UNIT II

AC CIRCUITS

Concepts of AC circuits- rms value, average value, form and peak factors – Simple RLC series
circuits – Concept of real and reactive power- Power factor – Introduction to three phase system
– Power measurement by two wattmeter method.

2. CONCEPTS OF AC CIRCUIT

2.1 TERMINOLOGIES IN AC In case

of AC the magnitude of waveform is not constant. The measurement of magnitude is done by
the following ways.

a) Instantaneous value
b) Peak value
c) Peak to peak value
d) Root mean square (RMS) value
e) Average values

2.1.1 Waveform:The graph of instantaneous values of voltage or current plotted against time is
called as waveform.

2.1.2 Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative instantaneous values of the voltage or
current is called a cycle.

2.1.3 Time period: The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called
time period (T).
2π
Time Period (T) = ω

2.1.4 Frequency:The number of cycles that an alternating quantity can complete per second is
known as frequency. It is measured in Hz.
1
Frequency (f) = T

2.1.5 Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating current, at any particular moment is
called its instantaneous value.

Fig. 2.1 Sinusoidal waveform (instantaneous value)

At any time, the waveform has some instantaneous values. The value varies at different points
along the waveform. During positive half cycles, the instantaneous values are ‘+ve’ and during
‘-ve’ cycle the values are negative.

2.1.6 Peak value:

Fig. 2.2Sinusoidal waveform (Peak value)

The peak value of the sine wave is represented by the positive or negative half cycle
only.From the figure, the peak value is +10V (or) -10V.

2.2 SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

2.2.1 Average value:

It is defined as area under one complete cycle to period.

Area under one complete cycle
Average value =
Period
The average value of the sine wave is the total area under the half cycle curve divided
by the distance of the curve.

1 π 1 π
Vavg = ∫ v(t)dt and Iavg = ∫ i(t)dt
π 0 π 0

Sum of instantaneous value of current

Average value =
Period
i1 + i2 + ⋯ + in
iavg =
n
Area under hatched line
Average value =
Time period

The instantaneous value of sinusoidal current is i = Im Sinωt

1 π
Average value of sinusoidal currentIavg = ∫ i(t)dt
π 0
 1 π 2Im 2Im
Iavg = ∫ Im sinωt dt = (i. e)Iavg =
π 0 π π
2Vm
Similarly, Average value of sinusoidal voltage is Vavg = π

2.2.2 Problems in average value

1. Find the average value shown in fig

Fig. 2.3 Average value of triangular current waveform

Solution:
1
Area =
× T × 50 = 25T
2
Area 25T
Average value = = = 25
Period T
2. Find the average value of the Half-wave rectified output as shown below.

Fig. 2.4 Average value ofhalf-wave rectified output

Solution:
π
im sin ωt
iavg = ∫
2π
0
−im
= − (cos ωt)π
0
2π
−im im
= (−1 − 1) = (2)
2π 2π
im
iavg =
π
3. Find the average value of the triangular wave shown.
 Fig 2.5Average value of triangular voltage waveform

Solution
1
Area under one complete cycle = × 50 × T
2
1 50×T
Average value = 2 × T = 25V
Note: For waves that are symmetrical about x-axis, the definition originally given would
present a problem. The positive area on the top cancels with the negative area below
x-axis and the average value then becomes zero.
For such waves, the average value is defined over only half the cycle as
Area under half a cycle
Average value[for symmetrical waves alone] =
Half the period
4. Find the average value of the sine wave.

Fig 2.6Average value of sine waveform

Solution:
π
Im sin θ dθ 2Im
Average value = ∫ =
π π
0
5. Find the average value of the wave shown

Fig 2.7Average value of Sawtooth waveform

Solution:
1 T
Area under half the cycle = × Im ×
2 2
1 T
× I m × I m
Average value (Iav ) = 2 T 2 = Amps
2
2
6. Find the average value for the waveform

Fig 2.8Average value for trapezoidal waveform

Solution:
It is a symmetrical curve
Area under the curve for half cycle
Average value =
Base

To find the area under the curve for half cycle

 Fig 2.9Half cycle of trapezoidal waveform

Area = (1) + (2) + (3)

= OAB + ABCD + CDE

1 π π 1 2π π
= ( × Vm × ) + (Vm × ) + ( × Vm × ( − ))
2 3 3 2 3 3
Vm π Vm π 1 π
= + + ( × Vm × )
6 3 2 3
Vm π + 2Vm π + Vm π 4Vm π
= =
6 6
2Vm π
∴ Area =
3
π 2π 3π
Base for half cycle = ( + )= =π
3 3 3
∴ Base = π
2Vm (π⁄3) 2Vm π 2Vm
Average value = = =
π 3π 3
2.3 RMS value (or) Effective value:

The RMS value may be determined by taking the mean of the squares of the
instantaneous value of current over one complete cycle.

