Iccp Training Course Organic Petrology Macerals Microlithotypes Lithotypes Minerals Rank

Wednesday, 3 August 2011 5:16 PM 2_Organic_Petrology_Macerals_Rank 1
ICCP Training Course on

Dispersed Organic Matter
CHAPTER 2
ORGANIC PETROLOGY, MACERALS,
MICROLITHOTYPES,
LITHOTYPES, MINERALS, RANK
Wednesday September 7- Friday September 9, 2011,
HELD AT
Departamento de Geociências,
Ambiente e Ordenamento do Território,
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto
Porto, Portugal
CONTENTS
2. ORGANIC PETROLOGICAL METHODS
2.1 EARLY STUDIES 4
2.2 LATER DEVELOPMENTS 5
2.3 PETROGRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER 6
2.3.1 TYPE 6
TABLE 2.1. BIOCHEMICAL COALIFICATION 7
2.3.2 THE MACERAL CONCEPT 7
2.3.3 THE MACERAL GROUPS 8
TABLE 2.2. MACERAL GROUPS, SUB-GROUPS, MACERALS
AND SUB-MACERALS 10
TABLE 2.3. ILLUSTRATION OF MACERAL GROUPS AND
SOME MACERALS 12
TABLE 2.4. ILLUSTRATION OF VITRINITE SUB-GROUPS 13
TABLE 2.5. ILLUSTRATION OF INERTINITE MACERALS 14
TABLE 2.6. ILLUSTRATION OF LIPTINITE MACERALS 15
2.3.3.1 THE VITRINITE GROUP 16
2.3.3.1.1 TELOVITRINITE SUBGROUP 20
2.3.3.1.2 DETROVITRINITE SUBGROUP 23
2.3.3.1.3 GELOVITRINITE SUBGROUP 26
2.3.3.2 THE LIPTINITE GROUP 27
2.4.1 SPORINITE 28
TABLE 2.7. CHEMICAL AFFINITIES OF THE LIPTINITE MACERALS. 28
2.4.2 CUTINITE 29
2.4.3 SUBERINITE 29
2.4.4 RESINITE 30
2.4.5 LIPTODETRINITE 31
2.4.6 ALGINITE 31
2.4.7 BITUMINITE 32
2.4.8 EXSUDATINITE 33
2.3.3.3 THE INERTINITE GROUP 34
2.3.3.3.1 GENERAL 34
2.3.3.3.2 FUSINITE 35
2.3.3.3.3 SEMIFUSINITE 35
2.3.3.3.4 INERTODETRINITE 35
2.3.3.3.5 MACRINITE 36
2.3.3.3.6 MICRINITE 36
2.3.3.3.7 FUNGINITE 36
2.3.3.3.8 SECRETINITE 36
2.3.4 MICROLITHOTYPES 37
2.4. COAL RANK - PHYSICO-CHEMICAL COALIFICATION 37
2.4.1 PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH RANK CHANGE 37
2.4.2 MATURATION CONCEPT 38
TABLE 2.8. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL COALIFICATION – RANK CHANGE 39
2.4.3. ORGANIC PETROLOGICAL METHODS 39
2.4.4. VITRINITE REFLECTANCE 41
2.4.4.1 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF VITRINITE AND THEIR

INFLUENCE ON MEASUREMENTS 41
Table 2.4. Diagram to illustrate the ISO coal classification 11760-2005 42
Table 2.5 - Low, Medium and High Rank coals 43
2.4.4.2 RELATIONSHIP OF REFLECTANCE TO
OTHER OPTICAL PROPERTIES 45
2.4.5. TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING VITRINITE REFLECTANCE 47
2.4.5.1 GENERAL 47
2.4.5.2 USE OF VARIOUS IMMERSION MEDIA 47
2.4.5.3 PROPERTIES MEASURED 48
Table 2.9. Properties measured for vitrinite reflectance. 48
2.4.5.3.1 MEAN MAXIMUM REFLECTANCE 48
2.4.5.3.2 RANDOM MEASUREMENTS BUT WITH POLAR 50
2.4.5.3.3 RANDOM REFLECTANCE 50
2.4.6. HISTOGRAMS 50
2.4.7 UNUSUAL TYPE EFFECTS 51
2.5 CARBONIZATION 52
FIGURE 2.1 Plates of coals and the conversion to artificial semi-cokes 53
FIGURE 2.2. Mesophase development in natural bitumen, 54
FIGURE 2.3. Natural coke. Little Limestone coal, Visean, 54
FIGURE 2.4. Meta-exsudatinite 55
2.5. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 56
Glossary 59
APPENDICES. 63
TABLE A2.1. MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS IN RELATION TO
VITRINITE REFLECTANCE 63
TABLE A2.2. SAMPLE REQUIREMENTS FOR VITRINITE REFLECTANCE 64
TABLE A2.3. METHODS OF MEASUREMENT 65
TABLE A2.4. INFORMATION IN REFLECTANCE DATA 66
TABLE A2.5. LATER DEVELOPMENTS 67
TABLE A2.6. LIMITATIONS AND COMPLICATIONS 68
TABLE A2.6. COMPLICATIONS 69
TABLE A2.7. REPRODUCIBILITY DATA FOR SIX COALS 71
2. ORGANIC PETROLOGICAL METHODS
2.1 EARLY STUDIES
th
The first organic petrological studies were undertaken in Britain in the middle part of the 19
century (Murchison, 1978). They relied upon the use of thin sections and none of the
researchers had any formal training in geology, nor did they practice as geologists, hence the
title of the 1978 paper by Murchison. The work of Stopes (1919) is commonly taken to mark
a new phase of interest in coal by geologists and in petrological techniques for studying coal
but had been in parallel with the use of two relatively difficult and less productive techniques,
flame etching followed by reflected light microscopy (Winter, 1913; Seyler, 1929) and thin
section methods (Thiessen, 1920; Lomax, 1925). Flame etching proved useful for studies on
palaeobotany and thin section methods were developed to a full system permitting analysis of
coals. The difficulty of making thin sections, the opaque character of some components even
at low rank and the opacity of medium and high rank coals restricted the usefulness of thin
section methods.
Reflected light methods suffered from the low optical contrast between components using air
immersion (dry) lenses and the high glare from a combination of the early opaque
illuminators and the low quality of early oil immersion lenses. The German school, working
closely with the German microscope firms of Leitz and Zeiss succeeded in developing a
suitable illuminator (the Berek prism) and low glare oil immersion lenses for use in reflected
light. The realisation that much of the work required only medium power lenses was a critical
factor in the development of reflected light techniques.
Images could be obtained with air immersion lenses but with them the contrast between the
various components within coals is very low. Oil immersion lenses gave sufficient contrast to
allow resolution in reflected light of the three maceral groups, vitrinite, inertinite and liptinite
(initially termed exinite). The recognition of these was a logical outcome of Stopes' early
work on lithotypes and the maceral system was published by her in 1935. Two other tools
essential to organic petrology were invented in the 1930's and manufactured by Ernst Leitz of
Wetzlar.
The development of the six spindle integrating stage and the Berek Photometer, respectively,
permitted the quantitative assessment of type and rank. Both have been replaced by newer
instruments (respectively, the point counter and the photomultiplier photometer) that give
essentially the same information, but much more quickly and accurately. In turn point
counters and photomultipliers are being replaced by newer methods of determining
percentages of components and their reflectances.
Liptinite and some vitrinites show strong or, at least, distinct autofluorescence when
irradiated with ultraviolet, violet or blue light. Illumination of samples in fluorescence-mode
provides invaluable supplementary information to vitrinite reflectance. An excellent recent

review of the application of all organic petrology techniques to source rock studies is given
by Teichmüller (1986).
Organic petrology permits determination of the type and abundance of the organic matter
occurring as discrete particles at the same time that rank (or level of organic maturation) is
assessed. Rank and maturation level are normally and most easily assessed from vitrinite
reflectance but the fluorescence properties of both liptinite and vitrinite can also be used as
an indicator of rank. Providing that the vitrinite is correctly identified, vitrinite reflectance
provides the most direct and precise method of rank assessment for most samples. In the
absence of discrete organic matter, it is possible in some instances to use the fluorescence
characteristics of the mineral matter to give a general assessment of the level of maturation.
The terminology used here for organic matter follows, wherever possible, that of the Stopes
Heerlen System as modified for the ICCP 1994 System. The maceral terms used are shown in
Table 2.1.
2.2 LATER DEVELOPMENTS
Although coal petrological methods were developed initially as a form of scientific

endeavour they rapidly became oriented to use by the coal industry especially in relation to
coking. During the period from about 1925 to 1950 the basic terminology for reflected light
work was developed. At the same time, related methods were developed to study coke
petrology.
Early work tended to focus on coal type, largely because of the instrumental difficulties of
measuring vitrinite reflectance. In many ways this is paradoxical because most studies were
directed toward the bright coals from the Carboniferous of Europe and the UK. These coals
show relatively little type variation, but in coalfields such as those in the Ruhr and South
Wales, rank variation is very large.
Most of the work to initially establish rank variation within the Carboniferous was done using
chemical analyses. Much of this work remained unpublished and concepts of the spatial
distribution of coal rank remained little advanced over those stated by Hilt in the previous
Century. After 1946, the National Coal Board in the UK published the rank maps that arose
from the work of the DSIR prior to 1939.
Around 1960 it was recognised that vitrinite reflectance could be applied to the study of rank
variation in the thick sequences within sedimentary basins that were of interest to oil
companies. At first measurements were restricted to coals, but gradually were extended to
vitrinite occurring in associated clastics and then all types of sequences where vitrinite can
occur. This includes most marine sequences, although vitrinite is commonly only a minor
component of most marine organic matter assemblages.
At the same time it was recognised that the maceral system that had been developed for coals
could be applied with minor changes and extensions, to the organic matter in all post-Silurian
sequences. These extensions lead to a change in name for the study of organic matter by
petrological methods from coal petrology to organic petrology. This newer term also
embraces coke petrology as well as the petrology of organic matter in rocks other than coal.
Vitrinite is not present in sequences that are Silurian, or older, because land plants had not yet
evolved. However, the remains of graptolites and chitinozoans provide a substitute for
vitrinite in rocks of Silurian, Ordovician and Middle and Upper Cambrian age. Alginite is
present back into the Precambrian and where these are at low levels of maturation,
fluorescence properties can be used to assess maturation levels. Additionally, many
occurrences of lamalginite develop measurable reflectances and these can be used to assess
maturation even if they cannot be directly correlated with vitrinite reflectance. Bitumen
reflectances can also be used, so that it is possible to use organic petrology techniques for
rocks of Precambrian age.
Organic petrology studies for the oil industry greatly increase the range of rank or maturity
that are commonly studied. The coal industry is still dominated by production of coals of
bituminous rank although coals of higher and lower rank are also mined. Even within this
rank range, the coal industry is dominated by coals of medium to low bituminous rank. By
contrast, many studies for petroleum span a range from low rank brown coals to meta-
anthracite. The development of exploration for shale gas has placed a marked emphasis on
exploration of sedimentary sections lying within the anthracitic range of rank.
Extension of the techniques to oil industry studies has resulted in a need to develop the
techniques to cope with a much greater range of vitrinite types and to treat a very wide range
of rank as a normal outcome. It has also lead to a greater understanding of the three
dimensional distribution of rank within sedimentary basins. Modelling of maturation, has
also lead to an understanding of the timing of coalification. Techniques such as apatite
fission track analysis (AFTA) provide directly determined data on the timing of some
specific temperature markers. Integration of various types of data has also become extremely
important.
2.3 PETROGRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER
2.3.1 TYPE
Type is determined by the vegetation and the nature of plant, and to a lesser extent animal
material contributed to the sediment and to the extent of early diagenetic alteration. This
early digenetic alteration has been most intensively studied in relation to peat. Organic
matter type is described in terms of the entities that can be distinguished with an optical
microscope.
Recognition of type is commonly traced back to the definition of lithotypes in coals by

Stopes in 1919, although in practice many distinctions had been made on the basis of coal
type factors for most of the history of coal – for example the recognition of cannel coals.
In the Stopes system, vitrain relates to thick layers of coal largely composed of what became
recognised as vitrinite and fusain to a particular assemblage of fusinite and semifusinite.
Durain is a dull coal dominated by macrinite and sporinite and clarain a coal lying in
composition between vitrain and durain. In practice, the Stopes lithotype system is either not
appropriate to many coals other than the Carboniferous coals of the UK (on which it was
based) or does not provide much discrimination. For example, Tertiary coals tend to show
relatively few differences at the lithotype scale.
TABLE 2.1. BIOCHEMICAL COALIFICATION
INITIAL MATERIAL PROCESS RESPONSE

Oxygen potential
Aerobic aerobic to anaerobic Anaerobic
COMPOUND GROUPS
Proteins strong degradation hydrolysis to monomers
Carbohydrates some degradation}followed to humic acids to brown coal*
by repolymerisation
Lignin degradation but preservation to humic acids to brown coal*
after repolymerization
Lipids cuticles and lipoid virtually unaltered report to peat and brown coal*
coatings, resins spores and
pollens
Plant material HUMIFICATION PEAT*___>BROWN COAL*

(BURIAL AND TIME) Dispersed organic matter
Fluids produced H2O, H2S, CO2 CH4
2.3.2 THE MACERAL CONCEPT
Coal is not homogeneous under the optical microscope and it can be seen to consist of a
number of constituents. These are termed macerals (Stopes, 1935) and are distinguished on
the basis of morphology, optical properties and some other properties such as polishing
hardness. An analogy is commonly made for macerals with the relationship of minerals to
rocks of inorganic origin. The analogy is not complete because whereas minerals have a
distinct composition (or range), coal macerals range widely in their composition and physical
properties even in coals of one level of rank and the properties of macerals vary
systematically with rank. It should also be noted that minerals are crystalline whereas
macerals exhibit form anisotropy over most of the rank range and develop crystalline
structures only at high rank or where heating to coke has occurred. The presence of form
anisotropy becomes an important topic of study where vitrinite bireflectance is studied.
Most coals have a heterogeneous structure that is visible in hand specimen and a set of
lithotype terms was introduced to describe the coal types that could be distinguished in hand
specimen by Stopes (1919). This lithotype system was developed for coals of Carboniferous
age and the system cannot readily be applied to coals of some other ages (especially the
Tertiary) because similar differences in hand specimen appearance are not always present.
Properties at the lithotype level have recently become of greater significance due to the
increased importance of extraction of coal bed methane. Fracture patterns are important in
relation to methane production and these are related to the structure of the coals at the
lithotype level.
The optical microscope shows a greater level of heterogeneity than is evident in hand
specimen and although the lithotype system is not readily applied to Tertiary coals, the
maceral system is applicable to coals of all ages. Studies with electron microscope
techniques show that heterogeneity persists well beyond the level of resolution of the optical
microscope. In practical terms the optical microscope represents the limit of useful
resolution for most studies.
Maceral recognition is dependent primarily upon the morphology and secondarily on the
optical properties of the entities. Distinction of macerals under the microscope is made by
considering the morphology, internal texture and polishing relief (polishing relief is assessed
against adjacent components) and the optical properties, especially the reflectance. To
attempt to minimise ambiguity in descriptions and terminology, standard rules have been
established to define conditions for examination of samples. Samples should be polished
with some, but not excessive relief, and examined in oil of 1.518 refractive index, using a low
glare optical system with objectives in the range of nominal magnification of 25 to 50x.
Morphology is the prime criterion for the distinction of the macerals but reflectance is a very
important adjunct and in some circumstances may become the determining property.
Studies on maceral concentrates show that each maceral has a range of composition at any
given rank and that all of the macerals show systematic changes in properties with rank.
Many of the shapes and structures observed within macerals can be related to specific plant
organs and plant genera and species.
The maceral system developed for coals is directly applicable to organic matter in other types
of sedimentary rocks. While organic petrology can, in theory, be applied to organic matter in
rocks other than coals, it is very desirable that persons wishing to study organic matter in
other rocks first become familiar with both maceral analysis and vitrinite reflectance
measurement for coals, desirably for coals from a wide range of age and rank. In particular,
an understanding of the nature of normal populations of inertinite and vitrinite in single coals
forms a highly desirable background to the recognition of these maceral groups in other types
of rocks.
2.3.3 THE MACERAL GROUPS
All maceral names have the suffix 'inite' and an hierarchy has been established of maceral
groups, macerals and sub-macerals. Three maceral groups are recognized:
VITRINITE LIPTINITE (FORMERLY EXINITE) INERTINITE
Each maceral group includes macerals that have affinities in origin or similarities in
properties. Similarities in origin include both botanical affinities and the mode of
preservation within the sediment. The ICCP maceral classification is given in Table 2.1 and
some categories are illustrated in Table 2.2
A small number of terms additional to those developed from a study of coal are required to
encompass the additional types of organic matter preserved in non-coal lithologies.
Otherwise the maceral terminology developed for coal seams provides a workable basis for
classifying discrete particles of organic matter in non-coal lithologies. Further, most of the
concepts developed in relation to coals can be applied at least in part to the organic matter in
other rock types.
The three maceral groups show differences in their chemical composition. Isometamorphic
coals are defined as those having the same history of temperature and pressure over time.
For coals that are isometamorphic with those having a vitrinite carbon content of 84%, the
hydrogen content averages about 7% in the liptinite macerals, about 5.5% in the vitrinite and
less than about 4.0% in the inertinite. Corresponding volatile matter yields are about 75% for
liptinite, 35% for the vitrinite and about 20 to 25% for the inertinite.
The content of aliphatic hydrogen is much higher in liptinite than in vitrinite. Oxygen
contents tend to be higher in inertinite than in vitrinite and the oxygen tends to be more
firmly bound in the inertinite than in the vitrinite. In vitrinite at low ranks, the carbon atoms
are approximately evenly divided between aliphatic and aromatic bonding, but the hydrogen
occurs dominantly as aliphatic groupings. With increasing rank, aromaticity increases in all
of the maceral groups and this results in a convergence of many properties at higher rank.
At low rank, in reflected white light, liptinite appears dark, vitrinite appears as a mesostasis
of medium grey appearance and the inertinite has a higher reflectance than the other maceral
groups. At the coalification jump, the reflectance of the liptinite converges on that of the
vitrinite. Within the semi-anthracite to anthracite range, the reflectances of vitrinite and
inertinite converge. However, except in the case of some contact-altered vitrinites, the
bireflectance of vitrinite is much greater than that of inertinite so that these two maceral
TABLE 2.2. MACERAL GROUPS, SUB-GROUPS, MACERALS AND SUB-MACERALS
MACERAL GROUP MACERAL SUBGROUP MACERAL MACERAL TYPE

