Lecture - Notes - Chemistry - Final - 10232018 PDF

LECTURE NOTES
CHME 14 – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

(FINAL TERM)
ENGR. ALVIN N. DELIRO

INSTRUCTOR
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Nuclear chemistry
- is the study of the structure of the atomic nuclei, of the
changes this structure undergoes, and of the consequences
of those changes for chemistry. Nuclear reaction refers to a
process in which an atom or nucleus is converted into
different chemical element.
Types of Nuclear Reactions
1. Nuclear fission – is a process in which a single heavy nucleus
splits into two or more smaller and more stable nuclei.
2. Nuclear fusion – is a process in which two or more smaller
nuclei combine to form a single heavier and more stable
nucleus
3. Nuclear Decay
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Stable and Radioactive Isotopes
Isotopes
➢Atoms with the same number of protons, but with different
numbers of neutrons.
➢Isotopes have the same atomic number and are the same
element, but have different mass numbers.
➢Isotopes are generally named by their mass numbers, such
as rubidium-85 and rubidium-87.
➢Isotopes are often represented using the symbol:
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Stable isotopes – Isotopes that have stable nuclei and do
not emit radiation.
Radioisotopes – Isotopes that have unstable nuclei and
emit radiation.
For some elements, all isotopes are radioactive, such as

uranium and radium. For some elements, only one or some
isotopes are radioactive, such as rubidium and rhenium,
which each have two isotopes, with only one being
radioactive.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
The nucleus of an isotope can be unstable for several
reasons:
➢ If there are too many neutrons for the number of protons,

a neutron changes to a proton and an electron, with the
emitted electron being known as a negative beta (β-)
particle. This occurs in the case of cobalt-60.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
➢ If there are too many protons for the number of
neutrons, a proton changes to a neutron and a positron,
with the emitted positron being known as a positive
beta (β+) particle. This occurs in the case of sodium-22.
➢ If there are too many protons and neutrons (the

nucleus is too heavy), two protons and two neutrons
are emitted from the nucleus as a helium nucleus or an
alpha (α) particle, such as in the case of radon.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Transuranic Elements
Transuranic elements – elements beyond uranium in the

periodic table (having atomic no. greater than 92).
Transuranic elements do not occur naturally.

NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Transuranic Elements are produced in two main ways:
➢ Transuranic elements with atomic numbers 93 to 95
(neptunium, plutonium, and americium) are produced in
nuclear reactors by bombarding natural elements with
neutrons from produced in nuclear fission reactions.
➢ Transuranic elements with atomic numbers above 95 are
produced by accelerating a relatively small nucleus in a
charged particle accelerator to combine with a heavy
nucleus. E.g. Hassium-265, which has an atomic number
of 108, was produced in 1984 by bombarding firing iron-
58 nuclei at lead-208 targets.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Commercial Radioisotopes
Commercial Radioisotopes – radioisotopes that are used in
medicine, industry and/or scientific research.
Commercial radioisotopes are produced in two main ways:
➢ Using neutrons produced in a nuclear fission reactor, such
as the production of cobalt-60 (used in medicine) from
cobalt-59:
➢ Using particle accelerators to fire protons, deuterium

atoms (deuterons) or Alpha particles at a target element,
such as the production of iodine-123 by the bombardment
of xenon atoms with protons:
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Radioactivity
Radioactivity – refers to the spontaneous disintegration of

an atom with the emission of radiation.
Radiation – is an energy emitted from a source in the form

of rays or waves (e.g. sound, light or heat). This energy can
be converted into electrical energy but it can cause severe
damage to the human cells who are exposed to it.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Types of Atomic Radiation
Atomic radiation is associated to nuclear reaction and it is
generally of three forms:
1. Alpha (α) particle emission – an alpha particle is a helium

nuclei ejected with high energy from unstable nucleus that
carries away two protons and two neutrons, with the net
positive charge. The new element, a daughter nucleus,
produced with atomic number decreased by 2 and an
atomic mass number decreased by 4.
Example: The mass number of the thorium atom is
4 less than the original uranium atom.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
These fast moving helium atoms have high energy, but due to
their large mass, they are stopped by just a few inches of air,
or a piece of paper.
Uses: Many smoke detectors contain americium-241, which