(Area under hatched curve)2

RMS = √
Period

Fig 2.10RMS value

1 2π 1 2π
Irms = √ ∫ i2 dt and Vrms = √ ∫ v 2 dt
2π 0 2π 0
RMS value of sinusoidal current is.

Substituting i = Im sinωt in above expression,

1 2π
Irms = √ ∫ Im 2 Sin2 ωt dt
2π 0

Im 2 2π 2 Im 2 2π 1 − Cos2ωt
= √ ∫ Sin ωt dt = √ ∫ ( ) dt
2π 0 2π 0 2

Im 2 Sin2ωt 2π Im 2 Sin4π Sin0

= √ [t − ] = √ [(2π − ) − (0 − )]
4π 2 0 4π 2 2

Im 2 Im 2 Im
Irms = √ × 2π = √ =
4π 2 √2
Im Vm
Irms = , similarly RMS value of voltage is Vrms =
√2 √2
2.3.1 Problems based on RMS values

1. Find the RMS value of the sine wave.

Fig 2.11RMS value of sine wave

Solution:
Method: (1)
[Same as the RMS value Derivation]
Im Vm
Irms = , Vrms =
√2 √2
Note: For this problem, you have write the RMS value derivation.
Method: (2)
2π
1
IRMS = √ ∫ Im 2 sin2 ωt dωt
2π
0
 2π
Im 1 − cos2 ωt
= ∫ √ dωt
2π 2
0

Im 1 sin2(ωt) 2π
= √[ (ωt) − ]
√2√π 2 4 0

1Im I
= √ (2π) = m
√2√π 2 √2
RMS value = 0.707Im
2. Find the RMS value of the sawtooth wave shown.

Fig 2.12 RMS value of sawtooth wave

Solution:
Area under the squared curve = Area under the parabola
1
For sawtooth waveform, Area = V 2 T
3
1 V 2T V
RMS value = √ =
3 T √3

2.4 Form Factor: (Kf)

The ratio of RMS value to the average value is called the Form Factor.
RMS value
Form factor (K f ) =
Average value
Vm
⁄
Form factor for sinusoidal voltage (K f ) = √2 = π = 1.111
2Vm⁄ 2√2
T
Im
⁄
Form factor for sinusoidal current (K f ) = √2 = π = 1.111
2Im⁄ 2√2
T
2.4.1 Problems in form factor
 1. Find the formfactor for the given sinusoidal waveform shown in figure.

Fig 2.13Formfactor for sinusoidal waveform

Solution:
π
1
Average value = ∫ Im sin ωt dt
π
0
Im
= (− cos ωt)π
0
π
Im 2
= (2) = Im
π π
RMS value Im /√2 π
Form Factor = = = = 1.11
Average value 2Im /π 2√2
Peak factor (or) Crest factor

Peak factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum value to the rms value.
maximum value
Peak Factor (K p ) =
RMS value
The peak factor for the sinusoidal current is
Im
Peak Factor (K p ) = = √2 = 1.414
Im
⁄
√2
The peak factor for the sinusoidal voltage is
Vm
Peak Factor (K p ) = = √2 = 1.414
Vm
⁄
√2
2.5 POWER FACTOR

The ratio of the average power to the apparent power is called the power factor. The
power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current.

The average power depends on the cosine value of the angle between voltage and
current called as power factor.
 Average power P
Power Factor = =
Apparent power S

Where, P= Average power

S = Apparent power
R
Power Factor = cos(θv − θi ) =
Z
Note:

Apparent power = EI

Real power = EI cosθ

P.F = Real power/Apparent power = cos θ

2.6 PEAK FACTOR:

It is given by the ratio of maximum value to RMS values, also called as Amplitude Factor
(or) Crest Factor.
Maximum value
Peak Factor =
RMS value
1. Expression for RMS value, Average value, Form factor and peak factor of a sinusoidal
alternating quantity.
The standard form of a sinusoidal alternating current is given by
i = Im sin θ
To find RMS value:
2π i2
We have, Irms = √∫0 2π
dθ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
Substitute the value of ‘i’ in equation (1)
2π
Im 2 sin2 θ
Irms = √∫ dθ
2π
0