TEXTINITE TEXTINITE A (dark) & B (light)
TELOVITRINITE {TEXTO-ULMINITE} TELINITE
ULMINITE
COLLOTELINITE
VITRINITE ATTRINITE
DETROVITRINITE DENSINITE
VITRODETRINITE
COLLODETRINITE
CORPOHUMINITE PHLOBAPHINITE
GELOVITRINITE CORPOGELINITE LEVIGELINITE/PORIGELINITE
GELINITE
Macerals with plant cell structures FUSINITE
SEMIFUSINITE
INERTINITE FUNGINITE
Macerals lacking plant cell structures SECRETINITE
MACRINITE
MICRINITE
Fragmental inertinite INERTODETRINITE
SPORINITE
CUTINITE
SUBERINITE
RESINITE
LIPTINITE FLUORINITE
LIPTODETRINITE
ALGINITE TELALGINITE
LAMALGINITE
BITUMINITE
Strictly a bitumen rather than a maceral EXSUDATINITE
NOTE: ICCP does not have a table in this form where vitrinite and huminite classifications are been combined. By using the maceral categories, the discrimination
within the huminite group is retained without implying that vitrinite and huminite are different maceral groups. This form of terminology is more acceptable to oil
exploration companies compared with the largely arbitrary division into vitrinite and huminite.
groups can still be distinguished if the stage is rotated using polarised light (plane polarised light or
with partially crossed polars).
The relative proportions of the maceral groups determine coal type. The vitrinite reflectance of a
coal can be taken as a measure of its rank. These two variables are substantially independent, that
is, they are orthogonal variables. Some degree of interaction occurs because the volume changes
with rank are different for different macerals. Additionally, some macerals such as exsudatinite and
micrinite are formed during rank change. Type and rank are independent to the extent that coal type
does not influence coal rank. It may, however, affect some of the properties that are used to
estimate coal rank.
Concepts similar to those of coal type and rank apply to the organic matter in other types of
sedimentary rocks but it is common in that context to refer to rank-related change as the level of
maturation and organic matter type is generally assessed in terms of source potential. Maturation is
commonly stated to be a diagenetic process. However, as the driving factors are temperature and
time, it is more correctly considered as a metamorphic process, part of organic metamorphism.
Although reflectance is a major distinguishing feature between the maceral groups, morphological
differences are of critical factor in defining macerals. Most of the liptinite macerals show botanical
structures that clearly indicate the origin of these macerals. In vitrinite-rich coals, vitrinite occurs as
a mesostasis to the other macerals and in medium rank coals is distinguished by plastic behaviour
adjacent to localised stress fields associated with differential compaction. Inertinite is more brittle
than vitrinite. Although some plastic flow structures are present in lower reflecting inertinite
occurrences, they are much less marked compared with those found in vitrinite. The characteristics
used in making distinctions between maceral groups vary over the rank range.
Other important properties, such as carbon content, show a correlation with reflectance. Carbon
content was recognized at an early stage as an important measure of coal rank and from this
correlation it is clear that vitrinite reflectance can also be used to estimate coal rank. For the
estimation of rank, the measurement of vitrinite reflectance is a simpler procedure than the
measurement of carbon content. Further, it does not require corrections for the presence of mineral
matter and the measurements are made on one maceral group, reducing the variation due to changes
in the relative abundance of the maceral groups.
Minerals are excluded from the definition of macerals. However, it must be recognized that a sharp
distinction cannot always be made. Minerals occurring as particles less than about 0.0005 mm
(0.5nm) in diameter cannot be resolved with an optical microscope. Additionally, in low rank
coals, some inorganic compounds are present in the water within the macerals and cations can be
complexed with the organic matter in the coal. In making maceral analyses, mineral particles that
can be distinguished are recorded separately.
Clear distinction between the maceral groups can be made in most cases. However, transitions
between maceral groups do occur. Such transitions are rarely important volumetrically and present
the greatest problems with some Permian and Cretaceous coals but do not give rise to problems
with Tertiary coals. The most difficult aspect of making maceral analyses for coals of Tertiary age,
is the presence in many coals of very small inclusions of liptinite within the vitrinite and the
resolution of fine grained liptinite-rich aggregates. Accurate point counting of small entities is more
difficult than for larger entities.
TABLE 2.3. ILLUSTRATION OF MACERAL GROUPS AND SOME MACERALS

MACERAL Grp MACERAL/ SUBGRP TYPICAL FIELDS
TELOVITRINITE
Telovitrinite with R vmax

0.68%, field width 0.22mm
VITRINITE
DETROVITRINITE
Detrovitrinite with R vmax

0.45%, field width 0.22
mm.
FUSINITE
SEMIFUSINITE
Semifusinite and inertodetrinite

with detrovitrinite , R vmax
1.23%, Field width 0.22 mm
INERTINITE
FUNGINITE
INERTODETRINITE
MACRINITE
MICRINITE
SPORINITE
CUTINITE
SUBERINITE
RESINITE
Cutinite and resinite in Miocene

coal
LIPTINITE
FLUORINITE
LIPTODETRINITE
ALGINITE
BITUMINITE
EXSUDATINITE*
TABLE 2.4. ILLUSTRATION OF VITRINITE SUB-GROUPS

MACERAL GRP MACERAL SUBGRP TYPICAL FIELDS
TELOVITRINITE
Telovitrinite R vmax
0.40%
VITRINITE Telovitrinite with R vmax

0.68%, field width 0.22mm
R vmax 4.6% Partially

crossed polars, field width
0.16mm
DETROVITRINITE
Detrovitrinite (densinite)
with R vmax 0.40%,
field width 0.18 mm.
Collodetrinite
interbedded with
inertinite
Rv 0.89%
Gelovitrinite
TABLE 2.5. ILLUSTRATION OF INERTINITE MACERALS

MACERAL GRP MACERAL TYPICAL FIELDS
FUSINITE
SEMIFUSINITE
Semifusinite and
inertodetrinite with
INERTINITE detrovitrinite , R vmax
1.23%, Field width 0.22
mm
FUNGINITE
SECRETINITE
INERTODETRINITE
MACRINITE
MICRINITE
TABLE 2.6. ILLUSTRATION OF LIPTINITE MACERALS

MACERAL GRP MACERAL TYPICAL FIELDS
SPORINITE
Megaspore
Carboniferous
LIPTINITE
Miospore
Carboniferous
CUTINITE
SUBERINITE
RESINITE
Cutinite and resinite in

Miocene coal
FLUORINITE
LIPTODETRINITE
ALGINITE
BITUMINITE
EXSUDATINITE*
Each maceral group is subdivided into a number of macerals. The macerals have a smaller range of
properties compared with the parent maceral group. Morphology (external shape and internal
texture) is the primary feature used in differentiating macerals. Further differentiation of macerals
into maceral varieties can be made on the basis of lower level differences in morphology.
For the examination of morphology of the liptinite macerals, the use of fluorescence-mode
illumination is essential. It may also be valuable for some unusual types of vitrinite. Where point
counting is undertaken, each field should be examined in both reflected white light mode and
fluorescence-mode. This is to be preferred over the sequential count method where a reflected
white light mode count is followed by a fluorescence-mode count. The bituminite figured in Table
2.4 is from marine rocks, Bituminite in coals remains to be defined.
The various editions of the Glossary produced by the ICCP have different maceral classifications
for lower rank coals (essentially brown coals) and for coals of higher rank. The main difference is
the use of the term "HUMINITE" for the group of entities that is termed "VITRINITE" in coals of
higher rank. The classification for the liptinite and inertinite groups is the same. For this study, the
classification recommended accepted at the 1999 meeting of the ICCP is used. In this system, the
term "VITRINITE" is used for related macerals throughout the rank range. It is subdivided into
three subgroups and the macerals recognised within these subgroups pick up the textural terms that
are of significance in studies of brown coals. In maceral analyses, vitrinite can be left undivided,
subdivided to the subgroup level or divided to the maceral and sub-maceral levels, depending upon
the requirements for the analyses. Vitrinite textural features will be indicated only if discrimination
is made at the maceral level.
2.3.3.1 THE VITRINITE GROUP
Vitrinite is the most abundant maceral in most, but not all, coals. In some coals of Palaeozoic or
Mesozoic age, inertinite and more rarely liptinite is the most abundant maceral group. Most coals
of Tertiary age have a very high content of vitrinite, the only exceptions being some relatively rare
coals in which resinite or bituminite is unusually abundant. Thus, in volumetric terms, vitrinite is
the most important maceral.
Distinguishing features of vitrinite
Vitrinite is distinguished from the other maceral groups primarily on the basis of its morphology,
but the morphology of vitrinite in coals varies widely. Other properties of vitrinite are normally
taken into account when making identifications of specific phytoclasts. Reflectance, dispersion of
reflectance values about the mean, and autofluorescence properties are important additional criteria
used in identification.
Most liptinite macerals of low to medium rank show much stronger autofluorescence than vitrinite
and this is a further distinguishing feature. Thus, although the distinction of vitrinite from other
maceral groups in coals is made primarily on morphological grounds, in practice, reflectance is
commonly the most important criterion used to identify any given field. With dispersed organic
matter in sediments, reflectance is less reliable in identifying vitrinite.
At low and medium ranks, vitrinite has a reflectance higher than that of liptinite and lower than that
of inertinite. It shows negative polishing relief with respect to the other maceral groups and most
minerals. In the middle and upper parts of the bituminous coal range, liptinite reflectance
converges on that of vitrinite. Within the anthracite range, the maximum reflectance of vitrinite
converges on that of the macerals of the inertinite group, but the minimum reflectance of vitrinite
remains less than that of inertinite macerals.
Bireflectance of vitrinite is low at low ranks but becomes distinct in the middle and upper part of
the bituminous coal rank range. Within the semi-anthracite, anthracite and meta-anthracite rank
range, bireflectance becomes high to extreme and is an important distinguishing feature for most
vitrinites in this rank range. Exceptions occur in some cases where elevated rank is caused by
contact alteration. Over the whole range of coal rank in any given sample, vitrinite typically shows
a much lower dispersion of maximum reflectance about the mean than the other maceral groups.
At low ranks, some vitrinites show autofluorescence related to the original botanical structures.
This is termed primary fluorescence to distinguish it from (secondary) fluorescence that is
commonly seen within the lower to middle parts of the bituminous rank range. Primary
fluorescence is rare at reflectances greater than about 0.4% but some unusual types of woody
structures retain primary fluorescence up to about 0.7% vitrinite reflectance.
Secondary fluorescence is believed to be due to the presence of bitumen-related compounds that

impregnate vitrinite. The amount of n-alkanes in extracts from coals increases markedly with
increasing rank over the range 0.65% to 0.9% vitrinite reflectance. Changes in the intensity and
spectral characteristics of vitrinite fluorescence over a range of coal rank can be related to extract
yields and extract chemistry.
The appearance of vitrinite is strongly influenced by the plane of section in which it is viewed. In
sections perpendicular, or strongly oblique, to bedding, most vitrinite occurs as elongate lenses. In
sections parallel with bedding, particles of vitrinite are commonly more equidimensional and are
less likely to show rounded outlines. Botanical structure may be seen in such sections so that some
particles may resemble some types of inertinite in morphology.
Over the rank range from 1.0% to about 1.8% vitrinite reflectance, the polishing relief of vitrinite
increases and vitrinite has a greater tendency to fracture in compaction structures. Over this rank
range, reflectance dispersion (low for vitrinite) becomes an important property in distinguishing
vitrinite. Where vitrinite reflectance is greater than about 2.0%, the presence of distinct
bireflectance becomes a major feature for the distinction of vitrinite from inertinite (except in the
case of some thermally altered rocks).
ORIGIN OF VITRINITE GROUP MACERALS
Components similar to all of the vitrinite macerals distinguished in low rank coals can be
recognized in modern peats. Vitrinite precursors form the major proportion of most modern peats.
These components are formed from the humification of wood and leaf tissues and other parts of
plants composed dominantly of cellulose and lignin. In general, lignin-rich tissues are more likely
to be preserved compared with those rich in cellulose.
The process of transformation of plant tissues into vitrinite group macerals forms part of the process
of vitrinite diagenesis. Vitrinite diagenesis in the peat stage is favoured by moist conditions.
Further stages in vitrinite diagenesis can occur during the processes associated with physico-
chemical coalification.
The tissues preserved within peats tend to be biased towards coniferous plants rather than
angiosperms but angiosperm tissues are preserved within peats. The different rates of preservation
may relate to differences in the chemistry of lignin within these two groups of plants.
Compared with most pre-Tertiary coals, modern peats show a much higher ratio of vitrinite to
inertinite. The inertinite that is present in modern peats, has a high proportion of fungal sclerotinite
whereas this component is effectively absent from pre-Tertiary coals. Therefore, Recent peats form
a good analogue for the origin of the peats that formed Tertiary coals but are less useful as
analogues for the origin of pre-Tertiary coals. However, the differences seem to relate mainly to the
origin of inertinite although there are also some systematic differences in the telovitrinite and
detrovitrinite.
The maceral group vitrinite originates mainly from the humic-acid fraction of humic substances.
These are dark-coloured compounds of complex composition and contain the elements carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. They possess varying molecular weights and solubilities, have an
aromatic nucleus and contain hydroxyl (-OH) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups. The
compounds form through mouldering and peatification, with some parts of the process extending
into the brown-coal stage, chiefly from the lignin and cellulose of plant-cell walls. Besides the
original materials, the formation and properties of humic acids are dependent on the redox potential
and pH value of the environment.
Although the main precursor materials of vitrinite are cellulose, lignins and tannins, the
incorporation of lipid material into humic matter (and thus into vitrinite) is possible. Alkanes and
fatty acids (C14-22) are present in extracts of humic and fulvic acids from soils. The distribution of
n-alkanes and the carbon preference indices are similar to those of microbial hydrocarbons. Most of
these hydrocarbons are bonded as esters to the humic substances. Thus, vitrinite contains,
intermixed with the coalified products of humic and fulvic acids, aliphatic material of higher plant
origin and lipids derived from fungi and bacteria that were active during the decay of the parent
plant material. These lipids are intermixed at the sub-microscopic level. Resins and suberins are
also commonly associated with some vitrinites and reflectances of vitrinite and resinite and
suberinite suggest that transitions from vitrinite to both resinite and suberinite occur.
It has been assumed by some authors that lignin is the sole precursor of vitrinite (the 'lignin theory').
Within the Florida Everglades, large areas of peat are found that have been derived from grasses
and it is now recognised that, with help from fungi and bacteria, some intermediate compounds
formed during the decomposition of cellulose and proteins, contribute to the formation of humic
substances. In addition to lipid rich remains, phenolic metabolic products of micro-organisms are
built into the humic-acid molecules. Direct evidence of the contribution of cellulose to vitrinite
formation is the occurrence of chemically recognisable cellulose in some woody tissue in some soft
brown coals.
Conifers are usually richer in lignin than deciduous trees and conifer lignin tends to be more
resistant to degradation compared to that from angiosperms. Along with other factors associated
with conditions in the peat-forming stage, variations in lignin content and type result in different
modes of preservation and variations in the optical properties and chemistry of vitrinites.
Within vitrinites it is possible to distinguish:
1. 'biochemical gelification' which occurs during the peat and soft brown-coal stages and which is
governed by the original materials, facies, water and ion supply, degree of alkalinity and the
oxidative conditions; and
2. 'geochemical gelification' which affects all the vitrinites in the hard brown coal coalification
stage. Most geochemical coalification appears to occur close to the boundary between dull brown
coal and bright brown coal. Geochemical coalification results in the textures that are characteristic
of coals of bituminous rank.
In Northern Europe, most higher rank coals are from the Carboniferous and most lower rank coals
from the Tertiary. It can be argued that this lead historically to the differences due to type not
always being appropriately classified compared with those attributed to rank and that this has lead
to a much more complex classification than could have been developed. In particular, the continuity
of the rank changes in vitrinite could have been more properly emphasised over the textural
differences that result from rank changes.
This presentation attempts to avoid these additional complexities while including the terms
appropriate to Tertiary coals. It should be noted that very low rank Permian and Carboniferous coals
(seen for example in Australia and the mid-west and western plains of the USA respectively) in
textural terms, resemble higher rank coals of similar age rather than lower rank Tertiary coals.
Many of the illustrations in this presentation are from low rank Permian and Carboniferous coals
that are very low in rank (vitrinite reflectance between 0.30% and 0.42%) but the textures of these
coals are similar to medium rank coals of similar age rather than to Tertiary coals.
PROPERTIES OF VITRINITE
Vitrinite has optical properties lying between those of the macerals of the liptinite and inertinite
groups at low and medium of rank or maturation. At higher levels of organic metamorphism, the
optical properties of liptinite converge on those of vitrinite so that beyond a reflectance of about
1.4% distinction of the two groups becomes difficult or impossible. The convergence point varies
with the age of the rocks so that convergence is delayed until 1.4% vitrinite reflectance for the
Carboniferous, 1.2% for the Permian, between 1.1% and 1.2% for the Mesozoic and by about 1.0%
for most of the liptinite within sequences of Tertiary age.
The reflectances of vitrinite and inertinite also converge at higher levels of organic metamorphism.
Within the anthracitic range, overlap occurs and the reflectance of much of the inertinite may lie
between the maximum and minimum values for the vitrinite.
As well as there being a convergence in optical properties between the maceral groups, a
convergence occurs at reflectances above about 0.80% of properties within the maceral groups. For
example, distinction between telovitrinite and detrovitrinite is relatively easy up to a vitrinite
reflectance of about 0.8% but becomes increasingly difficult above that value. By a reflectance of
about 1.2% the distinction between telovitrinite and detrovitrinite becomes very difficult, and due to
the convergence of other properties is generally less important than it is at lower ranks.
At low ranks, vitrinite shows lower absorption at the blue end of the spectrum resulting in lower
rank vitrinite having a slight bluish cast. At higher ranks, the dispersion curves become flat and then
show stronger absorption in the blue resulting in a slight yellowish cast – similar to that shown by
inertinite but generally less marked. This change in colour cast is extremely important in the
distinction of vitrinite from inertinite at medium ranks for dispersed organic matter (DOM).
In terms of chemical composition, vitrinite has a hydrogen content between those of liptinite
(higher) and inertinite (lower) and it is said to be orthohydrous. For vitrinite at low levels of rank or
maturation, hydrogen content is typically within the range 5.1 to 5.4% and the H/C atomic ratio is
between 0.7 and 0.8. Oxygen content is high within low rank vitrinites but decreases rapidly with
increasing levels of organic maturation. Most of the oxygen is present as functional groups and
these are eliminated with the generation and expulsion of carbon dioxide and water.
In vitrinites of maturation similar to those of low rank bituminous coals, about 70% of the carbon is
bonded in aromatic groupings but about 50% of the hydrogen is present with aliphatic bonds. Most
of the aliphatic hydrogen is present as methyl or methoxy groups but some long chain compounds
are also present. The aromatic hydrogen occur on the periphery of the aromatic rings. Vitrinite is
thought to consist of polyaromatic clusters. At low levels of organic metamorphism these are
relatively small and have a small stacking height. On average, the clusters have their greatest
dimension in the plane of the bedding, but the structure is turbostratic. In between the aromatic
clusters, or micelles, other groupings, such as long chain aliphatic compounds are present. With
increasing levels of metamorphism, the size of the clusters increases, the clusters have a greater
tendency to become stacked and the degree of preferred orientation. In part, this growth and re-
orientation is made possible by the elimination of the molecules lying in between the micelles.
Vitrinite within the bituminous rank range becomes plastic on heating and this property enable it to
form coke structures. At low rank the vitrinite semi-coke appears isotropic but X-ray studies show
that the structure has become strongly graphitized. With increasing rank, graphitic units within the
coke become visible with an optical microscope. The size of these mosaic units can be used to
estimate the rank of the vitrinite prior to coking. These phenomena occur during artificial coking
and are also seen in natural cokes. Coking occurs under laboratory conditions over the temperature
range of about 380oC to 500oC, may occur under markedly lower temperatures in association with
contact alteration. Bitumens also develop coke textures, but typically show larger mosaic units
compared with vitrinite-derived cokes.
Vitrinite is a major source of catagenic gas at high levels of maturation. At lower levels of
maturation its role in hydrocarbon generation is uncertain. It is now commonly agreed that vitrinite
generates some liquid hydrocarbons.
The extent to which migration from vitrinite can occur remains in dispute. Within the lower and
middle parts of the bituminous rank range (0.5%<vitrinite reflectance<1.2%) vitrinite commonly
shows secondary fluorescence due to the presence of bitumen related compounds. This is
commonly taken as evidence of the lack of migration from vitrinite. However, secondary
fluorescence develops after the majority of functional groups have been removed and hydrocarbon
generation may be associated with the removal of functional groups.
Secondary fluorescence may be more a function of a decrease in permeability than an indication of