releases alpha radiation and helps detect smoke. Alpha
radiation-emitting elements have also been used to power
some heart pacemakers and some space probes including the
Mars Curiosity Rover.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
2. Beta (β) particle emission – beta particles are identical to
electrons and fast moving. When ejected from the nucleus, a
particle carries away one unit with charge of (-1). This type of
decay process leaves the mass number of the nuclei
unchanged.
Take note that there is no change in the mass number even

as a new element is formed. However, the neutron is
changed into proton.
Since electrons are might lighter than helium atoms, they are
able to penetrate further, through several feet of air, or
several millimeters of plastic or less of very light metals.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Uses: Beta radiation emitters can be used as tracers in
medicine to image inside the body and have also been used
in cancer treatment. In industry, they have been used to find
leaks in underground pipes, and to gauge the thickness of
materials during manufacture.
*Positron (β+) – is an antiparticle of an electron, bring just the
opposite of beta particle decay.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
3. Gamma Rays (γ) – these are photons, just like light, except
of much higher energy. X-Rays and gamma rays are really the
same thing, the difference is how they were produced.
Depending on their energy, they can be stopped by a thin
piece of aluminum foil, or they can penetrate several inches
of lead. They often accompany alpha or beta emissions.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Uses: Gamma ray radiation is used to help sterilize medical
equipment and can also help sterilize foods. Gamma ray
detection is used by a number of telescope to produce
images. They have also been used in cancer treatments to
help kill cancer cells
Units of Radiation Measurement

A large amount of material can have a very small amount of
radioactivity; a very small amount of material can have a lot
of radioactivity. The fact is the size or weight of a radioactive
material does not indicate how much radioactivity is in it.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
The SI unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq), named after
Henri Becquerel. A more widely used unit that measures
radioactivity in a quantity of material is curie, (Ci), named
after Pierre and Marie Curie. Below is the summary of units of
radiation:
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Detecting Radiation
The three different types of radiation all have the ability to
ionise gases:
1. Alpha radiation is strongly ionising.
2. Beta radiation is less ionising.
3. Gamma radiation is only weakly ionising.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Ionising ability and other properties can be used to detect
radiation. There are a variety of instruments that can be used
for radiation detection:
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Benefits and Problems of Radioisotopes:
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Biological Effects of Radiation:
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
The Half-Life of a Radioisotope
Half-life is a method for measuring rates of radioactive decay.
The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for
one-half of the sample of that isotope to decay. It is also
defined as the time it required for the intensity of radiation
emitted by the isotope to halve.
Example: An isotope of cesium (cesium-137) has a half-life of