2π
Im 2
Irms = √ ∫ sin2 θ dθ
2π
0

2π
Im 2 (1 − cos2θ)
Irms = √ ∫ dθ
2π 2
0

2π 2π
Im 2
= √ [∫ dθ − ∫ cos 2θ dθ]
4π
0 0
 2π
Im 2 sin 2θ
= √ [(θ)2π
0 −( ) ]
4π 2 0

Im 2
= √ [(2π − 0) − (0)]
4π

Im 2 Im 2 Im
= √ [2π] = √ =
4π 2 √2
Im
IRMS = = 0.707 Im
√2
To find Average value:
π
i dθ
Iavg = ∫
π
0
Substitute the value of ‘I’ in the above equation, we get
π
Im
Iavg = ∫ sin θ dθ
π
0
Im
= − [cos θ]π
0
π
Im
= − [cos π − cos 0]
π
Im
= − [−1 − 1]
π
2Im Im
Iavg = or π = 0.637 Im
π ⁄2
To find Form Factor
Im
IRMS ⁄
= √2 = 0.707 Im = 1.11
Iavg Im 0.637 Im
⁄π⁄
√2
To find Peak Factor
Imax Im
= = 1.414
IRMS Im
⁄
√2
2. Expression for RMS value, Average value, Form Factor and Peak Factor of half wave
rectified alternating current
Fig 2.14RMS value, Average value, Form Factor and Peak Factor of half wave rectified
alternating current
From the figure, i = Im sin θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and
i= 0 for π ≤ θ ≤ 2π
To find RMS value:
2π 2
i
Irms = √∫ dθ
0 2π
π 2π
1
= √ ∫ i2 dθ + ∫ i2 dθ
2π
0 π

π
1
= √ [∫ Im 2 Sin2 θdθ + 0]
2π
0

π
Im 2 1 − cos 2θ
= √ [∫ dθ]
2π 2
0

π π
Im 2
= √ [∫ dθ − ∫ cos 2θ dθ]
4π
0 0
π
Im 2 sin 2θ
= √ [(θ)π
0 −( ) ]
4π 2 0

Im 2
IRMS = √ [(π − 0) − (0)]
4π

Im 2 Im
IRMS = √ ×π =
4π 2
To find Average value:
2π
i dθ
Iavg = ∫
2π
0
π 2π
1
Iavg = [∫ Im sin θ dθ + ∫ 0 dθ]
2π
0 π
π
Im −Im
= ∫ sin θ dθ ⇒ (cos θ)π
0
2π 2π
0
−Im
= [cos π − cos 0]
2π
−Im Im
Iavg = [−1 − 1] =
2π π
To find Form Factor
 Im⁄
IRMS 2 = 1.57
=
Iavg Im⁄
π
To find Peak Factor
Imax Im
= = 2
IRMS Im⁄
2
3. Expression for RMS value and average value of the voltage represented by triangular
waveform

Fig 2.15RMS value and average value of the voltage represented by triangular waveform

General Equation of a straight line (AB)

X − X1 Y − Y1
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
X 2 − X1 Y2 − Y1

Then for figure (i), the equation of straight line for (OP) is

X = θ, Y = V, X1 = 0, Y1 = 0, X 2 = π⁄2 , Y2 = Vmax

Substituting the above values in equation (1), we get

θ−0 V − 0
π⁄ − 0 = Vmax − 0
2
θ V Vmax × θ
π⁄ = Vmax ⇒ V = π⁄ … … … … … … … … (2)
2 2
To find RMS value

π⁄
2
V 2 dθ
VRMS = √∫ π … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
⁄2
0

Substituting the value of ‘V’ in equation (3), we get

 π⁄
2 2
2 Vmax . θ
VRMS = √ ∫ ( π ) dθ
π ⁄2
0

On simplifying we get
Vmax
VRMS = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4)
√3
To find the Average value
π⁄
2
V dθ
Vavg = ∫ π … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
⁄2
0

Substituting the value of ‘V’ in equation (5)

2π
2 Vmax . θ
Vavg = ∫ π dθ
π ⁄2
0

On simplifying we get
Vmax
Vavg = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (6)
2
2.7 Problems:

1. Find the average value of the sawtooth wave given below.

Fig 2.16Average value of the sawtooth wave

Given data:
Period = T
Max value = 50 Amps
To find: Average value
Area under the curve (A)
Average value =
Period (T)
Solution:
1 1
Area = b × h = × T × 50 = 25T
2 2
 25 × T
Average value = = 25Amps
T
2. Find the average value of the halfwave rectified sine wave