the range over which bitumens are generated from vitrinite. The development of fluorescence in
vitrinite also marks a change from the organic matter in vitrinite being a hydrogel to becoming a
bitumenogel.
2.3.3.1.1 TELOVITRINITE SUBGROUP
Shape and size:
Telovitrinite consists of phytoclasts that comprise intact plant tissues. Both cell wall and cell
contents are present but either or both may be impregnated with humic matter of colloidal origin. It
occurs as discrete lenses that may appear in small samples to be more or less continuous layers.
These lenses are typically parallel with bedding but a small proportion show strongly diachronous
relationships with bedding. In detail, a high proportion of telovitrinite shows some degree of
cross-cutting relationships with adjacent layers. Cross-cutting relationships probably indicate an
origin from root tissue. In addition to comprising intact cellular tissue, telovitrinite entities must
exceed 0.02 mm in largest dimension.
Telovitrinite may occur isolated within other macerals or interbedded with other lenses of
telovitrinite. Where it is associated with other telovitrinite and lacks obvious cell structure,
distinction of the edges of individual lenses may be difficult without special techniques such as
etching.
Telovitrinite is most prominent in coal seams but it is also found as dispersed organic matter within
some epiclastic lithologies. Where it occurs with coarse grained epiclastic rocks (typically
sandstones, but also siltstones and conglomerates), telovitrinite can be allochthonous or
autochthonous in origin with roots commonly preserved as autochthonous telovitrinite. Where
telovitrinite is present in fine grained rocks such as claystones, it is commonly autochthonous. The
extent of compaction of cell structures within telovitrinite provides a measure of physical rank
change that is to some extent independent of chemical rank change as indicated by vitrinite
reflectance. In extremely cool deeply buried sections, textures similar to those found in Medium
Rank D coals can be found with vitrinite reflectance values less than 0.40%.
Colour and reflectance:
Most telovitrinite appears grey in polished section. Studies on the dispersion of vitrinite show that
reflectance is biased towards the blue end of the spectrum at low and medium ranks but dispersion
curves for telovitrinite undergo a transition to a slight red bias with increasing rank. For this reason,
in addition to their higher reflectance, high rank telovitrinites appear to have a weak yellow cast to
the grey. In low rank brown coals, a range of colours occurs. Where cell chemistry has been only
partially altered, red internal reflections may be visible, but where gelification is more complete,
telovitrinite appears grey even in very low rank coals.
A range of colours is not found except in coals of very low rank (less than about 0.35% vitrinite
reflectance). At all ranks, within isometamorphic coals, a range of reflectance is found. Cell
structure, where visible, is typically delineated by changes in reflectance. The reflectance of the
middle lamellae may be higher or lower than that of the remainder of the cells. Telovitrinite
derived from leaf tissue typically has a lower reflectance than telovitrinite derived from woody
tissues. Some forms of root tissue also have an unusually low reflectance.
Within peats and very low rank coals, telovitrinite reflectance is typically lies within the range of
0.25% to 0.35%. Some peats have telovitrinite reflectances of about 0.3%. Telovitrinite in a few
low rank coals has a reflectance in the range 0.10 to 0.25% but these low reflectances appear to be
related to unusual types of plant tissue.
Reflectances of less than 0.1% are found in structured tissue but these occurrences are probably
transitional to suberinite, resinite or cutinite. The standard deviation for low rank coals is typically
about 0.03%. With increasing rank, telovitrinite reflectance increases. It has been a common view
that vitrinite reflectance is too irregular at low rank for use in determining rank variation. This view
seems to arise from the presence of marked type-related variations in a small number of coals and
the low reflectance gradient that typically occurs with depth over the rank range 0.25 to 0.45%.
Data from deep boreholes show that although reflectance gradient is typically low, the trend for
increasing reflectance with depth is the dominant feature of the data.
Telovitrinite reflectance increases with increasing rank and in the lower part of the bituminous rank
range, the range of reflectance variation is slightly higher than at lower or higher ranks. Where
telovitrinite reflectance is about 1.0%, the standard deviation for telovitrinite reflectance is typically
about 0.03 to 0.35% and the range of reflectance in a single coal is about 0.15 to 0.2%. At higher
ranks, less contrast can be seen between various types of vitrinite, but reflectance variation is still
present. Where reflectance is measured in non-polarised, or in elliptically polarised light is
measured (Rm) the range of variation increases due to the effects of increasing bireflectance.
Dispersion of values for maximum reflectance also increases although to a much lesser extent than
for Rm. Increase in dispersion of maximum reflectance is due, in part, to the difficulties associated
with finding the exact position of the maximum reflectance and, in part, to the increasing
significance of strain patterns within vitrinite layers.
Autofluorescence
At low rank, autofluorescence is common in telovitrinite. It tends to be preferentially associated

with the less gelified telovitrinite macerals rather than with ulminite. This primary fluorescence can
be due to the presence of materials with liptinite affinities (resinite, suberinite or cutinite) of the
persistence of cellulose into the soft brown coal rank stage. In a small number of vitrinites, primary
autofluorescence persists into the bituminous rank range where it is always due to the presence of
materials with liptinite affinities. Most of the telovitrinites showing primary autofluorescence are
Mesozoic in age.
Most telovitrinite in hard and bright brown coals lacks autofluorescence. Within the bituminous
rank range, autofluorescence from telovitrinite becomes a prominent feature. This secondary
autofluorescence is due to the presence of bitumens rather than primary plant components. There
are examples where primary fluorescence is present associated with vitrinite up to vitrinite
reflectances of as high as 0.90%.
Polishing hardness:
Telovitrinite shows lower polishing hardness compared with both inertinite and liptinite. It also
shows a lower polishing hardness compared with most detrovitrinite. Within individual lenses of
telovitrinite, some polishing relief is commonly present.
Common associations:
Telovitrinite forms the major part of the bright bands in hard coals. It is also a major component of
most other coal lithologies. In some coals, an association between telovitrinite and structured
inertinite (fusinite and semifusinite) can be demonstrated. Due to the greater frequency of fractures
within telovitrinite compared with other macerals, there is also an association between telovitrinite
and exsudatinite. There are also associations between telovitrinite and some forms of occurrence of
resinite (with both wood-related and leaf-related resinites), cutinite and suberinite. The large
woody masses found in some types of brown coal are dominantly preserved as telovitrinite.
Origin:
Where plant tissue becomes humified but retains a more or less intact cell structure, it is normally
preserved as telovitrinite. Both woody and leaf tissues can be preserved as telovitrinite. Cell
preservation ranges from the primary cell wall only to preservation of secondary cell walls. In
some examples, internal structures within the secondary cell walls can be resolved.
Distinction from other macerals:
The moderate to large size and intermediate reflectance of telovitrinite are the primary
distinguishing features. Heterogeneity is typically limited to the presence of plant cell structure
although in some occurrences inclusions of resinite or of suberinite are present.
Telovitrinite is distinguished from semifusinite on the basis of lower reflectance and less distinct
cell structure. Semifusinite at any given level of coal rank, tends to have a more open cell texture
but the presence of open cell texture cannot be used as a distinguishing feature from semifusinite
where the mean vitrinite reflectance is less than about 0.5%.
Massive telovitrinite and gelovitrinite are similar. Gelovitrinite is rare and typically occurs in cross
cutting veins. Telovitrinite is typically sub-parallel with bedding and may contain genetically
associated inclusions of macerals such as resinite or suberinite.
Telovitrinite is distinguished from detrovitrinite by the absence from telovitrinite of macerals such
as sporinite and inertodetrinite. Detrovitrinite may show small domains about the size of plant cells
but other attrital macerals are normally present. At ranks in the range 1.0 to 2.0%, where liptinite
reflectances have converged on those of vitrinite, the distinction of telovitrinite from detrovitrinite
may become difficult or impossible. At higher ranks, the use of crossed polars normally permits the
distinction of these maceral subgroups.
PROPERTIES
Telovitrinite typically has a higher reflectance and lower hydrogen content than detrovitrinite. Most
of chemical analyses in the literature relate to telovitrinite because of the greater ease of separating
telovitrinite from other maceral. Cleat fractures are best developed within telovitrinite and are more
prominent in higher rank coals. Cleats tend to be more open in the thicker layers of telovitrinite and
more frequent in thinner layers of telovitrinite.
Macerals within the telovitrinite subgroup
The main variations within telovitrinite relate to the degree of gelification. Gelification can occur
as a result of processes within the peat stage and is a normal response to physicochemical
coalification. Telovitrinite is divided into:
Textinite - well preserved and intact cell walls and cell lumens that are largely open.
{Texto-ulminite - intermediate in texture between textinite and ulminite, cell lumens are partly
open but infillings of cells with gelified material and collapsed cell walls are much more
common than for textinite. Useful term but no longer in use}
Ulminite - telovitrinite having a structure that is substantially massive but the layers may show
small voids that are typically related to original cell structures.
Collotelinite - layers and lenses that typically lack cellular structure when viewed in oil immersion
but are derived from stems, roots bark and leaves that retain cell structures.
Textinite is present in coals that have undergone minor amounts of burial - of the order of 300 to
600 m maximum cover. Texto-ulminite – material transitional between textinite and ulminite - is
present in peats and persists down to about 1500 m of cover but the proportion of open cell lumens
decreases markedly where the cover exceeds about 900 m. Where cover has been greater than
about 1500 m, telovitrinite is present as collotelinite.
2.3.3.1.2 DETROVITRINITE SUBGROUP
Shape and size:
Detrovitrinite consists of phytoclasts that are derived from fragments of plant tissues together with
material that has been precipitated from colloidal solution. Cell wall and cell contents material may
both be present. They do not retain their original botanical relationships but some or the original
plant structures at the cell level may be distinguished. The colloidal material is similar in optical
properties and chemical composition to the discrete plant fragments present in detrovitrinite.
Detrovitrinite occurs as groundmass material and commonly contains inclusions of macerals of the
inertinite and liptinite groups. Textural features within detrovitrinite can be distinguished in low
rank coals, especially brown coals. In coals of bituminous rank detrovitrinite becomes
progressively more homogeneous optically and the main textures in detrovitrinite of higher rank
coals are associated with inclusions of other maceral groups and mineral matter. Within higher rank
bituminous coals (vitrinite reflectance greater than about 1.4% for coals of Carboniferous age,
1.25% for Permian coals, about 1.2% for Mesozoic coals and about 1.15% for most coals of
Tertiary age), liptinite inclusions cannot be distinguished from the detrovitrinite groundmass.
Within the anthracite rank range the distinction of inertinite from detrovitrinite becomes difficult
unless polarised light is used. Inertinite is more readily distinguished from detrovitrinite in
anthracites if the block is rotated to the minimum reflectance position or the field is viewed in
partially crossed polars.
In addition to the inclusions of other macerals that are visible using an optical microscope, studies
using transmission electron microscopy has shown the presence of small inclusions of liptinitic
material. Some of these represent material similar to macerals that can be resolved optically within
the liptinite group. Other inclusions may represent different types of entities such as the coatings of
bacterial cells. Detrovitrinite also probably contains inclusions of dispersed lipid related molecules.
Such dispersed lipid related material may be present in both the fragments of plants cells and in the
material precipitated from colloidal solution.
Compaction structures can commonly be seen around inclusions of other macerals because
detrovitrinite compacts during coalification to a greater extent than macerals of the liptinite and
inertinite groups. Vitrinite exhibits plastic (rheid) behaviour during coalification and this is most
noticeable within layers of detrovitrinite.
Mineral inclusions are common within detrovitrinite. Much of the syngenetic adventitious mineral
matter in coal seams is associated with detrovitrinite. The mineral matter occurs as small grains,
but these may be sufficiently abundant to form lenses dominated by mineral matter.
Detrovitrinite occurs within coal seams. In Palaeozoic coals, it is most abundant in semi-bright
lithologies (clarain and duroclarain). Most coals of Tertiary age are dominated by vitrinite group
macerals and it is difficult to relate the abundance of detrovitrinite to the brightness of the coal. The
most abundant forms of vitrinite found as dispersed organic matter within sediments are referable to
detrovitrinite. Detrovitrinite within sediments other than coal ranges from strong positive polishing
relief to weak negative relief relative to the adjacent mineral matter. Forms with positive polishing
relief are more common than those with low or negative relief. Where reworking has been
prominent, virtually all vitrinite phytoclasts have positive polishing relief.
Detrovitrinite occurring within epiclastic rocks and carbonates is allochthonous. Within coals,
detrovitrinite ranges from hypautochthonous to allochthonous. Hypautochthonous detrovitrinite is,
however, probably more common than allochthonous detrovitrinite.
Polishing relief for detrovitrinite is an important feature. Higher polishing relief occurs in
phytoclasts transitional to inertinite and those containing liptinite inclusions such as suberinite.
Colour and reflectance:
Detrovitrinite appears grey in polished section. In coals of medium rank it typically has a lower
reflectance than that of the telovitrinite. However, this is not always the case. The causes for this
difference include the presence of low reflecting tissues preserved as telovitrinite and the presence
of high reflecting attrital fragments within the detrovitrinite related to corpocollinite. At higher
ranks, distinction of detrovitrinite from telovitrinite maybe difficult or impossible in plane polarised
light. The use of partially crossed polars may permit their distinction on the basis of slight
differences in bireflectance and the greater ease of detection of inclusions of liptinite and inertinite
within the layers of detrovitrinite. A quarter wave, or a one wave plate inserted in the light path
may also assist in distinguishing these maceral sub-groups at higher rank. In thermally altered
coals, bireflectance tends to be low and the distinction of these sub-groups is especially difficult for
this category of coals.
The distinction of detrovitrinite from telovitrinite becomes progressively more difficult with
increasing rank. By about a vitrinite reflectance of 0.80% in most cases the fragmental nature of
detrovitrinite is more inferred than directly observed and by about a vitrinite reflectance of 1.20%
textural differences between the sub-groups are more or less absent.
Autofluorescence
At low ranks, autofluorescence is rare in detrovitrinite. At medium ranks, detrovitrinite may show
moderate to strong fluorescence associated with the presence of bitumens. Above 1.0% vitrinite
reflectance, fluorescence of vitrinite may be stronger than for associated liptinite macerals.
Polishing hardness
The polishing hardness of detrovitrinite is commonly greater than that of telovitrinite but less than
that of all of the liptinite and inertinite macerals.
Common associations
Detrovitrinite forms the mesostasis of most semi-bright coal lithotype. It is commonly associated
with sporinite, resinite, liptodetrinite, suberinite, inertodetrinite and semifusinite. In Tertiary coals,
it is commonly associated with sclerotinite.
Origin
Detrovitrinite is formed from degraded plant material within peat swamps. Degraded vitrinite pre-
cursors become mixed with other maceral pre-cursors to form a mesostasis of detrovitrinite with
inclusions of the other macerals. During coalification, gelification increases and compact textures
typically develop within the detrovitrinite while immature textures are still present within the
telovitrinite.
Inclusions of other macerals are present at a microscopic scale and electron microscope studies have
shown that liptinitic inclusions are also present at a sub-microscopic scale. Some of these probably
represent small fragments of liptinite macerals but some probably have an origin from bacterial and
fungal lipids. However, such lipids are presumably present within telovitrinite as these tissues have
also been subject to bacterial and fungal degradation. The extent of degradation is more extreme
for detrovitrinite and, in many cases, it represents as residue resulting from intense biochemical
degradation. Thus, detrovitrinite is a biological remanié deposit.
Distinction from other macerals
At low and medium ranks, detrovitrinite has a higher reflectance than liptinite and a lower
reflectance than inertinite. Compared with telovitrinite, detrovitrinite lacks continuous cell
structures and contains a wider range of inclusions of other macerals. Compared with inertinite,
detrovitrinite at low to medium levels of maturation appears slightly blue grey but the colour
approaches that of low reflecting inertinite at about 1.20% and distinction from inertinite becomes
more difficult in the range vitrinite reflectance from about 1.20% to 2.0% where vitrinite develops
distinct bireflectance.
Bituminite and detrovitrinite share some characteristics and where only one of these macerals is
present, it may be difficult to distinguish bituminite from detrovitrinite. Bituminite has a much
lower reflectance and typically contains more abundant inclusions of micrinite and liptinite. In
some coals, degraded cork tissue with high reflecting and weakly to non-fluorescing suberinite can
show gradations into detrovitrinite. If cell wall structures can be distinguished, the material is
referred to suberinite.
PROPERTIES
Detrovitrinite commonly shows a lower reflectance than telovitrinite. In some coals, particularly
those where corpogelinite is abundant, the reflectance of detrovitrinite may be higher than that of
telovitrinite. Low reflecting detrovitrinite is perhydrous and some examples have a hydrogen
content of about 6%.
Macerals within the detrovitrinite subgroup
Attrinite - fragmental cell wall and cell contents with poor preservation and discrete boundaries
between most of the constituent grains. Attrinite is the characteristic mode of occurrence for
detrovitrinite in soft brown coals and its presence indicates burial depths of less than about
500 m.
Densinite- intermediate in texture between attrinite and vitrodetrinite and collodetrinite, densinite
has a granular texture but most of the grains are cemented to the adjacent grains and few voids
are present. Densinite forms when the grains within attrinite become cemented by colloidal
humic material but the sutures are still visible in most cases.
Vitrodetrinite – consists of small particles of vitrinite but the boundaries between particles become
obscured with increasing rank.
Collodetrinite - detrovitrinite having a structure that is substantially massive. It forms when the
grains in densinite become so fused (gelified) that the boundaries can no longer be
distinguished.
2.3.3.1.3 GELOVITRINITE SUBGROUP
Gelovitrinite forms a third subgroup of macerals. Material referred to gelovitrinite is presumed to