30 years. If 1.0 mg of cesium-137 disintegrates over a period
of 90 years, how many milligrams of cesium-137 would
remain?
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Solution:
Every 30 years, half of our sample will decay. The table shows
the time elapsed and the remaining amount of cesium-137
within 90 years.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Problem 1:
An 80g sample of 31H decay, leaving2.5 g of 31H. How long
would this take?
Problem 2:
If you start with 120g sample of Radium,How much will be
left after 44 days?
Problem 3:
A sample of 31H decays, leaving 3.1% of the original amount.
How long would this take?
Problem 4:
You start with a 200g of Thallium 207. After 20 minutes,
there is only 12.5 g of Thallium left. What is the half- life of
the decay process?
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Problem 5:
Dubnium 262 has a half-life of 34 seconds. How long will you
wait to see 500g of it decay to just 1 g?
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Calculating Half-life
The basic equations for calculations are as follows:
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Problem 1:
Iodine-131 has a half-life period of 8 days. If you start with 60
mg, how much left after 64 days?
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Problem 2 :
A 300 g of an unknown radioactive substance decays to 112 g
after 180 seconds. What is the half life of this substance?
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Problem 3:
A nuclear reactor produces 20 kg of uranium-232. If the half-
life of uranium-232 is about 70 years, how long will it take to
decay to 0.1 kg?
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
How Does A Nuclear Power Plant Work?
Heavy elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232)
are subjected to nuclear fission reaction in a nuclear reactor.
Due to fission, a large amount of heat energy is produced
which is transferred to the reactor coolant. The coolant may
be water, gas or a liquid metal. The heated coolant is made
to flow through a heat exchanger where water is converted
into high-temperature steam. The generated steam is then
allowed to drive a steam turbine. The steam, after doing its
work, is converted back into the water and recycled to the
heat exchanger. The steam turbine is coupled to an
alternator which generates electricity. The generated
electrical voltage is then stepped up using a transformer for
the purpose of long distance transmission.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
How Does A Nuclear Power Plant Work?
Heavy elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232)
are subjected to nuclear fission reaction in a nuclear reactor.
Due to fission, a large amount of heat energy is produced
which is transferred to the reactor coolant. The coolant may
be water, gas or a liquid metal. The heated coolant is made
to flow through a heat exchanger where water is converted
into high-temperature steam. The generated steam is then
allowed to drive a steam turbine. The steam, after doing its
work, is converted back into the water and recycled to the
heat exchanger. The steam turbine is coupled to an
alternator which generates electricity. The generated
electrical voltage is then stepped up using a transformer for
the purpose of long distance transmission.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Basic Components of a Nuclear Power Plant
(WITH VIDEOS)
Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a special apparatus used to perform nuclear
fission. Since the nuclear fission is radioactive, the reactor is
covered by a protective shield. As the nuclei break up, it releases
energy as well as more neutrons which further cause fission of
neighbouring atoms. Hence, it is a chain reaction and it must be
controlled, otherwise it may result in explosion. A nuclear reactor
consists of fuel rods, control rods and moderator. A fuel rod
contains small round fuel pallets (uranium pallets). Control rods
are of cadmium which absorb neutrons. They are inserted into
reactor and can be moved in or out to control the reaction. The
moderator can be graphite rods or the coolant itself. Moderator
slows down the neutrons before they bombard on the fuel rods.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
Steam Turbine
Generated steam is passed through a steam turbine, which runs
due to pressure of the steam. As the steam is passed through the
turbine blades, the pressure of steam gradually decreases and it
expands in volume. The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator
through a rotating shaft.
Alternator
The steam turbine rotates the shaft of an alternator thus
generating electrical energy. Electrical output of the alternator is
the delivered to a step up transformer to transfer it over
distances.
Condenser
The steam coming out of the turbine, after it has done its work, is
then converted back into water in a condenser. The steam is
cooled by passing it through a third cold water loop.
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
END OF THE TOPIC FOR

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
THANK YOU FOR NOT
SLEEPING….
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
NUCLER CHEMISTRY
END OF THE TOPIC FOR

THANK YOU FOR NOT
SLEEPING….
THE CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
Materials Science – involves investigating the
relationships that exist between the structures and
properties of materials
Materials Engineering – on the basis of

these structure–property correlations, designing
or engineering the structure of a material to
produce a predetermined set of properties.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL
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LECTURE NOTES

CHME 14 – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

ENGR. ALVIN N. DELIRO

For some elements, all isotopes are radioactive, such as

➢ If there are too many neutrons for the number of protons,

➢ If there are too many protons and neutrons (the

Transuranic elements – elements beyond uranium in the

Transuranic elements do not occur naturally.

➢ Using particle accelerators to fire protons, deuterium

Radioactivity – refers to the spontaneous disintegration of

Radiation – is an energy emitted from a source in the form

1. Alpha (α) particle emission – an alpha particle is a helium

Uses: Many smoke detectors contain americium-241, which

Take note that there is no change in the mass number even

Units of Radiation Measurement

Example: An isotope of cesium (cesium-137) has a half-life of

END OF THE TOPIC FOR

END OF THE TOPIC FOR

Materials Engineering – on the basis of

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