Fig 2.17Average value of the halfwave rectified sine wave

Solution:
Area under the curve (A)
Average value =
Period (T)
π

Area under the curve = ∫ i dv

0
Where i = Im sin θ
π

= ∫ Im sin θ dθ
0
= Im [cos θ]π
0
= −Im [cos π − cos 0]
Area under the curve = −Im [−1 − 1] = 2Im
Area under the curve 2Im Im
∴ Average value = = =
Period (T) 2π π
3. Find the RMS value, average value of the waveform as shown in figure.
 Fig 2.18RMS value, average value of Triangular waveform

Solution:

The given function is a symmetrical function. We can consider only positive half cycle.
i.e. Vm = 100 volts
Area under half the cycle
Average value =
half the period
Vm 100
Area under half of the cycle = = = 50
2 2
Vm 100
To find RMS value = = = 57.74 volts
√3 √3

4. Find the form factor and peak factor of the Trapezoidal waveform.

Fig 2.19Form factor and peak factor of the Trapezoidal waveform

RMS value
i) Form factor = Average value
Maximum value
ii) Peak Factor = RMS value

Given maximum value = 20A

Area under half the cycle
So to find out the average value =
half the time period

Area under half they cycle = Area of ∆OAC + ∆∆BDE + rectangle ABDC
1 1 T
Area of ∆OAC = × b × h = × × 20
2 2 8
1 1 T
Area of ∆BDE = × b × h = × × 20
2 2 8
T
Area of rectangle ABDC = b × h = × 20
4
Area under half they cycle = Area of ∆OAC + ∆∆BDE + rectangle ABDC
1 T 1 T T
= ( × × 20 ) + ( × × 20 ) + ( × 20)
2 8 2 8 4
 20 T 20 T 20T
=× + × +
2 8 2 8 4
5T 5T
= + + 5T = 1.25T + 1.2T + 5T = 7.5T
4 4
7.5T × 2
∴ Average value = = 15Amps
T
Area under the squared curve
To find RMS value = √ Half the time period

1
Area under the squared curve = × b × h2
2
1 T 1 T T
= × 202 × + × 202 × + 202 ×
3 8 3 8 4
1 T 1 T T
= × 400 × + × 400 × + 400 ×
3 8 3 8 4
50 × T 50 × T
= + + 100T
3 3
= 16.7T + 16.7T + 100T = 133.4T

133.4T 133.4 × 2 × T 266.8T

∴ RMS value = √ =√ = √ = 16.33 Amps
T⁄ T T
2
RMS value 16.33
i) K f [Form Factor] = = = 1.089 Amps
Average value 15
Maximum value 20
ii) K p [Peak Factor] = = = 1.225 Amps
RMS value 16.33
5. Derive the expression for a waveform and find the RMS value and average value:
 Fig 2.20RMS value and average value for triangular

Solution:

It is a symmetrical function
Area under half the cycle
Average value =
half the period
1 1
Area under half the period = × b × h = × π × Vm
2 2
Area under half the cycle
Average value =
half the period
1 1 Vm
Average value = × π × Vm × =
2 π 2
Area under the squared wave
RMS value = √
Period
Area under squared wave = Area under the square (∆ABC + ∆OAB)
1 1
= bh2 + bh2
3 3
1 π 1 π
= × Vm × + × Vm 2 ×
2
3 2 3 2
1 π πVm 2
= 2 × × Vm 2 × =
3 2 3
Vm 2 × π 1 Vm
∴ RMS value = √ × =
3 π √3

6. Find the average value, RMS value, form factor and peak factor.

Fig 2.21

a) Average value: [unsymmetrical waveform]

Area under one full cycle
Vavg =
Time period
1
× 0.01 × 10 + 0.01 × 10 + 0.01 × 0
To find area under one full cycle = 2
0.03
0.05 + 0.1 0.15
= =
0.03 0.03
Vavg = 5V
b) RMS value:
 Area under the squared curve for one complete cycle
Vrms = √
Period
1 1
× 0.01 × 102 + 0.01 × 102 + 0.01 × 0 +1
= √3 = √3 = 6.67V
0.03 0.03
c) Form factor:
RMS value 6.67
Kf = = = 1.334
Average value 5
d) Peak factor:
Peak value 10
Kp = = = 1.499
RMS value 6.67
2.8 AVERAGE VALUE OF SYMMETRICAL AND UNSYMMETRICAL VALUES:

2.8.1 SYMMETRICAL WAVEFORM:

The alternating current (or) voltage waveform has exactly two similar half cycles whether
sinusoidal (or) non sinusoidal

Fig 2.22Symmetrical waveform

Area under one half cycle
Avg value =
Time period

Area under squared curve (one half cycle)

RMS value = √
Time period

2.8.2 UNSYMMETRICAL WAVEFORM:

For this type of waveform, where the first half cycle varies with the second half cycle and
hence for finding the average value, the full cycle must be considered
 Fig 2.23 Unsymmetrical waveform
Area under one complete cycle
Avg value =
Time period

Area under squared curve (one complete cycle)

RMS value = √
Time period

2.8.3 Problem:

Find the average value, RMS value, Form factor and peak factor for an unsymmetrical
waveform.