have passed through a structureless colloidal stage during the biochemical coalification. It is
seldom possible to demonstrate this for any given entity without special treatments such as etching
the surface of the sample with a powerful oxidized agent. Where such gelified tissue is included
within telovitrinite, it is common practice to include it with the telovitrinite. Thus, most
corpogelinite and porigelinite would be included within telovitrinite. Eugelinite is extremely rare if
these restrictions are used. Within some coals, there are highly distinctive veins of gelinite and so
the term is retained. In general, it is preferable to restrict assigning material to the gelovitrinite
subgroup. If there are alternatives within telovitrinite and detrovitrinite, their use is usually
preferable.
In most coals, gelovitrinite is a minor component of the total vitrinite.
Macerals within the gelovitrinite subgroup

Corpohuminite – structureless bodies filling cell lumens. In some usages this term includes
phlobaphinite.
Corpogelinite – structureless bodies derived from humic cell filling, may occur isolated from the
source tissues or in situ.
Gelinite- a maceral of secondary origin and can occur as cell filling or more rarely as discrete veins.
2.3.3.2 THE LIPTINITE GROUP
In coals of low and medium rank, liptinite macerals have a reflectance much lower than that of
vitrinite and typically show autofluorescence when illuminated with ultra-violet, violet or blue light.
With increasing rank, liptinite reflectance increases. This increase at first lags behind the rate of
increase in vitrinite reflectance but in the medium volatile bituminous rank range, liptinite
reflectance converges rapidly with that of vitrinite. Liptinite fluorescence decreases in intensity
with increasing rank and shows a shift to the red part of the spectrum. At, or before, the
convergence of reflectance with that of vitrinite, fluorescence becomes extinct with normal
excitation methods. Within some samples at higher ranks, liptinite maximum reflectance can be
seen to be greater than that of vitrinite and in these samples the two maceral groups can be
distinguished. Commonly, however, because of the convergence of reflectance and the loss of
fluorescence from liptinite, they cannot be distinguished in coals of higher rank.
Most of the macerals within the liptinite groups are derived from specific tissue types, the exception
being liptodetrinite, where the origin is uncertain because of small size of the phyterals.
Distinguishing features of liptinite
Liptinite is distinguished initially from other macerals on the basis of its lower reflectance.
Following the establishment of fluorescence-mode observations as a routine technique,
autofluorescence properties have become an important secondary distinguishing feature.
Most of the liptinite macerals have an origin from distinct types of plant tissue and morphology is a
further important distinguishing feature. Where liptinite morphology is present but the optical
properties are those of inertinite (most commonly the case for fusinized resin but also reported for
megaspores), the phyteral is referred to the inertinite group. Thus, although the morphology of
liptinite group macerals is distinctive, its use in classification is secondary to reflectance at the
maceral group level. Within the liptinite group, morphology is the main criterion used to assign
liptinite to specific macerals.
PROPERTIES
Liptinite macerals have a low reflectance and a high hydrogen content until their properties
converge with those of vitrinite. During carbonization, they have a high make of liquids and gas.
Although they are rich in hydrogen, with H/C atomic ratios commonly in excess of 1.0, many
liptinite macerals probably do not contribute greatly to the generation of liquid hydrocarbons. This
is because many of the macerals have a structure that is based on naphthenic units rather than
paraffinic units. Most primary oils are paraffinic in character and the naphthenic components do
not appear to contribute to the bulk of liquids generated. The chemical affinities of the liptinite
group of macerals are shown in Table 2.3.
Contributions to the generation of liquid hydrocarbons under conditions of normal maturation are
probably restricted to the macerals in the second and third columns of Table 2.2. For this reason, a
detailed knowledge of the macerals present within the liptinite group is required for an assessment
of hydrocarbon generation potential (and of the maturation windows within which generation takes
place). Liptinite group abundance or the presence of high hydrogen contents in bulk analyses (for
example Rock-Eval HI) are not an unequivocal indication of source potential. Some terrestrial
facies are dominated by sporinite or resinite and have low oil source potential. Other coal-related
facies have a high content of cutinite or of suberinite and have a much higher source potential.
Most liptinite-rich lacustrine facies are dominated by alginite and usually have high source
potential. Marine liptinite is dominantly lamalginite or bituminite and both of the macerals have a
high source potential for petroleum liquids. Liptinite type and abundance is an important element
of organic facies. A classification of liptinite-rich rock types has been proposed by Cook and
Sherwood (1991) to assist in defining organic facies and petroleum source potential.
Telalginite has the highest hydrogen content of all the liptinite macerals and gives the highest
liquids yield when artificially heated in a retort. However, under natural conditions, there is
evidence that the carbon-carbon bonds in the paraffinic structures are strong enough to resist
breakdown until temperatures are reached where the structures tend to aromatise. Thus, under
natural conditions, the liquids yield from telalginite may be lower than from macerals such as
lamalginite that have a lower hydrogen content but contain more labile chemical structures and gas
yields may be correspondingly higher.
2.4.1 SPORINITE
Sporinite is the term given to spore and pollen coats. These are composed of material generically
termed sporopollenin. This has a dominantly naphthenic structure. Morphologically, the material
preserved most commonly is the spore or pollen exines and more rarely the entine may be
preserved. The dominance of spore exines in most Palaeozoic coals gave rise to the term EXINITE
for the group of macerals now termed liptinite.
Sporinite varies in the nature of its preservation but it commonly retains its ornament and shows
relatively little change, apart from becoming flattened until the bituminous rank range. Within this
rank range marked changes occur due to coalification.
TABLE 2.7. CHEMICAL AFFINITIES OF THE LIPTINITE MACERALS.
NAPHTHENIC PARAFFINIC AROMATIC
SPORINITE CUTINITE
RESINITE SUBERINITE
LIPTODETRINITE ALGINITE BITUMINITE (but includes a large

amount of aliphatic material,
probably derived from bacterial
lipids
SECONDARY MACERALS AND BITUMENS
EXSUDATINITE BITUMENS SUCH AS IMPSONITES AND EPI-

OZOCERITE IMPSONITES, BITUMEN
COKES
In Palaeozoic coals, megaspores (female) are commonly present. These are up to about 2 mm in
diameter and typically show weaker fluorescence than microspores (male). However, it is usually
not possible to determine the gender of the smaller spores so they are normally termed miospores.
In Tertiary coals sporinite occurs with detrovitrinite but is commonly only a minor constituent. The
fluorescence intensity of most sporinite is relatively low even in low rank Tertiary coals and it
shows a pronounced spectral bias towards orange or dull orange. Sporinite is not common in dom
in Tertiary sequences except within a restricted number of canneloid claystones. In this association,
fluorescence intensity tends to be much greater compared with sporinite in Tertiary coals.
2.4.2 CUTINITE
Cutinite represents the outer coating of leaves, needles, shoots and some roots and thin stems. In
leaves, it has a distinctive cellular pattern in plan view and in section has projections where the
cuticles extend down at the side of the palisade cells. The projections give cutinite a very
characteristic serrated appearance in cross section. Cutinite ranges in thickness from about 0.003
mm to about 0.02 mm. Typically, thin cutinite shows fluorescence that is less intense than that
from thick cutinite. In general, cutinite thickness is determined by the floral assemblage and that as
might be expected, dry climate floras generally tend to have thicker cutinite
Cutinite has long chain structures that are waxy in nature. It is probable that during coalification,
waxy alkanes can be generated from cutinite. However, a condensed, aromatic residue is left within
the coal.
Cutinite is present in most coals and is the dominant liptinite maceral in some Mesozoic coals and
less commonly in Tertiary coals. In Tertiary coals, leaf tissue preserved as vitrinite may be
common without cutinite being abundant. Where vitrinite reflectance is relatively high (above
about 0.9% for Mesozoic coals and above about 0.6% to 0.7% for Tertiary coals), the cutinite may
be essentially non-fluorescing. Up to reflectances of about 1.2% it may still be possible to identify
cutinite in reflected white light mode. With very high rank coals, distinction of cutinite from
vitrinite may be possible on the basis of cutinite having a higher bireflectance.
In Tertiary coals, the dominance of tenuicutinite and the absence of strong fluorescence from most
of the cutinite presumably relates to the lack of a need for thick cuticular tissue with a high cutin
content to prevent desiccation. Some thick walled and more brightly fluorescing cutinite is present
in Tertiary coals. Tissue with multiple cuticles is found in some coals and the tissue structures may
be transitional to suberinite. Cutinite from the Paleozoic commonly retains distinct fluorescence up
to vitrinite reflectances in the range 1.1 to 1.3%. In some Tertiary sequences, the cutinite is largely
non-fluorescing in association with vitrinite reflectances of about 0.8%. These differences could
relate to the rates at which coalification occur but seem more likely to be due to compositional
changes with time in cutan, and hence cutinite, as a result of evolution within plants.
The Triassic is commonly associated with the presence of thick cutinites, usually with strong
fluorescence. In part, these differences are due to floral changes but climate is probably an
additional factor.
Detrital cutinite is present in many rocks, including some that are fully marine, but it appears that
cutinite degrades much more rapidly during transport compared with sporinite.
2.4.3 SUBERINITE
Suberinite is derived from the outer layers of woody tissue. The cell walls are impregnated with
suberins. These are compounds with affinities to n-alkanes. Suberinized tissues have a similar
function to cuticles, but being much thicker, may prevent plants from physical damage as well as
protecting them from desiccation. Typically suberinite has a blocky appearance and the cells are
filled phlobaphenes preserved as the maceral phlobaphinite (included in this study within
telovitrinite or detrovitrinite depending on the extent of tissue preservation).
Suberinite is present in most Mesozoic and Tertiary coals but is rare in most Palaeozoic coals. It is
the dominant liptinite maceral in some Mesozoic and Tertiary coals. The most widely distributed
form of suberinite in Tertiary coals is thin walled and weakly- to non-fluorescing. If this form is
present with well-preserved cell contents , such as the associated woody tissue or the cell lumens
within the suberinite, suberinite seldom forms a major component of the coal. Where the other cell
tissues have been degraded by bacterial or fungal activity, suberinite is concentrated as part of a
remainé effect and in these cases forms a major proportion of some layers.
A second form of suberinite occurs as much thicker and more brightly fluorescing tissues that are
commonly relatively well preserved, thick and laterally extensive. Typically this thicker form of
suberinite is most commonly seen in the Miocene and is especially abundant within coals formed in
ombrogenous mires but possibly related forms have been observed within some Eocene coals. For
this form, strong fluorescence intensity is retained up to about 0.65%, and together with resinite, it
is commonly the most strongly fluorescing component in Tertiary coals of bituminous rank. Some
of the thick walled suberinites from the Tertiary are the last of the liptinite macerals to show a
convergence of reflectance with that of vitrinite and may show distinct fluorescence up to a vitrinite
reflectance of about 1.15% whereas most of the other liptinite macerals in Tertiary coals show weak
or no fluorescence beyond about 0.90%.
A working group on suberinite has been established as it appears that outside the coals that have
been studied most intensively (the Carboniferous and the Permian) suberinite and related entities
are not always well understood. Within a few coals of Jurassic age, suberinite can be not only the
most abundant liptinite maceral, but the most abundant maceral within the whole coal. Associations
of suberinite, resinite and cutinite derived from various floras can present aspects that differ from
those figured in the original descriptions of suberinite.
Suberinite is difficult to distinguish as a separate component in non-coaly rocks unless it is

unusually abundant. It is however commonly present in phytoclasts preserved as telovitrinite and
detrovitrinite. Care is needed to avoid measuring suberinite within small vitrinite phytoclasts
especially as it may show very weak fluorescence.
2.4.4 RESINITE
Plants commonly impregnate tissues with naphthenic compounds to deter attack by insects, fungi
and bacteria and some similar compounds are a byproduct of metabolism of plants. Wood,
periderm and leaf tissues may all contain resin bodies. Additionally, resin secretions develop on
tree trunks and at the base of trees where the wood has become damaged, typically due to insect
attack.
Resinite is rich in hydrogen but is dominated by complex naphthenic compounds. Some of the
Paleozoic resins seem to have been susceptible to oxidative polymerization and are preserved as
inertinite. This does not appear to be a feature of resins of Tertiary origin.
Resin bodies may contain some internal structures where more than one phase is present. The
outside of the lenses is commonly smooth but may be scalloped. Both the internal structures and
the external shape have caused incorrect assignment of resinite to alginite by some previous
workers. The internal structures can be similar to those in bitumen. Resinite can become mobilized
and transitions to exsudatinite occur.
In Tertiary coals, resinite is typically the dominant liptinite maceral in samples where liptinite is
unusually abundant. Resinite occurs in a number of associations. Resinite may be associated with
leaf tissue or with woody tissue and in these associations occurs within telovitrinite. Wood
associated resinite occurs as moderate to large lenses whereas leaf-resins occurs as numerous but
smaller bodies. A third mode of occurrence is within attrital layers containing detrovitrinite and
other liptinite macerals, especially liptodetrinite. Resinite occurring in this mode appears to be
concentrated as a result of the degradation of resin bearing tissues. The abundance of resinite in this
mode of occurrence is a remainé effect. More rarely these detrovitrinite associated resinite rich
layers may be of detrital origin.
Most resinite in Tertiary coals shows very strong fluorescence and in some coals much could be
referred to the term fluorinite. Fluorinite has not been distinguished here from resinite because of
the lack of a clear distinction for these macerals. Most resinite bodies lack oil cuts when
illuminated with UV/violet light for fluorescence observations but a proportion emits streaming
greenish yellow oil cut.).
Resinite is commonly associated with exsudatinite, especially in some sections of Tertiary coal
measures. In places, the exsudatinite veins are sufficiently thick to permit collection of hand
specimens at the kilogram level. The composition of this form of exsudatinite appears to be very
similar to that of associated resinite. Detrital resinite is common in many sections, but generally
occurs close to deltaic facies.
2.4.5 LIPTODETRINITE
Liptodetrinite represents mechanically or biochemically degraded liptinite that has no recognisable

