: Abstraction what they have learnt.
e. Level 4: Deduction
f. Level 5: Rigor
- Identified five defining
characteristics of the levels:
a. Sequential
b. Intrinsic and extrinsic
c. Linguistics
d. Mismatch
e. Advancement

- Suggest a sequence of 5 phases

of learning in order to help
students progress from one
level of geometric thinking to
the next:
a. Phase 1: Information
b. Phase 2: Directed orientation
c. Phase 3: Explicitation
d. Phase 4: Free orientation
e. Phase 5: Integration