Fig 2.24Average value, RMS value, Form factor and peak factor for an unsymmetrical
waveform.

i) To find average value:

Area under one complete cycle
Avg value =
Time period
Area under one complete cycle = Area of rectangle from 0 to T/2 (+) Area of the
rectangle from T/2 to T
Area under one complete cycle = 100 * T/2 + (-50 * T/2) = 50 T – 25 T = 25T
∴Avg value = 25T/T = 25 volts
ii) To find RMS value:
Area under squared curve (one complete cycle)
RMS value = √
Time period
Area under one squared curve = [1002 * T/2]+[(-50)2*T/2]
= T/2 [10000 + 2500] = 12500 T/2 = 6250 T
6250T
RMS value = √ = √6250 = 79.57 volts
T
iii) To find Form factor (kf)
RMS value
Form factor =
Average value
 79.057
= = 3.16
25
iv) To find Peak factor (Kp)
Maximum value
Peak factor =
RMS value
100
= = 1.26
79.057
2.9 Relationship between current and voltage waveforms and phasor diagram

2.9.2 Pure Resistive circuit:

Fig 2.25Pure Resistive circuit

Consider the circuit shown in which a resistor of value ‘R’ ohms is connected across
an alternating voltage source(Vs).

We know that e = Em sin ωt

Let the applied voltage is, e = Em sin ωt … … … … … … … … … … (1)

By Ohm’s law, V = IR,

e Em sin ωt
e = iR ⇒ i = = … … . . (2)
R R
Also we know that for an alternating quantity, the current equation is i = Im sin ωt … (3)

Substitute equation (3) in equation (2)

e
i=
R
Em sin ωt
Im sin ωt =
R
Em
∴ Im =
R
From equation (1) and (3), Voltage and current are in phase with each other.

For a pure resistive load, there is no phase difference (∅ = 0)

 Fig 2.26Voltage and current in a pure resistive load

The instantaneous Power, P = e i

P = Em sin ωt × Im sin ωt

P = Em Im sin2 ωt
π
1
∴ Average Power (P) = ∫ Vm sin θ Im sin θ dθ
π
0
π
Vm Im
= ∫ sin2 θ dθ
π
0

π
Vm Im 1 − cos 2θ
= [∫ ( ) dθ]
π 2
0

π π
Vm Im
= [∫ dθ − ∫ cos 2θ dθ]
2π
0 0

Vm Im
=
2
Vm Im
∴ Average Power (P) = × = VRMS . IRMS
√2 √2
Since, we discuss about AC circuits, Resistance is replaced by impedance (Z).

It is the ratio of maximum voltage to the maximum current

V = IR, V = IZ
V Vm
∴Z= =
I Im
Vm
Z=
Vm⁄
R
 ∴Z=R

2.10 Pure Inductance Circuit

2.10.1 RLC series circuit

Consider a circuit shown in fig, having resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance
(C), all are connected in series.

Let the applied voltage, V = Vm sin ωt … … … … … … . . (1)

Fig 2.27 RLC series circuit

i - circuit current at any instant

VR - Potential difference across resistor

VL - Potential difference across inductor

Vc - Potential difference across capacitor

F - frequency of applied voltage

R - V & I unity

Fig 2.28Voltage and current in a pure resistive load

L - VL leads IL

Fig 2.29Voltage and current in a pure inductive load

C - VC lags IC

Fig 2.30Voltage and current in a pure capacitive load

Voltage across R = VR = IR [In phase with each other]

Voltage across L = VL = IXL ∠90 = jIX L [voltage leads the current by 90]

Voltage across C = VC = IX C = −jIXC [Voltage lags current by 90]

∴ Applied Voltage (V) = VR + VL + VC

V = IR + jIX L − jIX C

V = I [R + jX L − jX C ]

V = I [R + j(X L − X C )]
V
∴ = R + j(X L − X C )
I
V
|Z| = √R2 + (X L − X C )2 where = |Z|
I

Conditions:

i) If X L > X C , the circuit behaves like RL circuit

ii) If X L < X C , the circuit behaves like RC circuit
V
∴ Magnitude of current, I =
|Z|
V
I=
√R2 + (X L − X C )2