form. Where form is retained, the material is referred to the appropriate maceral. It may be
possible to infer affinities of liptodetrinite from its associations, but no subdivisions are made to
recognise possible affinities.
Liptodetrinite is very widely distributed within coals. It is preferentially associated with attrital
layers where it occurs with detrovitrinite, resinite and sporinite. From the association, in Tertiary
coals, with resinite, it seems probable that a high proportion of this liptodetrinite represents small,
or fragmented, resin bodies. In canneloid coals, some of the liptodetrinite may have an affinity with
sporinite and it is possible that some is related to degraded suberinitic tissue. Some lithologies with
abundant liptodetrinite of probable algal affinities are also known.
Liptodetrinite is also widely distributed within sedimentary rocks other than coal.
2.4.6 ALGINITE
Alginite has been divided on the basis of morphology into telalginite and lamalginite.
Telalginite occurs as larger bodies, commonly showing botanical structure and typically with more
intense fluorescence than most other macerals except some of the more strongly fluorescing resinite
occurrences. Both marine algae (tasmanitids and Gloeocapsomorpha) and non-marine algae
(Botryococcus and related forms) can occur as telalginite. Telalginite within coals is typically
derived from Botryococcus but some shaly coals with tasmanitids are known.
Lamalginite is derived from smaller algae and less commonly shows botanical structure. In
sections parallel with bedding, botanical structure is relatively commonly preserved. In sections
perpendicular to bedding, lamalginite has a lamellar form, hence the name. The fluorescence
intensity of lamalginite is commonly less intense than that of telalginite and it shows less bias
towards green and yellow. Lamalginite is derived from green algae and can be present in marine
and in non-marine rocks.
In marine rocks, the most common sources are acritarchs and dinoflagellates, but other algae
probably contribute to lamalginite. In lacustrine rocks, green algae such as Pediastrum are the
major forms contributing to lamalginite but a number of other genera may also be present. In both
marine and non-marine assemblages of lamalginite, some brightly fluorescing entities may be
present.
Lamalginite and telalginite may occur together in both marine and non-marine rocks. Both may
also occur in coals. Within coals, telalginite is easily distinguished but lamalginite may be difficult
to distinguish from sporinite.
Both telalginite and lamalginite have a high content of hydrogen and are dominated by aliphatic
compounds with affinities to n-alkanes or some types of branched alkanes. Pyrolysis yields from
alginite are high to very high. Evidence suggests that during normal conditions of maturation or
coalification, lesser amounts of fluids are yielded compared with pyrolysis. Telalginite, in
particular leaves an aromatised residue. For lamalginite, the results of maturation are less clear,
possibly because it is more difficult to distinguish highly coalified lamalginite from other macerals.
In Tertiary coals, telalginite shows two main types of associations. Firstly, it occurs in coals that
appear in other respects to be normal humic coals, and secondly with canneloid coals or canneloid
shaly coals. The colonies show a similar range of size, morphology and preservation in these
different modes of occurrence. Typically, Tertiary occurrences of telalginite derived from
Botryococcus, show poor preservation of the morphology in the colonies compared with the
telalginite from the classic boghead coals of the Carboniferous and Permian. In many Tertiary
coals, the modal colony size is small, perhaps indicating that conditions were only marginally
suitable for the growth of Botryococcus.
Lamalginite is found in sections dating back to the Precambrian. Precambrian lamalginite appears to
be the major source of the Precambrian oils found in countries such as Russia and Oman.
2.4.7 BITUMINITE
Bituminite occurs as layers and lenses in some marine rocks and low reflecting material in
sapropelic coals (cannels and the bogheads or torbanites) has been referred to as bituminite. The
origin in marine rocks is thought to be from cyanobacteria with possible contributions from brown
and red-green algae. A cynobacterial origin for the material in coal is also possible but most of the
material in the sapropelic coals is probably higher plant in origin.
Bituminite has optical properties intermediate between those of the classic group of liptinite
macerals and those of vitrinite. Thus, bituminite is more highly reflecting than other liptinite
macerals with the exception of some occurrences of suberinite and has a markedly lower reflectance
than detrovitrinite. In thin section, bituminite is red (vitrinite is also red in thin section), whereas
other liptinite macerals are yellow. Bituminite typically has very weak fluorescence, exceptions
apparently relating to impregnation with bitumens. A major distinguishing feature is the abundance
of micrinite within bituminite.
In Tertiary coals with canneloid affinities, so-called bituminite occurs associated with a wide range
of other liptinite macerals and is typically interbedded with vitrinite-rich layers. It may well
represent suberinite in which cell structures are unusually difficult to distinguish. Vestigial cell
structures may be present in some fields of view and where they are present reference to other
macerals such as suberinite may be more appropriate. Bitumen impregnation of some of these coals
results in better resolution of botanical structure. In these cases, it is commonly possible to
distinguish a range of other liptinite macerals.
Bituminite within marine rocks appears to be relatively well-defined. Low reflecting weakly
fluorescing components are present in coals, but the classification of this material appears to be less
well understood compared with bituminite in marine rocks. Additionally, the origin of the low
reflecting components within coals is almost certainly different to the bituminite in marine rocks.
For these reasons a case can be made for restricting the term bituminite to rocks of marine origin. It
is hoped that some of the current working groups within ICCP will develop a suitable terminology
for materials within coal that have previously been referred to as bituminite.
2.4.8 EXSUDATINITE
Veins of bitumen-like material within coals have been referred to the maceral exsudatinite. The
maceral name alluded to an assumed origin as an exudate from coal - the author mistakenly thought
that the English spelled "exude" as "exsude". Similar material had earlier been described as
secondary resinite. Some occurrence show clear relationships to resinite but many do not. Whereas
oil cut and oil haze are unusual for resinite, these features are commonly present in association with
exsudatinite.
In normally coalified samples, exsudatinite is present as veins of weakly reflecting but moderately
to strongly fluorescing material. The more strongly fluorescing veins are the most likely to show
oil cut and oil haze. The presence of more than one generation of veins is a common feature. In
thermally altered coals, meta-exsudatinite veins may be present. Meta-exsudatinite has a
reflectance similar to that of the associated vitrinite and does not show fluorescence. In form it is
similar to exsudatinite.
Exsudatinite typically occurs as veins. These range up to 3 cm in thickness and in some of the coal
mine exposures the veins can be followed laterally for some metres. They occupy one of the cleat
fracture sets but rarely occur in more than one of the cleat sets perpendicular to bedding. They
commonly have a "V" shaped section providing evidence of having been forcefully emplaced. En
echelon offsets are common at both the field scale and the microscopic scale. Material similar to
exsudatinite may also occur in less well-defined masses and these have been referred here to
bitumen. (In this usage the older geological meaning for the term bitumen is adopted rather than the
geochemical term for rock extracts. Exsudatinite shows similarities in its mode of occurrence to
well known bitumens such as the gilsonite veins of the Green River Formation.) However,
exsudatinite and gilsonite do not appear to be related chemically.
Some exsudatinite, especially in coals with vitrinite reflectances in the range 0.45 to 0.55%, occurs
fringing resin bodies. Veins of exsudatinite around the rims of resin bodies show fluorescence
colours and intensity similar to the resinite. Some coals with a high content of exsudatinite, do not
have high resinite content, and it is probable that some exsudatinite has an origin independent of
resinite. Exsudatinite shows an association with telovitrinite. This association may be due, in part,
to the source of the exsudatinite. However, telovitrinite shows a much higher frequency of cleat
fractures and this, in itself, would cause an association.
Exsudatinite is especially common in Tertiary coals from Indonesia. It is also common in those
from Malaysia and Thailand but, for example, is not especially common in those from Gippsland
Basin. The control over the abundance of exsudatinite may relate to the thermal and uplift history
of the coals. Where exsudatinite has been analysed it has proved to be naphthenic in composition.
As sample of exsudatinite from Bukit Asam, near an igneous plug, contained small amounts of 1-
dienes that may have indicated a pyrolytic origin (Gilbert, pers comm.).
The greatest abundance of exsudatinite noted to date occurs in some of the Miocene coals
associated with uplift along the folded belt near Samarinda in Kalimantan. Abundance of
exsudatinite may relate to the rate at which mobile hydrocarbons are produced but rapid uplift and
freezing of the hydrocarbons within vein structures may be an important control over abundance.
Exsudatinite is not seen in coals of very low rank and this accords with an origin during maturation.
Where vitrinite reflectances exceed about 0.8% it is also rare or absent. This suggests that
exsudatinite is lost as a normal part of the maturation process at higher ranks.
Meta-exsudatinite is rare, and in the author’s experience is restricted to coals that have suffered
contact metamorphism. Meta-exsudatinite shows reflectances in the range 1.0% to in excess of 3%,
depending on the rank of associated vitrinite.
2.3.3.3 THE INERTINITE GROUP
2.3.3.3.1 GENERAL
The inertinite group of macerals are important components of many pre-Tertiary coals but are
present only as a minor component in most Tertiary coals. Inertinite has a mixed range of origins
but all the macerals have reflectances higher than that of vitrinite in low and medium rank coals.
Most inertinite is derived from tissues similar to those that give rise to vitrinite but represent
preservation under different conditions. Most have a common property of containing oxygen in
much more stable groupings than is typical of vitrinite.
Sclerotinite is the most widely distributed inertinite maceral in most Tertiary coals but the average
percentage of sclerotinite may be less than that of semifusinite or inertodetrinite. Tertiary coals are
characterized by a paucity of inertinite, the near ubiquitous presence of sclerotinite of fungal origin
and a dominance of very low reflecting semifusinite where that maceral is present. Even where
inertinite is present in more than trace amounts, the composition and reflectance of the inertinite in
coals of Tertiary age is different from the inertinite found in older coals.
The difference in the inertinite populations between Tertiary and older coals indicates that some
important factors were different during the peat stage. Tertiary coals have a petrology similar to
that of Recent peats. Thus, it can be presumed that while present day peats form good analogues for
Tertiary coals, they are not good analogues in at least some respects for the pre-Tertiary coals. In
addition to containing larger populations of inertinite, pre-Tertiary coals lack the fungal sclerotinite
found in the younger coals. The cause for this difference is not clear. A small number of Tertiary
coals contains both large and diverse populations of inertinite and fungal sclerotinite so the two
components are not mutually exclusive. Coals with abundant inertinite and fungal sclerotinite form
only a small proportion of Tertiary coals some of the most notable examples being from Asam in
northern India, from Venezuela and from Gippsland Basin in Australia.
PROPERTIES
Inertinite has a higher reflectance than vitrinite over most of the range of rank or maturation. This
is partly a function of a higher refractive index but is due in large part to a much higher absorptive
index. In turn this appears to be related to a higher proportion of oxygen occurring in groupings
that are more stable than the groupings within vitrinite. The origin of the term inertinite relates to a
less reactive behaviour during coking, although the lower reflecting inertinite can form vesicles and
a mosaic structure. It is, however, a misnomer in relation to the behaviour of the inertinite group in
a range of situations.
The most obvious reactive behaviour of inertinite is during combustion where it burns readily.
Inertinite rich particles may have a longer burn out time compared with vitrinite but much of the
difference appears to be due to the tendency of inertinite to occur as larger fragments.
It has been shown that inertinite changes reflectance markedly during coalification. This is
presumably associated with major chemical changes and many of these may relate to the
elimination of the more loosely bonded forms of oxygen. At higher levels of maturation or rank,
the greater abundance of strongly bonded oxygen is probably the reason why inertinite does not
develop such a strongly preferred orientation within the molecular groupings. As a result, inertinite
shows much lower levels of bireflectance than vitrinite (or liptinite) and this property is a major
distinguishing feature within the anthracitic range.
Smith and Cook (1981) point out that the mean reflectance of macerals of the inertinite group shows
a systematic relationship to that of vitrinite. For coals, vitrinite is always present and vitrinite
reflectance provides a better measure of rank compared with inertinite reflectance. As Smith and
Cook point out, provided a diverse population of inertinite is present, inertinite reflectance can be
used as a measure of rank. The laboratory of the author routinely reports inertinite reflectance of
samples that contain small vitrinite populations as a method of checking the vitrinite reflectance
data. Unpublished work with Geotrack International, shows that in a large number of basin studies,
the inertinite reflectance data is extremely useful for sections where vitrinite is rare or absent.
Inertinite probably generates catagenic methane at high levels of maturation but contributes only
minor amounts of liquid hydrocarbons at lower levels of maturation. However, it may be a major
source of early formed carbon dioxide. This could play a significant role in relation to migration of
hydrocarbons in the range of vitrinite reflectance from about 0.45% to 0.7%.
2.3.3.3.2 FUSINITE
Fusinite chiefly represents charred material resulting from forest fires. A small proportion is
present as primary fusinite. This latter is derived from tissues that naturally contain strongly
bonded oxygen. Fusinite has a high reflectance but the reflectance of fusinite in brown coals is
much less than that in higher rank coals. In the anthracitic range, the maximum reflectance of
fusinite is "overtaken" by that of vitrinite. Fusinite shows little or no bireflectance and this property
is an important distinguishing feature in high rank coals. Cell structures are commonly well
preserved in fusinite. Fusinite tends to be prominent in distal marine Mesozoic sections.
2.3.3.3.3 SEMIFUSINITE
Semifusinite represents either partially charred material from forest fires or humic material that has
become partially oxidized by biochemical activity. This last may include mouldering processes
where the temperature of the peat is raised due to biochemical activity. In common with fusinite,
semifusinite may have well preserved cell structures. Semifusinite ranges in reflectance from
marginally above that of the co-existing vitrinite to that of fusinite.
2.3.3.3.4 INERTODETRINITE
Inertodetrinite represents small fragments derived by the physical degradation of other types of
inertinite. Most is probably derived from fusinite and semifusinite. It shows a similar range or
reflectance to the full semifusinite to fusinite range. Inertodetrinite is widely distributed in coals
and dom. Some of the smaller fragments may be windborn.
2.3.3.3.5 MACRINITE
Macrinite represents humic material that has first become gelified and then fusinized in the peat
stage. It is an important component of many Carboniferous and some Permian coals but is not a
major component of most Mesozoic coals and is absent or rare in Tertiary coals.
2.3.3.3.6 MICRINITE
The origin and even the nature of micrinite have been in dispute. It occurs as near sub-microscopic
specks within macerals such as vitrinite, sporinite and bituminite. It shows some similarities to the
bright specks resulting from small holes within the vitrinite component termed porigelinite and
some workers claim that micrinite also represents holes. Another view is that it represents a carbon
rich residue from disproportionation reactions that yield micrinite and hydrocarbons. Micrinite has
been noted to form during hydrous pyrolysis experiments. Micrinite tends to be widely dispersed in
coals. Its volumetric estimation can be difficult, except where it occurs as massive pods, because of
its small size.
Most commonly it is argued that micrinite is a response to rank change, but it does occur in large
amounts in some very low rank coals, so that apparently it can have an origin from a different set of
processes.
2.3.3.3.7 FUNGINITE
The term funginite refers to material of fungal origin and in older literature was termed sclerotinite.
Much, or all, of the so-called sclerotinite described for Palaeozoic coals was either fusinized resin
(macrinite) or poorly preserved semifusinite. Fungal sclerotinite is present only in Tertiary coals
although material of fungal origin must be present in the older coals. It can only be presumed that
in the older coals, fungal tissues cannot be distinguished from vitrinite (or possibly from some of
the semifusinite). It is also possible that some material of fungal origin is included in vitrinite for
Tertiary coals.
In Tertiary coals, a variety of forms are present as sclerotinite; sclerotia (resting spores),
teleutospores, mycorrhizomes (symbiotic associations of fungal tissue with higher plant roots) and
stromata (fungal fruiting bodies). For coals of about 0.5% vitrinite reflectance, sclerotinite
reflectance is about 0.9%. In higher rank coals, the reflectance of the sclerotinite is very close to
that of the vitrinite and in the semi-anthracites is distinguishable mainly because of lower
bireflectance compared with vitrinite.
In very low rank coals, the lumens of the sclerotinite are typically empty or, less commonly,
impregnated with material similar to corpocollinite. In coals of vitrinite reflectance greater than
about 0.45%, the lumens of sclerotinite commonly include strongly fluorescing material similar to
resinite or exsudatinite within the cell lumens. This may have affinities with bitumen but could
represent migrated resinite. Fluorescing cell contents commonly give a streaming yellow oil cut in
fluorescence mode but appear to be a secondary feature.
2.3.3.3.8 SECRETINITE
This term was introduced to apply to the fusinised resin-related entities that had formed the bulk of
the material referred to sclerotinite for Palaeozoic coals. It consists of rounded bodies, commonly
with very high polishing relief and reflectance. The best documented origin is from resin rodlets
that have become fusinised.
2.3.4 MICROLITHOTYPES
The term microlithotype was developed to permit the designation of rock types within coal that are
at a microscopic scale and their definition is based on maceral percentages. All macerals have a
suffix "-inite" and microlithotypes have the suffix "-ite". Thus, layers greater than 0.05 mm in
thickness and consisting of greater than 95% vitrinite are termed vitrite. Bimaceral (clarite, durite
and vitrinertite) and trimaceral (duroclarite and clarodurite) microlithotypes have names that are
derived from lithotypes rather than macerals.
In Palaeozoic coals, a wide range of microlithotypes can be present, but vitrite, clarite, durite and
inertite are generally the most abundant components. A major difference between Carboniferous
and Gondwana coals relates to the presence of inertinite as durite in the former and as inertite in the
latter. Within Tertiary coals, the microlithotypes commonly present in significant proportions are
vitrite and clarite (liptinite greater than 5% and inertinite less than 5%) except for microlithotypes
containing mineral matter. Use of microlithotype terms assists by indicating the ratio of
telovitrinite (preferentially associated with vitrite) to detrovitrinite (preferentially associated with
clarite) and the amount of liptinite present. However, these distinctions can commonly be made
more directly by using maceral analyses.
Reproducibility of microlithotype analyses is generally not as good as that for maceral analyses and
since about 1980, they tend to have fallen into disuse. However, inter-laboratory ring analyses
showed that experienced analysts could obtain reproducible results. While point counting using a 20
point ocular is extremely slow, the method using visual estimate of each field called selon la ligne
can give reliable data and is much faster than point counting macerals. This appears a paradox at
first sight as the decisions to be made with microlithotype analyses is inherently more difficult than
that for maceral analysis. The explanation is that with maceral analysis you need to wait for the
stage to stop to see exactly what is under the cross-hair, whereas with microlithotype analysis the
layer to be named may be clear before the stage has stopped completely.
2.4. COAL RANK - PHYSICO-CHEMICAL COALIFICATION
2.4.1 PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH RANK CHANGE
The gross effect of a rise in rank or the level of organic maturation is an increase in the carbon
content of the organic matter and a decrease in the content of other elements, especially oxygen and
hydrogen.
The factors operative in this second stage of coalification are essentially:-
1. Temperature - temperatures even below 60°C can have marked effects over long periods of
time.
2. Time - the rate constants of many reactions are such that time is an important factor in
determining the level of coalification.
3. Pressure - this is probably an inhibiting factor since many of the reactions have gaseous or
liquid decomposition products (C02, CH4, H20 and liquid hydrocarbons). Hydrostatic
pressure tends to slow down the rates of reaction. The rate of diffusion of gaseous products
away from the organic matter is an important additional factor which is linked in part to the
pressure regime and the pressure regime itself can be partly controlled by the rate of diffusion
of the products of coalification.
4. Catalytic and inhibiting effects either of other organic material or of inorganic materials,
particularly some of the clay minerals.
Like coalification, carbonization is a process of alteration of organic matter leading to an increase in

carbon content and a decrease in oxygen and hydrogen content. However, the process of
carbonization is essentially different to coalification. Carbonization occurs if organic matter is
heated rapidly - hours or days to reach 500°C, for example, instead of the millions of years required
for coalification. The response of organic matter to carbonization is variable depending upon the
nature of the material involved and its rank at the time of carbonization. For humic material with <
80% total carbon, carbonization results in a char. Chars have a relatively high oxygen to hydrogen
ratio, with much of the oxygen cross-linked so that they cannot be graphitized by further heating.
Humic material with 80 - 91.5%C becomes plastic at about 400°C and at 500°C yields a semi-coke
which can be graphitized by further heating. Anthracitic rank humic organic matter (total carbon >
91.5%) can also be graphitized by heating but does not develop a plastic stage.
Coalified material has different properties from carbonized organic matter. Coalification and
carbonization should not be used as equivalent terms. Optical properties can be used to distinguish
the products of coalification from those of carbonization. Cokes show a very distinctive mottled
appearance due to the presence of a mosaic of graphitic domains. Chars and contact altered organic
matter that has not been coked typically show anomalously low levels of bireflectance.
2.4.2 MATURATION CONCEPT
Oil-like hydrocarbons are not present in significant amounts in sediments or organic matter close to
the sediment fluid interface. They develop as a result of thermal breakdown of some of the
compounds originally present in the sediment when formation temperatures increase due to the
build up of overlying (usually younger but similar considerations apply if additional cover is due to
overthrusting) sequences. According to the thermogenic-organic theory of hydrocarbon origin, the
hydrocarbons are largely of thermogenic origin. The extent to which the original organic matter is
changed by heat acting over long periods of time under confining pressure is said to be the level of
maturation.
The maturation concept is basically similar to the rank concept in coal studies. The main difference
is that in coal studies the emphasis is on the solid residue whereas in petroleum studies the emphasis
is on the fluid products. However, most assessments of the level of maturation rely on properties
measured on solid phases. Accepting that there is a different emphasis, the terms rank and level of
maturation can be used interchangeably.
The changes associated with physico-chemical coalification and maturation may be

diagrammatically represented as follows:
TABLE 2.8. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL COALIFICATION – RANK CHANGE

INITIAL MATERIAL PROCESS RESPONSE
BROWN COAL COALIFICATION HIGHER RANK COALS,

IMMATURE DISPERSED ANTHRACITE, GRAPHITE
ORGANIC MATTER MATURE DISPERSED ORGANIC
MATTER
COMPOUND METHANE AND OTHER FLUIDS
GROUPS
Aromatization, loss of Rise in carbon content, loss of

functional groups, loss oxygen and then hydrogen
of oxygen preferentially
and then hydrogen
The main changes in humic material are the loss of O, H, N and an increase in C, the
degree of aromaticity, removal of alkyl groups, functional groups, cracking of aliphatic
molecules, dehydration and decarboxylation. Changes in the more aliphatic and
naphthenic components (mostly found within liptinite) are small until the middle of the
bituminous rank range when evolution of long chain hydrocarbons, demethylation and
aromatisation occur.
Note: The coalification/maturation processes result in solid organic residues containing a higher
content of carbon compared with their precursors and fluid products. The general form of these
reactions is termed disproportionation. Although the solid residues have higher densities and
therefore smaller volumes, this is more than offset by the volumes of the fluids that are produced. In
physicochemical terms, pressure can therefore be expected to inhibit coalification or maturation
processes. In natural systems, it is difficult to demonstrate the nature of the effects of pressure but
some unusual features appear to be associated with overpressured zones.
2.4.3. ORGANIC PETROLOGICAL METHODS
Organic petrology permits determination of the type and abundance of the organic matter occurring
as discrete particles at the same time that rank or level of organic maturation is assessed.
Maturation level is normally and most easily assessed from vitrinite reflectance but the fluorescence
properties of both liptinite and vitrinite can also be used as an indicator of rank. Providing that the
vitrinite is correctly identified, vitrinite reflectance provides the most direct and precise method of
rank assessment for most samples. In the absence of discrete organic matter, it is possible in some
instances to use the fluorescence characteristics of the mineral matter to give a general assessment
of the level of maturation.
Organic matter type and abundance can be used to determine coal properties and the source
potential of sections intersected during petroleum exploration. In combination with the maturation
level, they are used to assess the probable liquids and gas yields to date. It is conventionally
believed that because liptinite has the highest H/C ratio, it is also the major source of petroleum
liquids. In many cases, vitrinite and inertinite are more abundant in sedimentary rocks than
liptinite. If most of the organic matter is vitrinite, its greater abundance may outweigh the higher
specific yield of the liptinite. This situation appears to obtain many source rock sequences
containing coal measures. Even within the liptinite group, the specific yield of oil-like compounds
may vary by a factor of at least five. Thus, accurate identification of the individual macerals is
essential. The vitrinite reflectance range over which the various macerals yield liquids differs, so
that maceral composition determines, in part, the timing of liquids generation as well as the amount
of liquids yielded. The oil industry, generally, does not yet require organic matter type analyses at
the level of specificity and precision which they actually need. This is slowly changing.
Organic petrology methods are useful at most stages of the exploration cycle for both coal and
hydrocarbons. In frontier basins they are used to define the overall prospectivity and to try to
delimit the most prospective horizons (source rocks) and to determine the areas where source rocks
will be mature enough to have generated significant amounts of oil (so-called source kitchens).
During the drilling phase, geochemical data are needed both to test the original prognosis for the
wells and to generate a new set of data to give a firmer basis to predictions. If a wildcat well is a
discovery, it is desirable to learn more accurately the source of the oil or gas so that the search for
similar plays can be appropriately directed.
If the exploration well is unsuccessful, organic petrological data can indicate the type and rank of
any coals that might be present in nearby areas and are needed to determine if source rock quantity,
quality or level of maturation is a main or contributory cause of the lack of a discovery. Organic
petrology will indicate if trace amounts of coal, oil or gas are present in the section have the
potential for economic discoveries. At more mature stages of exploration, it should be possible to
map variables that can be used to predict the amount of coal present or the amounts of oil or gas
which at given part of the sequence should have generated.
Some workers tend to consider techniques as being competitive. A number of techniques

(including some which have been pushed very strongly as panaceas for all problems) have proved
to be of limited value. However the source rock maturation process and oil and gas systems are so
complex that a wide range of techniques is needed to obtain an adequate understanding of the
processes and responses (see, for example, Jones et al, 1984 and Murchison et al, 1985). Thus, for
the most part, techniques should be regarded as complementary rather than competitive. As far as
possible, organic petrology should be linked in with other studies both more general aspects such as
stratigraphy and tectonic history and specialist studies, for example, apatite fission track analysis.
2.4.4. VITRINITE REFLECTANCE
2.4.4.1 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF VITRINITE AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON

MEASUREMENTS
Reflectance is considered as the percentage of light reflected from a polished surface when the
incident beam is perpendicular to the polished surface. Especially in the case of anisotropic
materials, reflectance changes with the angle of incidence.
In practice, the light beam that is measured comprises a semicone, the angle of which is controlled
by the aperture of the objective lens and the working distance of the lens. Different microscopes
and lenses give different angles of cones. The reflectance is measured by comparing the intensity
of light reflected from an unknown with that reflected by the same optical set-up from a standard of
known reflectance. This feature of the technique largely eliminates errors associated with the
optical characteristics of the microscope. Some small effect probably remain, because the standards
are commonly isotropic whereas the vitrinite is anisotropic. Effects due to this difference are likely
to be very small and have never been reported in detail.
In normal practice, oil immersion lenses of about 40x to 50x nominal magnification and a numerical
aperture of about 0.8 are used. For measurement, a Berek prism illuminator, or more recently a
Smith illuminator, is used to give low glare. Glare should be further reduced by stopping down the
field to about 10% of the full field. Measuring stop size should be small to permit mineral
inclusions to be avoided. The image of the back projected measuring spot on the sample should be
about 0.001 or 0.002 mm square.
The formula from which reflectance is calculated is:
Iu
xRs (1)
Is
where Iu and Is are the intensities of light measured for the unknown (in this case the vitrinite) and
the standard, respectively and Rs is the reflectance of the standard. The reflectance of the standard
is generally calculated from its refractive index using equation (1). In order to calculate the
reflectance correctly, the refractive index must be known accurately and the refractive index of the
immersion oil must also be know. Immersion oils have a significant coefficient of change in
refractive index with temperature and show some spectral dispersion. The refractive index for the
immersion oil should be 1.518 at 546 nm (the mercury green line). This refractive index is
normally given at a temperature of 23oC. Within a temperature range of about 21oC to 25oC effects
of temperature change are small but beyond that range start to become significant. A surprisingly
Table 2.4. Diagram to illustrate the ISO coal classification 11760-2005 related to a diagram used in Pinheiro and Cook (2005).
Bed Moist → VR →
75% 35% 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.4 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0
C B A D C B A C B A
Tertiary, Kalimantan, R vmax 0.48% Permian, Australia, 1.05% R vmax Cretaceous, Angola, 2.03%, R vmax
LOW-RANK COAL MEDIUM-RANK COAL HIGH-RANK COAL
LIGNITE SUB-BIT BITUMINOUS ANTHRACITE
ORTHO/ META/ PARA ORTHO META PER PARA ORTHO META

Weich Hart /Glanzbraunkohle
PF steam PF steam PF steam Steam/PCI PCI/SOFT PRIME BLEND Possible PCI Graphitizable
COKING COKING LV/pci carbons
Terms from the German DIN system have been shown for low rank coals, Weichbraunkohle, Hartbraunkohle and Glanzbraunkohle.
Table 2.5 - Low, Medium and High Rank coals

LOW RANK COALS
Bed Moist → VR% →
75% 35% 0.4 0.5
R vmax 0.37% Permian 0.38% Tertiary Scotland 0.46% Tertiary, Kalimantan

C B A
LOW-RANK COAL
LIGNITE SUB-BIT
ORTHO META
STEAM STEAM STEAM
MEDIUM, RANK COALS
0.5 VR% 0.6 1.0 1.4 2.0
R vmax 0.54%, Tertiary 0.64% Carboniferous, UK 1.08% Carboniferous, USA 1.74% Jurassic, Australia
D C B A
MEDIUM-RANK COAL
BITUMINOUS
PARA ORTHO META PER
STEAM \ PCI PCI/SOFT COKING PRIME COKING BLEND LV/PCI
HIGH RANK COALS
2.0 VR% 3.0 4.0
2.16% Tertiary, W Canada 3.16% Roseneath, Cooper Basin, Perm. 5.87% Permian W Papua, pxp-
Australia, pxp partially crossed polars
C B A
HIGH-RANK COAL
ANTHRACITE
PARA ORTHO META
large number of laboratories around the World do not have effective temperature control for
photometer units and many laboratories in countries in high latitudes commonly take measurements
with temperature below 20oC. As noted below, it is not possible to correct for the errors associated
with incorrect oil RI values unless the refractive index and the absorptive index of the vitrinite are
known. Cook and Murchison (1977) present data that show errors are minimised if standards that
have a reflectance slightly higher than that of the unknown are used as the primary standard for
calibration, but this is not always possible.
Vitrinite is anisotropic. The anisotropy is not due to the presence of a crystalline structure as is the
case for minerals but to the presence of preferentially oriented domains that have been termed
micelles. This type of anisotropy is termed form anisotropy and is similar in origin to the properties
shown by liquid crystals.
Vitrinite approximates the optical properties of a unixial negative material. The reflectance
indicating surface is analogous with the optical indicatrix that is studied for more transparent
materials. With opaque substances, construction of the wave envelope within the material is much
more difficult to represent because the properties are defined by tensors. However, if radii are
drawn corresponding to the reflectances that obtain for any given direction within the substance,
this provides a model of the optical behaviour that can be used in much the same way as an optical
indicatrix can be used.
Graphite is uniaxial negative and is crystalline. Most vitrinites are optically analogous with
graphite although the cause of the optical properties differs, especially at low ranks. An optically
uniaxial negative indicating surface, is an ellipsoid of rotation with the plane of circular section
corresponding with the maximum radius. Ellipsoids of rotation have the property that a section cut
in any direction includes the radius that forms the plane of circular section. Thus, for unixial
negative materials, all sections include the maximum reflectance. The section cut perpendicular to
the plane of circular section both true maximum and true minimum reflectances. The plane of
circular section itself shows only the maximum reflectance. All other sections (oblique sections)
show the maximum and an apparent minimum reflectance.
The mean radius for an ellipsoid of rotation is twice the value for the plane of circular section plus
the value for radius perpendicular to the plane of circular section divided by three. For a negative
uniaxial reflectance indicating surface, this corresponds with
( 2 Rmax  Rmin )
(2)
3
Cook et al (1972) and Stone and Cook (1979) have shown that biaxial or irregular properties can be
present within the indicating surface. Irregular properties cannot occur with structure anisotropy
but appear to be possible where form anisotropy is present. Where biaxial characteristics are
present, the two planes of circular section are present, and these intersect at variable angles.
Typically these planes are close to where the plane of circular section would have been and the
material is then biaxial negative. For biaxial materials, Rmax, Rint and Rmin are present. If the angle
of intersection between the planes of circular section is small, the intermediate reflectance Rint is
close to the value of Rmax.
If angle of intersection of the planes of circular section that includes the Rmax exceeds 90o, the
material resembles biaxial positive characteristics in its properties. Levine and Davis (1984) have
reported this for a coal within the Pennsylvania anthracite belt. However, in their study, they
prepared only three sections, one parallel with bedding and two others mutually at 90o that were
perpendicular to bedding. Stone and Cook (1979) used at least four to six sections and found that
indicating surfaces were irregular rather than simply being biaxial. This adds additional complexity
and it would be useful if the work on the anthracites was repeated using a greater number of
sections.
Normally, the extent to which indicating surfaces depart from the uniaxial model is so small that it
can be ignored. Errors caused by biaxial properties are likely to be small compared with other
possible sources of error for coals of bituminous or brown coal rank. Within anthracites, more
attention to the nature of the indicating surface is required. For bituminous coals, it is probable that
the greatest significance of biaxial properties.
2.4.4.2 RELATIONSHIP OF REFLECTANCE TO OTHER OPTICAL PROPERTIES
The relationship of reflectance to refractive index for transparent materials is given by the Fresnel
equation:
( ns  nm ) 2
R = (3)
2
( ns  nm )
Where ns is the refractive index of the unknown substance and nm is the refractive index of the
immersion medium. For air lenses the refractive index of the immersion medium is 1. For all other
immersion media, the refractive index of the immersion medium must be known. The form of the
numerator in the equation means that small errors in either refractive index have a marked effect on
the calculated value for reflectance.
This equation is used for calculating the reflectance of most of the standards that are used but
should not be used for coal macerals. The value for R that is obtained is scaled from 0 to 1, the
more normal mode of expression is obtained by multiplying this value by 100.
For absorbing materials, the Beers equation should be used. This is similar to the Fresnel equation
but contains additional terms:
( ns  nm ) 2  ns 2 s 2
R = (4)
( ns  nm ) 2  ns 2 s 2
The refractive index terms are identical with those in the Fresnel equation and s represents the
absorptive index of the substance. The Beers equation contains two unknowns and thus it is
impossible to calculate the refractive index from the reflectance measured in a single immersion
medium. Most studies do not involve the use of the refractive index of the unknown substance.
However, this characteristic means that it is impossible to correct the reflectance obtained
experimentally for non standard conditions such as a different immersion medium or the correct
immersion medium but with non-standard temperatures leading to a different refractive index for
the immersion medium.
If reflectances are known for two immersion media it is possible to calculate both the refractive
index and the absorptive index for the unknown. In the following formulae it is assumed that the
two media used are air (n =1) and immersion oil (the standard has been set at 1.518):
( no 2  na 2 ) / 2
ns = (5)
1  Ro 1  Ra
no [ ]  na [ ]
1  Ro 1  Ra
and
Ra ( ns  na ) 2  ( ns  na ) 2
ks = (6)
ns 2 (1  Ra )
or
Ro ( ns  no ) 2  ( ns  no ) 2
ks = (7)
ns 2 (1  Ro )
where ks = nss.
Cook and Murchison (1977) presented extensive data on the relative errors that occur in the
calculation of n and  for various errors in determination of reflectance. These calculations can also
be used to estimate the relative errors in R from errors in assumptions about various optical
parameters involved in the Beers equation (equation 4).
The data presented by Cook and Murchison (1977) show clearly that not only must standards have
known reflectances (generally calculated from equation 3, the Fresnel equation), but the oil must
also have a known refractive index. Immersion oils vary in refractive index with temperature and
the wavelength at which it is measured. Unless equations 5, 6 and 7 can be solved, corrections for
incorrect values of noil cannot be made.
Jakeman and Cook (1978) present detailed information about the variation in refractive index and 
for a range of coals. In the course of this work, it became clear that most laboratories have never
determined the refractive index of the immersion oil used. The refractometer (Abbé) that is
commonly available can only be used for the sodium “D” line, and the Pulfrich refractometer that is
required for other wavelengths is a rare piece of equipment. Jakeman and Cook (1978) discovered
that no such instrument existed in Australia and had to use a spectrometer.
2.4.5. TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING VITRINITE REFLECTANCE
2.4.5.1 GENERAL
For given methods of sample preparation, the main variations in the methods of measuring vitrinite
reflectance relate to:
1. immersion medium used, some older work reports measurements with “air” lenses but most data
relate to the use of oil immersion lenses, and the oil became standardised at n = 1.518 at 546 nm by
about 1970;
2. to the use of plane polarized light to measure the maximum reflectance or of weakly polarized
light to measure approximately the average of mean maximum vitrinite reflectance and the apparent
minimum vitrinite reflectance (Rvmin) in each field;
3. whether or not the stage is rotated to find the maximum value; and
4. techniques of field selection.
Variations also exist in data interpretation. Presentation of histograms is common but it is not
always clear how these are used. Original data listings are not, commonly made available even
though recalculations cannot be made without such data.
2.4.5.2 USE OF VARIOUS IMMERSION MEDIA
Most of the older Russian literature is based on determinations in air. This appears to the due to the
low quality of oil immersion lenses available in Russia until recently. It may also have been due to
lack of sensitivity in photometers.
Corrections from measurements in air to an oil basis cannot be made without either determining n
and  (presumably by also making measurements in oil!). Figure 1 in Cook and Murchison (1977)
gives an indication of the relationship between air and oil reflectances. Jakeman and Cook provide
data that can be used to estimate the refractive index of the vitrinite, permitting a better estimate to
be made.
Diessel has drawn attention to the value of making reflectance measurements in water immersion.
This permits fluorescence measurements with a minimum of interaction with the coal to be made at
the same time as the reflectance measurements are made. Based on experimental data, he has found
a best-fit relationship for the relationship between oil and water reflectances to be:
Rw  1.09  1.43Ro (8)

where Rw and Ro are reflectances for water and oil immersion respectively. The form of this
equation in comparison with equations 3 through 7 indicates that this is a descriptive fit rather than
an analytical fit. Where unusual combinations on n and  are present, this type of estimation may
be considerably in error.
2.4.5.3 PROPERTIES MEASURED
The main methods used and the optical properties measured are set out in Table 2.4. Corrections
between the various properties listed in Table 2.4 are general approximations. As bireflectance has
been shown by Jones et al (1984) to be provincial, it is important to be certain that any correction
factors are appropriate to the coals under study.
PROPERTY OPTICAL ROTATION OF STAGE