Phasor Diagram:

Case i)If XL> XC

XL will be inductive in nature

 Fig 2.31XL> XC
R
Phase angle θ, PF = cos θ =
|Z|
XL − XC
tan θ =
R

ωL − 1⁄ωC
tan θ =
R

ωL − 1⁄ωC
θ = tan−1 ( )
R

Case ii) If XL< XC

It is capacitive in nature

= IXL

Fig 2.32XL< XC
 XL − XC
Phase angle θ = tan θ = ( )
R
1⁄ − ω
ωC L
= ( )
R

1⁄ − ω
ωC L
θ = tan−1 ( )
R

2.11 Problems in RLC circuits

1) In a series circuit consists of pure inductance and pure resistance. The current and voltage
2π 5π
are expressed in i(t) = 5 sin(314t + )and v(t) = 20 sin(314 + ).
3 6
a) What is the impedance of the circuit?
b) What is the values of resistance, inductance and power factor?
c) What is the average power drawn by the circuit?

Solution:
2π
i(t) = 5 sin (314t + )
3
5π
v(t) = 20 sin(314 + )
6
2π 180
phase angle of current = radians = 2 × = 120
3 3
5π 180
phase angle of voltage = radians = 5 × = 150
6 6
Current lags the voltage by θ = 150 − 120 = 30

Lagging power factor means that it is an RL circuit

PF = cos 30 = 0.866 (lagging).

Vm 20
a) Now impedance, Z = Im
= 5
= 4Ω
R
cos ϕ = ⇒ R = Z. cos θ = 4. cos θ = 3.46Ω
Z
|Z| = √R2 + X L 2

X L = √Z2 − R2
X L = √42 − 3.462 = 2Ω
2
X L = ωL ⇒ L = = 6.37 × 10−3 Henry
314
20 5 min value
Average Power = VI cos θ = × × 0.866 = 43.3 watts [since RMS value = ]
√2 √2 √2
2. In the circuit shown at a frequency f = 500Kz, the current lags the voltage by 50 degree. Find
R and voltage across each circuit element. Draw the phasor diagram.

Fig 2.33

L = 10mH, C=5microfarad, f=500Hz, phase angle = 50 lagging

Inductive Reactance (XL ) = ωL = 2πfL = 2π × 500 × 10 × 10−3 = 31.42Ω

1 1
Capacitive Reactance (X C ) = = = 63.66Ω
ωC 2π × 500 × 5 × 10−6

If X C > X L ⇒ X C − X L is capacitive.

∴ Power factor is lagging

From the impedance triangle,

XL − XC
tan ∅ =
R
31.42 − 63.66
tan 50 =
R
R = 27.09Ω

Z = √R2 + (X C − X L )2

= √27.09 + (63.66 − 31.42)2 = 42.11Ω

V 200
Current (I) = = = 4.75A
Z 42.11
Voltage across Resistance, VR = I. R = 4.75 × 27.09 = 128.68V

Voltage across Inductance, VL = IX L = 4.75 × 31.42 = 149.25V

Voltage across Capacitance, VC = IXC = 4.75 × 63.66 = 302.39V

2.12 INTRODUCTION TO 3 PHASE SYSTEM:

Fig 2.35Phasor diagram

2.12.1 Polyphase system

 It is a AC system in which voltages are arranged to have equal phase

difference
 The most commonly used polyphase system is the 3 phase system
 RR’, YY’, BB’ phases are displaced by 120degree phase shift
 3 phase systems are more efficient compared to 1 phase system
 Generation, transmission and distribution of 3 phase power is more cheaper.

Generation

 As said earlier all the 3 phases (or) coils [R, Y, B] are displaced by 120
degree phase shift with a maximum value of ∅m .
 Let all the coils rotate in anticlockwise direction
 According to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in the
conductors [RR’, YY’, BB’].
 As shown in the figure, YY’ lags RR’ by an angle 120 degree.
 The induced emf in coil BB’ lags RR’ by an angle of 240 degree.

The mathematical expression for a 3 phase system is given by,

eR = Em sin ωt

eY = Em sin(ωt − 120)
 eB = Em sin(ωt − 240)

i) Balanced system or Balanced load:

The current in all the phases are equal in magnitude and are displaced equally.
If all the three induced emf’s have same amplitude, frequency and displacement,
then the system is said to have balanced system.
ii) Unbalanced Load:
If the load impedance in all phases are not equal, then the system is said to have an
unbalanced load.
iii) Phase sequence:
The order in which the different phases reaches their respective maximum value.
iv) Three phase connections:
The 3 phase system can be given in 2 fashions
a) Star connection. b) Delta connection
a) Star connection
Her 3 similar ends of the coil are connected together to form a common point called
neutral point.