MEASURED PATH
Maximum Polar Rotation to find maximum, Rmax

reflectance preferably both maxima and
the average is that parameter
used
Reflectance of Polar No rotation of stage Not always

sample is measured distinguished from
in the orientation of random reflectance
the grain found
during scanning of
the sample
Random reflectance No polar No rotation of stage Rrandom or Rm
Table 2.9. Properties measured for vitrinite reflectance.
2.4.5.3.1 MEAN MAXIMUM REFLECTANCE
Provided vitrinite is close to uniaxial in character, the Rmax value will be found in any section of
the vitrinite. If the beam of incident light is plane polarized, as the stage is rotated the maximum
value should be encountered twice and, 90o from the maximum values, a minimum value is found.
In the general case this will be an apparent minimum and it lies between the true Rmin and the
Rmax. Both maximum and minimum values may be recorded but the maximum value is normally
the only value used.
The polar should be inserted with the polarization direction at an angle of 45o to the horizontal cross
hair in the ocular. This orientation produces minimum ellipticity of the polarization during
reflections through the illumination system of the microscope.
The various layers of vitrinite within a coal or other type of sediment typically show some variation
in reflectance. Therefore it is necessary to measure a number of fields in order to obtain a
representative value for the mean. It is has been common practice in Europe to measure 100 fields
and this has been repeated in a number of standards. However, no statistical study appears to have
been undertaken in establishing this number. It is also the case that the variation with the random
reflectance method used in Europe is greater than that for maximum reflectance and with maximum
reflectance, in essence two measurements are obtained for each field.
The SAA Working Group did undertake such a study after members had commented that the
precision of the mean appeared to approach that of reading the standard after 20 to 25 readings.
Results were presented in the order in which they were obtained and analysed statistically and it
was shown that the running mean had converged on the final mean for a batch of 100 readings after
about 20 readings had been made. The Working Group recommended a minimum of 30 values be
obtained.
Normally, the maximum reflectance is either in the plane of the bedding or is very close to that
plane. If oriented blocks are measured, the true minimum values can also be obtained. Murchison
(pers comm, 1970) has suggested a method of estimating the minimum value from randomly
oriented grain mounts. The procedure suggested involves measurement of 100 maxima and minima.
The greatest 5% of values for Rmax-Rmin are then used as an estimator for the bireflectance. Rmin
is then taken as Rmax minus the bireflectance. Bireflectance can be used as an indicator of the
coalification history of coals. The simplest use is the detection of proximal contact alteration where
bireflectances are anomalously low, except in the case of natural cokes. Jones et al (1984) have
shown differences in bireflectances between coalfields in the UK and Germany and it is possible
that some of these differences may correlate with the behaviour of coals in processes such as
carbonization.
At low rank, bireflectance is low and the difference between maximum reflectance and other
measurements is small. As rank increases, bireflectance tends to increase and the difference
between maximum reflectance and other measures also increases. It was common practice in
Germany to ignore bireflectance for coals with vitrinite reflectance <1.6% whereas in the UK, coals
with vitrinite reflectance of about 0.8% have distinct bireflectance.
For coals of about 1.2% reflectance, a standard deviation of between 0.05 and 0.07 is to be
expected. If the standard deviation is higher, coals from more than one source are probably present.
The standard deviation for maximum reflectance is lower than that for other types of measurements.
Variations on the method include recording only the highest maximum either manually or through a
peak height detector. This practice is not recommended. Averaging the two maxima gives a more
stable measure. Variations in values between the two maxima are commonly due to local relief on
the sample and this variation should be eliminated by rejection of reading where the pairs of values
do not match closely.
Measurements may be made on all of the vitrinite found in the sample, or on specific maceral sub-
groups, or even individual macerals. This last is most common where very low rank coals are
measured and the corpocollinite may provide the most stable indicator of rank. Brown et al (1964)
suggested that restriction of measurements to vitrinite A (in effect the component now referred to as
telovitrinite) would increase precision and this is now followed in some procedures where
measurements are restricted to collotelinite.
2.4.5.3.2 RANDOM MEASUREMENTS BUT WITH POLAR
Some laboratories use a polar in the light train but do not rotate the stage in order to find the
maxima. The results are usually reported as Rrandom but compared with the more normal method
of measuring this show a higher dispersion of values. This is because the values recorded can range
from the true maximum to the true minimum.
2.4.5.3.3 RANDOM REFLECTANCE
This is measured without a polar in the light train. The stage is not rotated. Values obtained should
range from close to the true maximum (sections parallel with bedding) to half the sum of the true
maximum and the true minimum (for sections perpendicular to the bedding). The range is probably
slightly greater because the opaque illuminators all impart a degree of polarization to the beam of
incident light.
The variation obtained is not as great as that in the method outlined in 7.3.2 but is greater than that
for maximum reflectance. Variation due to difference in grain orientation increases markedly with
increasing rank and is severe for coals within the anthracitic range of rank.
A number of estimators have been published for converting random reflectance to maximum
reflectance or vice versa. Neavel et al (1981) on the basis of studies on US coals that:
% Rmax  1106%
. Rrand  0.024 (8)
Diessel and McHugh (1986) suggest for Australian coals:
% Rmax  1.07% Rrand  0.01 (9)
Authors of these formulae seldom present the error measures for the correlations found.
Additionally, while the correlations exist within the data used, they may prove to be poor predictors
for data sets from different geological provinces.
2.4.6. HISTOGRAMS
Histograms are a convenient method of presenting reflectance data. They can be used to examine
type variation within the vitrinite of single coals and can be used to detect blends of coals of
different ranks. The usual interval used to present histograms is 0.05%, sometimes referred to as a
half V-step. It is important to note that where a class interval of 0.05% is used, single coals may be
bimodal. With some coals of Mesozoic age, trimodal histograms are not uncommon from a single
oriented block of coal. This property is a function of the extent of type variation within the vitrinite.
Complete separation of the modes should not occur with single coals.
The number of readings necessary to provide a stable histogram is much greater than that needed to
obtain a stable mean. With a range of about 0.25% in vitrinite being common, 100 readings is only
marginally sufficient to provide stable numbers in each histogram category. For blends, the number
of readings is much greater again, and may exceed 250 depending upon the number of reflectance
categories distinguished.
Histograms appear to have been used first in 1961 by Cook in Brown et al (1964) to demonstrate
type variations within vitrinite. Dow (1977) has argued that histograms can be used as primary
method of identifying first generation vitrinite. In practice, it is not possible to identify zones
within a histogram as representing any given maceral in the absence of qualitative data on the
morphological characteristics of the fields measured. The main situation where histograms are of
real value is where cavings populations represent a problem. Even here it is desirable to pick
cavings on the basis of lithological associations rather than on an arbitrary pick of where the
envelope of the indigenous population appears to end.
Identification of the population of first generation vitrinite is of critical importance and should be
made at the time of measurement rather than from a data review. Thus, a small number of
reflectance measurements made on undoubted first generation vitrinite by examining whole rock
samples yields more accurate data than large numbers of poorly characterized measurements made
on organic matter concentrates.
Hunt (1979, p468) comments on the rise of standard deviation with reflectance. However, his data
probably relate to the use of random reflectance data measured without the use of a polar on organic
matter concentrates. Mean maximum vitrinite reflectance values on whole rock samples are much
more precise than Rrand at higher ranks and while the standard deviation of mean maximum
vitrinite reflectance does increase with rank it does not show the logarithmic increase shown by
Hunt.
A few workers float coal grains from cutting samples and measure the floated grains. The floated
grains may be cavings or in some cases mud additive or other types of contaminant. This procedure
is not recommended.
2.4.7 UNUSUAL TYPE EFFECTS
The presence of bitumens or alginite can yield anomalously low vitrinite reflectance values and
most other measures of coalification are also affected. Careful choice of a full suite of samples can
usually minimize or eliminate these problems. Cook and Sherwood (1988, 1990) have shown that
most other techniques also give anomalous data where high contents of alginite are present and
similar anomalies can be expected for bitumen rich samples. For example, in a suite of oil shales,
Tmax correlates best with H/C atomic ratio and therefore with alginite content rather than with the
level of maturation. Petrographic techniques are probably the most robust for this type of sample,
because experienced petrologists are able to note the presence of the alginite or bitumen and steps
can then be taken to find samples which are free of these components. Recent claims concerning
the ability of fluorescence methods to provide a method of correcting for anomalously low vitrinite
reflectances remain to be fully tested.
Within brown coals, type variation can exercise a considerable effect on vitrinite reflectance. Most
commonly this is thought of as being variation between collotelinite or its precursors and
collodetrinite and its precursors. However, some major variations in wood types are present within
some coals especially those of Mesozoic or Tertiary age. A note should be made where unusual
tissue types are present. The root tissues of some species and most leaf tissues tend to have
reflectances that are anomalously low.
Vitrinite reflectance data can be used to produce well profiles or maps and fence diagrams. Maps
may be of reflectances at a nominated stratigraphic horizon or the depth to a specified reflectance
level. It is also possible to construct three-dimensional reflectance surfaces though the amount of
data required to yield reliable three dimensional surfaces is much greater than that required for two-
dimensional mapping of reflectance.
2.5 CARBONIZATION
“Normal” coalification takes place under confining pressure and at relatively slow rates of heating.
Where unusually high heating rates occur due to the presence of an adjacent igneous mass
coalification processes are accelerated. The properties of organic matter that has been affected by
contact alteration differ from those associated with normal coalification. The products of contact
alteration show some affinities with the products of artificial carbonization as in the processes of
charring, coking and calcining.
Low rank organic matter becomes charred and tends to retain textural features associated with low
rank coals even though reflectances may be up to about 3.0%. Charred materials have low
bireflectance and high polishing hardness. These properties can be useful to distinguish material
that is a response to contact alteration as opposed to the products of “normal” or regional
coalification.
Medium rank organic matter can take on the properties of cokes. Where alteration takes place under
shallow cover, the natural cokes can develop vesicles, but if it occurs under thick cover, natural
cokes lack vesicles. Natural cokes can be isotropic but more typically show a distinct to pronounced
mosaic structure (Figures 2.2 and 2.3). Natural cokes show extremely high bireflectances.
FIGURE 2.1 PLATES OF COALS AND THE CONVERSION TO ARTIFICIAL SEMI-COKES.