Fig 2.36Polyphase system

2.12.2 Delta connection

 Fig 2.37Delta connection

ER , EY , EB → Phase voltages of R, Y, and B

IR , IY , IB → Phase current of R, Y, and B

VRY , VYB , VBR → Line voltages

IL1 , IL2 , IL3 → Line currents

a) Relationship between’V’ and ‘I’ for a star connection

Fig 2.38Relationship between ’V’ and ‘I’ for a star connection

The figure shows a star connected system with all the parameters

ER , EY , EB → Phase voltages of R, Y, and B

IR , IY , IB → Phase current of R, Y, and B

VRY , VYB , VBR → Line voltages

IL1 , IL2 , IL3 → Line currents

For a balanced system,

ER = EY = EB = EP
VRY = VYB = VBR = VL
IR = IY = IB = IP
IL1 = IL2 = IL3 = IL
 From the figure it is clear that for current relation
IR = IL1 , IY = IL2 , IB = IL3
since IR = IY = IB = IP
and IL1 = IL2 = IL3 = IL
IP = IL
∴ Line current = Phase current
IL = Iphase
This means for a balanced star connected system, Line current is equal to Phase current.

b) Voltage relationship
VRY = ̅E̅̅̅ ̅̅̅
R − EY
VYB = EY − E̅̅B̅
̅̅̅ ̅
VBR = ̅E̅̅B̅ − E
̅̅̅R̅

Fig 2.39Voltage relationship

Law of Parallelogram
VRY = √ER 2 + EY 2 + 2ER EY cos θ

1
VRY = √EP 2 + EP 2 + 2EP EP .
2

= √3EP 2 = √3EP
Similarly VRY = √3EP , VYB = √3EP , VBR = √3EP
VL
∴ Line voltage VL = √3EP , where EP =
√3
c) Power Relationship
Power consumed per phase = EP IP cos ∅
Power consumed for 3 phase = 3EP IP cos ∅
 VL
We know that EP =
√3
VL
Power consumed for 3 phase = 3 IP cos ∅
√3
= √3VL IL cos ∅
Reactive power = EP IP sin ∅
3 phase power = 3EP IP sin ∅
∴ Apparent Power = √(3. VL 2 IL 2 cos2 ∅) + (3. VL 2 IL 2 sin2 ∅)

= √(3. VL 2 IL 2 )[cos2 ∅ + sin2 ∅]

= √(3. VL 2 IL 2 ). [1]

= √(3. VL 2 IL 2 )
Total power = √3VL IL [volt amps]

d) Voltage and current for delta connection

Fig 2.40Voltage and current for delta connection

In this connection, for a balanced system

ER = EY = EB = EP [ Phase voltages ]

IR = IY = IB = IP [Phase current ]

VRY = VYB = VBR = VL [Line voltages ]

IL1 = IL2 = IL3 = IL [Line currents ]

Voltage Relationship

ER = VRY , EY = VYB , EB = VBR

∴ EP = VL
Phase voltage = Line voltage
 Current relationship

From the phasor diagram, the line currents are given by,

Fig 2.41
IR − IB = IL1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
IY − IR = IL2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
IB − IY = IL3 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
From equation (1),
By applying law of parallelogram
IL! = √IR 2 + IB 2 + 2IR IB cos θ

1
= √IP 2 + IP 2 + 2IP IP .
2

IL1 = √3IP 2 = √3IP

Line current is equals to √3 times of phase current

Three-phase power circuits

Almost all electric power generation and most of the power transmission in the world is
in the form of three-phase AC circuits. A three-phase AC system consists of three-phase
generators, transmission lines, and loads. There are two major advantages of three-phase
systems over a single-phase system:

1) More power per kilogram of metal form a three-phase machine;

2) Power delivered to a three-phase load is constant at all time, instead of pulsing as it does in a
single-phase system.
The first three-phase electrical system was patented in 1882 by John Hopkinson - British
physicist, electrical engineer, Fellow of the Royal Society
2.13 THREE-PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT- TWO WATTMETER METHOD
2.13.1Two–Wattmeter Method

This is the generally used method for measurement of power in 3-phase, 3 –wire, load
circuits. The current coils of two wattmeter are inserted in any two lines and pressure coil is
connected from its own current coil to the line without a current coil. The connections are shown
in Fig. 3(a).

Let V1, V2, V3, and i1, i2, i3 be the voltages and currents of the three loads connected
across three different phases at any particular instant. These being instantaneous values, the
power at the instant under consideration are equal to the sum of their products, regardless of
power factor.

i.e. Instantaneous power, p = V1 i1 + V2 i2 + V3 i3 watts …….(i)

Star –Connected System:

Since all the three phases meet at a star point so according to Kirchhoff’s first law, the
algebraic sum of three instantaneous current is zero

i.e. i1+ i2 + i3 = 0

or i3 = - (i1+ i2)
Substituting i3 = - ( i1+ i2) in expression (i) we get instantaneous power,
p= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (i +i2) = i1 (V1 – V3) + i2 (V2 + V3)

Fig.2.42Two Watt-Meter Method of Measuring Power in 3-Phase 3- Wire star connected load
system
 Since i1 is the instantaneous current flowing through the current coils and (V1 – V3) is the
instantaneous potential difference across pressure coil of watt-meter W 1, therefore (v1 – v3) i1 =
w1, the instantaneous power measured by wattmeter W 1.

Fig.2.43 Two Watt-Meter Method of Measuring Power in 3-Phase 3- Wire (Delta

connected load)
Similarly i2 is the instantaneous current flowing through the current coil and
(V2-V3) is the instantaneous potential difference across pressure coil of wattmeter W 2, therefore
(V2-V3) i2 = w2, the instantaneous power measured by wattmeter W 2

Hence total instantaneous power, p = w1+ w2

Or Total average power P = W 1+ W2

Hence the algebraic sum of two wattmeter readings gives the total power in the 3-phase,
3-wire star connected load circuits whether the load is balanced or unbalanced
Delta- Connected System:

In delta- connected system the three phases form a closed loop and according to
Kirchhoff’s second law.

V1+ V2 + V3 = 0
or V1 = - (V2+V3)
Instantaneous power, p = V1i1 + V2i2 + V3i3
= - (V2 + V3) i1+ V2i2 + V3i3
= -V3 (i1-i3) + V2 (i2-i1)

Since –V3 is the instantaneous pd across pressure coil and (i1 – i3) is the instantaneous current
flowing through current coil of wattmeter W 1, so wattmeter W 1 reads average of –V3 (i1- i3) and
similarly wattmeter W 2 reads average of V2(i2-i1)

Hence total power, P = W1+ W 2

Hence the algebraic sum of two wattmeter readings gives total power of the circuit
irrespective of the fact that the circuit is balanced or unbalanced and star connected or delta-
connected.
 Determination of Power Factor from Wattmeter Readings. If load is balanced, then pf of
the load can also be determined from the wattmeter readings.

The vector diagram for a balanced star-connected inductive load is shown in Fig. 4 (a).
Let V1,V2, and V3 be the rms values of phase voltages and l1, l2 and l3 be the rms values of
phase currents.

Fig.2.44 Vector Diagram of Balanced Star Connected Inductive Load

Since load is balanced therefore

Phase voltages V1, V2 and V3 will be equal (say, equal to VP)

Phase currents l1, l2 and l3 will be equal (say, equal to lP or lL)
Phase angles between respective phase voltages & phase currents will be equal, say 
The current in current coil of wattmeter W 1 = l1 = lL lagging behind V1 by 
The pd across pressure coil of wattmeter W 1=V13= 3 VP=VL lagging behind V1by 30°

Therefore phase angle between voltage across potential coil and current through current
coil of wattmeter W 1 is (30°- ) and reading of wattmeter
W 1 = VLlLcos (30° - )

The current in current coil of wattmeter W 2 = l2 = lL lagging behind V2 by 

The p.d across pressure coil of wattmeter W 2 = V23 = 3 VP = VL leading V2 by 30°

Therefore phase angle between potential difference (p.d) across potential coil and
current through current coil of wattmeter W 2 is (30° + )

Hence reading of wattmeter W 2 = VLlLcos (30° + )

The sum of two watt meter readings

W1 + W 2= VLlLcos (30° - ) + VLlLcos (30° + )

= VLlL2 cos 30° cos

= 3 VLlLcos = True power of load ……. (i)
and W 1 - W 2 = VLlLcos(30° - ) -VLlLcos (30° + )

= VLlL2 sin 30° sin  = VLlL sin  …….. (ii)

Dividing the expression (ii) by expression (i) we get

W1 - W2 Tan
W1  W2 = 3
or = tan-1  W1  W2  3
 
 W1  W2 
andpf of load circuit, cos = cos tan-1.
Hence phase angle  and pfcos can be determined from readings of two wattmeters.