MOST OF THE TEXTURES FOUND IN THE TWO RIGHT HAND PHOTOGRAPHS CAN BE
FOUND IN NATURAL COKES.
Exsudatinite is a response to coalification through the low rank part of the oil window. With normal
coalification, it appears that exsudatinite is lost at a vitrinite reflectance of about 0.70 to 0.80%.
Meta-exsudatinite has been recognised but it appears to be confined to sections that have undergone
contact alteration. The Bukit Assam coal in S Sumatera contains meta-exsudatinite with a
reflectance of about 2.4% in the semi-anthracitic coal. The lower rank surrounding coal contains
“normal” exsudatinite with low reflectance and distinct fluorescence, but unpublished work (T.
Gilbert and the present author) showed that extracts of the exsudatinite contain 1-dienes, usually
taken as an indicator of pyrolysis.
Figure 2.4 shows a medium rank Permian coal from NSW that contains abundant meta-exsudatinite
with a reflectance markedly above that of the associated vitrinite – 1,24% compared with 0.92%.
Although the coal is of moderate rank, the presence of the meta-exsudatinite is considered evidence
of some contact alteration. Similar examples have been found of meta-exsudatinite in the Tertiary
of Gippsland Basin and it occurs only in sections with igneous intrusions.
FIGURE 2.2. Mesophase development in natural bitumen, E Jawa, Eocene. Contact alteration is due
to hot gas streaming as there are no igneous rocks in the section drilled. the spherical masses are
mesophase (Rmax 2.8%) Embedded within a mesostasis of material (Rmax 2.0%) that would all
be converted to coke mesophase had heating continued. Field width 0.22 MM.
FIGURE 2.3. Natural coke. Little Limestone coal, Visean, Carboniferous, Northumberland, UK..
Semicoke maximum reflectance 2.5%, even medium mosaic. Field width 0.18 mm.
If contact alteration occurs once coals have reached the top end of the range for coking coals, the
altered coals have very high bireflectances.
FIGURE 2.4. MEDIUM RANK PERMIAN COAL, NSW. THE VITRINITE HAS A
REFLECTANCE OF 0.92%. VEINS OF META-EXSUDATINITE (R=-1.24%) ARE PRESENT
INDICATING THAT THE SECTION HAS UNDERGONE CONTACT ALTERATION. FIELD
WIDTH 0.22MM.
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Appendix. Glossary
Bioclast - fragmentary material derived from plants or animals. Phytoclast refers specifically to plant derived material
and is related to the term phyteral proposed by G.H. Cady for plant fragments.
Bitumen - (a) Geological/mineralogical usage. A generic term applied to natural inflammable substances of variable
colour hardness, and volatility, composed principally of a mixture of hydrocarbons substantially free from
oxygenated bodies. Petroleums, asphalts, natural mineral waxes, and asphaltites are all considered bitumens.
(b) Geochemical usage. The fraction of organic matter in rocks which is soluble in mild solvent such as carbon
tetrachloride. In this usage the organic matter is then divided into soluble (bitumen) and insoluble (kerogen)
fractions.
The two usages in general refer to different kinds of occurrences of oil-related organic matter. Most bitumens have
a high solubility in weak organic solvents but some are relatively insoluble. See also kerogen and organic matter.
Bituminous - term for coals of medium rank (Mean maximum vitrinite reflectance 0.6% to 2.0%). Coals of this rank
typically have a high yield of bitumens when treated with mild organic solvents and have been termed bituminogels
as opposed to coals of lower rank that have been termed hydrogels.
Brown coal - brown to black coal of low rank (Mean maximum vitrinite reflectance <0.50%). The term is generally
used in Europe, Australia and Great Britain for coals of low rank. In the ECE classification it has been replaced by
the term "low rank".
Detrovitrinite - vitrinite having an origin from small degraded fragments of plant tissue. The fragments are typically
hypautochthonous in origin and the prefix "detro" does not necessarily imply a detrital origin, most detrovitrinite
being attrital in origin. Most detrovitrinite is perhydrous with hydrogen content lying above the average for
vitrinites. Analogous terms, vitrinite B, desmocollinite and translucent attritus.
Dom - dispersed organic matter. Fragments of organic matter, typically derived from plants (higher plants or algae)
dispersed within rocks having a high content of mineral matter. With increasing contents of dom a gradual
transition to shaly coal and coal occurs.
Fluorescence mode - reflected light illumination normal to the sample by short wavelength light (UV/violet /blue) with a
barrier filter (typically green) to permit the examination of the secondary emission from fluorescing components.
ICCP - International Committee for Coal and Organic Petrology. A Committee formed to standardise nomenclature for
organic petrology. The Committee function by way of three Commissions. Commission I has oversight of
nomenclature and analytical methods. Commission II work in areas related to dispersed organic matter and
Commission III on applications of coal petrology to industrial processes using coal. ICCP runs an accreditation
program for analysts.
Inertinite - a maceral group in which most of the macerals have been derived from woody tissue by charring (forest fire
fusinite) or by low temperature alteration to structures which contain less hydrogen than vitrinite and have some of
their oxygen more firmly bound. The group also includes primary forms such as primary fusinite (from higher
plants) and funginite (from some types of fungi). Micrinite also belongs to the inertinite group and at least in part
is formed during maturation by disproportionation reactions which yield oil (hydrogen-rich) and micrinite (rich in
carbon).
Kerogen - originally used to describe the organic matter in oil shales that gave rise to kerosene on retorting, the term is
now used for the insoluble residue from organic matter after extraction with a mild solvent. Tissot and Welte have
recognised 4 kerogens types (initially 3) based on elemental analyses plotted on a van Krevelen diagram (H/C
atomic against O/C atomic). Type I kerogen has a high H/C ratio and a low O/C ratio. Vitrinite plots in the Type
III kerogen field and Type IV kerogen was introduced to allow inertinite rich organic matter to be included. As
bulk determinations of elemental composition are used, it is not possible to distinguish mixtures. The components
of mixtures will have certain properties (especially the yield of hydrocarbons) which are only weakly related to
average compositions. Rock-Eval data are also used to attempt to determine kerogen type. Early attempts to use
HI and OI have largely been abandoned because it is recognized that the OI value is very unreliable. An alternative
has been to plot HI against Tmax. This is commonly used to estimate kerogen type and vitrinite reflectance but the
results are indicative rather than definitive.
Liptinite - maceral group term including hydrogen-rich organic matter derived from spore and pollen coats, cuticles, parts
of bark tissue, resins and algal remains. Liptinite has a higher content of aliphatic compounds as compared with
the other maceral groups. The use of the stem “lip” relates to the term lipids. This is unfortunate because most
liptinite is not related to the group of compounds included in the term lipid. The earlier term was “exinite” derived
from “exine” and related mainly to sporinite and cutinite but not to other macerals such as resinite and suberinite.
Thus, the name for this maceral group was changed from one unsuitable word to another unsuitable word.
Lignite - A brownish-black coal intermediate in coalification between peat and sub-bituminous coal (US terminology).
Lopatin model - coalification/maturation model based on the assumption that the rate of coalification rate doubles for
every 10oC rise in temperature and is linearly related to the time during which a unit occupies any given
temperature interval. The model produces a function known as the time/temperature integral which has been
correlated with vitrinite reflectance. The basic model does not take account of differing rates of reaction for
various types of organic matter or of changes which occur in reaction types over the range of maturation levels.
Functions to take account of these variations have been included in some modifications of the basic model.
Macerals - microscopically resolvable organic constituents comprising coal. The term was introduced by Marie C.
Stopes in 1935 and is intended to show the analogy between macerals in coals and minerals in other types of rocks.
Maturation - a concept used as a measure of the extent to which the original organic matter within a sediment has been
transformed into oil or gas or both. The further concepts of oil and gas windows are an essential part of maturation
theory.
Organic matter - the total amount of organic matter within a rock. Organic matter occurs as discrete entities (macerals),
true solution within pore water, colloidal solution, as free liquid hydrocarbons and as bitumens which are absorbed
on to or in mineral grains. The vast majority of organic matter in most rocks occurs as macerals. The term kerogen
is used by some authors to imply total content of organic matter but its use should be restricted to that fraction
which is insoluble in mild solvents.
Organic matter type - a measure of the types of organic entities present. Type can be measured in terms of maceral
composition, entities seen in transmitted light, or using chemical composition, in terms of kerogen type.
Organic sulphur - sulphur that is chemically bound to organic molecules. It is determined by measuring total sulphur and
subtracting the sum of pyritic sulphur + sulphate sulphur.
Palynomorph - microscopic, resistant-walled organic body found in palynologic maceration residues; a palynologic study
object. Palynomorphs include pollen, spores of many sorts, acritarchs, chitinozoans, dinoflagellate thecae and
cysts, colonial algae with organic tests, and other acid-insoluble microfossils.
Rank - term originating in the commercial side of the coal industry and now used as a measure of the degree of
physico-chemical coalification. Rank change is a response to elevated temperatures acting over long periods of
time. Pressure may have a slight retarding effect upon the rates of reactions. Coalification to the ranks of
bituminous coal and semianthracite occurs at temperatures generally below 200oC. It is essentially a metamorphic
process but, in part, occurs over the range of P,T conditions associated with processes referred to as diagenesis.
Rank is essentially the same concept as level of organic maturation. Common measures of rank are vitrinite
reflectance, total carbon (dry mineral matter free basis). Volatile matter yield is also used but is unreliable where
the yield is above about 30%.
Reflected white light - the form of illumination used for vitrinite reflectance measurements and for general observations
of the humic macerals (vitrinite and inertinite). Some resolution of mineral matter phases is also possible. The
light source is typically a quartz halogen lamp. A weak blue filter is required to give normal "white" colour
balance.
Resinite - a liptinite maceral derived from higher plant resins. Resins occur in a number of different settings including
wood, leaves and surrounding damage to woody tissue. The purpose of most resins appears to make plant tissues
less edible by insects and fungi. Many terpanes are derived from resins but hydrocarbons derived from resin have
very wide range of structures including bicyclic and monocyclic naphthenic molecules and a range of polycyclic
aromatic compounds. Resinite is thought to become oil mature at low levels of rank but to give either a naphthenic
or aromatic oil.
Rvmax - see vitrinite reflectance.
Sporinite - a liptinite maceral formed from the exines or, less commonly, the entines of spores and pollens from plants.
Sporinite is derived largely from sporopollenin which has a naphthenic structure and as such is unlikely to
contribute significantly to the paraffinic compounds that are dominant in most oils.
Telovitrinite - vitrinite derived from woody or leaf tissue which has retained much of its original morphology.
Telovitrinite is orthohydrous to subhydrous. See also detrovitrinite.
Terrestrial - material deposited on "dry" land. In terms of organic matter it is usually taken to distinguish between higher
plant material and algal sourced organic matter. However, some higher plants (such as mangroves) live in standing
water and those such as Zostera (a sea grass) cannot live in areas which are not permanently flooded and some
algae live in areas which are predominantly dry. The term is, nevertheless commonly used to make a distinction
between different floral assemblages.
Terrigenous - material derived from the land surface. In terms of organic matter this includes both higher plants and algal
sourced organic matter from lakes.
UV light - in the context of fluorescence mode microscopy, the 365 nanometre line of mercury, usually obtained using a
UG1 excitation filter.
Vitrinite - maceral group derived from woody, leaf or related tissue. During early diagenesis the precursors of vitrinite
become extensively hydrolysed and repolymerize as humic and fulvic acids. During maturation water is expelled
and a turbostratic structure develops within the aromatic part of the vitrinite. Gelification is variable during the
peat stage but as maturation proceeds gelification becomes more intense leading to a massive structure. Vitrinite
occurs in coals and as dom. In most coals vitrinite acts as a mesostasis within which the other macerals occur. At
low ranks, vitrinite is easily deformed and has the properties of a rheid. Rheidity is lost at anthracitic rank.
Vitrinite is usually the most abundant maceral group in coals but Tertiary coals are unusual in having very high
proportions of vitrinite. Vitrinite classification was revised in 1994 and the new system is referred to as “Vitrinite
Classification, ICCP System 1994”
Vitrinite reflectance - the amount of light reflected by a plane polished surface of vitrinite when illuminated with a beam
of light with a ray path which is perpendicular to the surface. In practice the light usually is in the form of a
semicone. Standard measurement conditions are in immersion oil of refractive index 1.518 and at a wavelength of
546 nanometres (mercury green line). Immersion oils only have an RI of 1.518 at 23oC +/-2oC. If polarized light
is not used the reflectance is commonly referred to as Rm. If polarized light is used the maximum reflectance
should be found in any section regardless of orientation as vitrinite approximates the behaviour of a negative
uniaxial material. Mean maximum reflectance is calculated from the means of the maxima obtained and is referred
to as Rvmax. Rvmax should not be confused with the maximum of the range of reading found for any given
sample. Use of polarized light reduces the dispersion of readings as compared with Rm, as Rm for any given field
in a grain mount of randomly oriented grains, is approximately given by Rmax + Rapparent min)/2 and Rm for the
sample is given by 2Rmax + Rmin /3. Thus, dispersion of values due to the bireflectance increases the dispersion
caused by type variation. Some vitrinite clearly depart from a uniaxial indicating surface but Rint is usually close to
Rmax so that in practice measuring Rvmax gives a stable rank and maturation sensitive measure.
APPENDICES.
TABLE A2.1. MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS IN RELATION TO VITRINITE
REFLECTANCE
SAMPLE REQUIREMENTS
SAMPLE PREPARATION
OPTICAL PARAMETERS MEASURED
PRECISION
MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE
INFORMATION IN VITRINITE REFLECTANCE DATA
LIMITATIONS AND COMPLICATIONS
A. LIMITATIONS
B. COMPLICATIONS
1. REFLECTANCE BELOW "TREND"
2. REFLECTANCE ABOVE "TREND"

TABLE A2.2. SAMPLE REQUIREMENTS FOR VITRINITE REFLECTANCE
TYPICAL - 20 GMS OF SAMPLE
MEASUREMENTS CAN BE MADE ON

A. HAND PICKED FRAGMENTS - MINIMUM SIZE APPROX 10 MILLIGRAMS
B. GRAINS OF VITRINITE WITHIN SAMPLE - MINIMUM WEIGHT
FOR 25 MEASUREMENTS, APPROX 3X10-15 GRAMMMES.
PRECISION
PRECISION RISES WITH:-
A. SAMPLE SIZE
B. SAMPLE REPRESENTIVITY
COAL SAMPLES TEND TO YIELD MORE PRECISE DATA THAN DISPERSED ORGANIC
MATTER BECAUSE TYPE VARIATION CAN BE MORE ACCURATELY IDENTIFIED.
AT 25 READINGS FOR MOST SAMPLES THE STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN IS LESS
THAN THE STANDARD ERROR OF MEASURING THE STANDARDS AND ADDITIONAL
"PRECISION" FOR THE MEAN IS SPURIOUS.
AT 100 READINGS, THE HISTOGRAM CATEGORIES ARE NOT "STABLE". IF STABLE

HISTOGRAMS ARE REQUIRED, BETWEEN 100 AND 200 READINGS ARE REQUIRED.
IN GENERAL, MORE INFORMATION IS OBTAINED BY NOTING VITRINITE TYPE AND

ASSOCIATIONS THAN BY COMPUTING HISTOGRAMS. HISTOGRAMS HAVE THEIR MAIN
VALUE IN DEFINING THE PROPERTIES OF POPULATIONS THAT HAVE ALREADY BEEN
CHARACTERIZED ON OTHER GROUNDS (MORPHOLOGY AND ASSOCIATIONS).
TABLE A2.3. METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

SAMPLE PREPARATION
A. WHOLE ROCK SAMPLES AND COALS - TEXTURAL INFORMATION PRESERVED. SOME
DIFFICULTY IN LOCATING ORGANIC MATTER IN "LEAN SAMPLES. EASIER TO IDENTIFY
MACERALS WHEN MATERIAL IS FOUND.
B. DEMINERALIZED SAMPLES PREPARED AS STREW MOUNTS - TEXTURAL INFORMATION

LOST AND THE MORE READILY FLOATED MATERIALS SUCH AS LIPTINITE. MACERALS
MUCH MORE DIFFICULT TO IDENTIFY. READINGS EASIER TO OBTAIN BUT NOT ALWAYS
CLEAR WHAT IS BEING MEASURED.
OPTICAL PARAMETERS
A. WITH POLARIZER IN LIGHT TRAIN (IN 45o) POSITION.

A1. WITH ROTATION OF STAGE RMAX IS MEASURED
A2. WITHOUT ROTATION RRANDOM.
B. WITH NO POLARIZER IN LIGHT TRAIN (THE ILLUMINATORS WILL ALWAYS GIVE SOME
ELLIPTICAL POLARIZATION OF THE INCIDENT BEAM). RANDOM REFLECTANCE IS
MEASURED - Rm.. Note: the Rm obtained without a polarizer is not the same as that
obtained with a polarizer in the light train.
Rvmax SHOWS LESS DISPERSION AS COMPARED WITH Rm FOR ANY GIVEN SAMPLE. THE
DISPERSION FOR Rm TENDS TO INCREASE MORE MARKEDLY THAN THAT FOR Rvmax AT
HIGHER REFLECTANCES. USE OF THE POLAR PERMITS MEASUREMENT OF
BIREFLECTANCE. THIS HELPS IN DISTINGUISHING VITRINITE (MODERATE TO HIGH
BIREFLECTANCE) FROM INERTINITE (LOW BIREFLECTANCE) AND ASSISTS IN PICKING
THERMALLY ALTERED SEQUENCES (USUALLY ANOMALOUSLY LOW BIREFLECTANCE).
TABLE A2.4. INFORMATION IN REFLECTANCE DATA

MEAN
DISPERSION - STANDARD DEVIATION OR RANGE (OR BOTH)
HISTOGRAM - THIS GENERALLY HAS LITTLE UTILITY WITHOUT A DESCRIPTION OF
THE VITRINITE MEASURED
DESCRIPTIONS SHOULD ALSO BE PROVIDED OF:
1. ROCK TYPE(S)
2. FOR CUTTINGS, CONTAMINANTS
3. MACERAL DESCRIPTIONS
4. A RECORD OF THE TYPE OF VITRINITE FOR EACH FIELD MEASURED
5. SPECIFIC RECORD OF THE PRESENCE OF BITUMENS AND OIL CUT AND OF THE
MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF BITUMENS

TABLE A2.5. LATER DEVELOPMENTS
1. DETECTORS
A. PHOTON COUNTERS (FIRST INTRODUCED ABOUT 1978 BY US STEEL)
B. DIODE DETECTORS
C. CHARGE COUPLED DEVICES - CAMERA PHOTOMETERS
CAMERA PHOTOMETERS MAY WORK IN SPOT MODE (CRAIC SYSTEM) OR IN FIELD MODE
(HILGERS) SYSTEM.
2. AUTOMATED SYSTEMS
A. AUTOMATIC STAGE SYSTEMS WITH VARIOUS METHODS OF "IDENTIFYING"
VITRINITE" - ONLY SUITABLE FOR COALS
B. IMAGE ANALYSERS WORKING IN FIELD MODE AND WITH FULL PIXEL COUNT
(TYPICALLY 425,000+ PER FIELD). PLUMBICON TUBE GIVES POTENTIALLY
ABOUT 256 GREY LEVELS. IN PRACTICE DETECTION LEVELS ARE
STRONGLY AFFECTED BY SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS AND EVEN FOR
COALS DETECTION IS AFFECTED BY BOUNDARY EFFECTS AND BY
POLISHING DEFECTS.
C. DIGITAL CAMERA – PIXEL COUNTS GENERALLY HELD AT ABOUT 1.3
MEGAPIXELS.
3. OPTICS – DISTINCT IMPROVEMENTS. BUT RELIANCE ON ELECTRONICS CAN MAKE

THEM LESS RELIABLE THAT PURELY MECHANICAL SYSTEMS.
4. DATA ACQUISITION
A. INTERFACES AND EDITING PRESENTATION ROUTINES.
5. ACCREDITATION OF ANALYSTS BY ICCP.

TABLE A2.6. LIMITATIONS AND COMPLICATIONS

A. LIMITATIONS
1. HIGHER PLANTS ARE LARGELY DEVONIAN AND LATER. IN PRACTICE GRAPTOLITES

CAN BE USED FOR MOST OF THE LOWER PALAEOZOIC AND ALGINITE AND BITUMENS
HAVE BEEN USED SUCCESSFULLY FOR SOME CAMBRIAN AND PRECAMBRIAN
SEQUENCES.
2. BARREN SEQUENCE OR RELATIVELY BARREN SEQUENCES

a. RED BEDS - NOT ALWAYS BARREN, CHECK.
b. SOME LIMESTONES ESPECIALLY REEF LIMESTONES, BUT THERE MAY BE
BITUMENS PRESENT AND STYLOLITES SHOW CONCENTRATIONS OF
ORGANIC MATTER
c. SOME SANDSTONES
d. DISTAL MARINE SEQUENCES - MAINLY INERTINITE BUT THIS GIVES AN
INDICATION OF THE HIGHEST Rvmax POSSIBLE.
3. SYSTEMATIC DIFFERENCES ARE PRESENT BETWEEN VITRINITE REFLECTANCE DATA
FROM COALS AND FROM DOM IN THE INTERSEAM STRATA.
4. SIDEWALL CORES ARE TYPICALLY SHOT ON GAMMA HIGHS AND USUALLY SHOW MUCH
LOWER VITRINITE REFLECTANCE VALUES COMPARED WITH SEDIMENTS WITH LOWER
GAMMA READINGS AND COMPARED WITH COALS.

TABLE A2.6. COMPLICATIONS
COMPARED WITH THE "AVERAGE" TREND (THE TREND FOR A CONTINUOUS SEQUENCE
OF COAL SEAMS) Rvmax MAY BE EITHER ABOVE OR BELOW TREND. THIS TENDENCY CAN
BE ESTIMATED FROM OBSERVATIONS MADE DURING THE MEASUREMENT SEQUENCE
A. BELOW TREND
READINGS WITH BELOW-TREND VALUES ARE COMMONLY WRITTEN UP AS SUPPRESSED
VITRINITE. THIS IS UNFORTUNATE BECAUSE LOW READINGS CAN BE DUE TO AT LEAST 6
ENTIRELY DIFFERENT CAUSES, EACH REQUIRING DIFFERENT CONSIDERATION.
1. VITRINITE TYPE - DETROVITRINITE, PRESENCE OF SUBERIN-TYPE TISSUE OR RESINS,

MESOPHYLL TISSUE
2. EDAPHIC CONDITIONS - EARLY PEAT CONDITIONS CAN INFLUENCE REFLECTANCE,
SEVERE EFFECTS ARE UNCOMMON
3. PRESENCE OF ORGANIC SULPHUR (CHANGES ELECTRON DENSITY OF AROMATIC
STRUCTURES)
4. PRESENCE OF ALGINITE
5. PRESENCE OF BITUMENS WITH PERMEATING MODE OF OCCURRENCE
6. IMPREGNATION WITH OIL
NOTE: IF BITUMINITE OR SUBERINITE IS INCORRECTLY REPORTED AS VITRINITE,

RESULTS WILL BE MUCH TOO LOW.
IT MAY BE POSSIBLE TO CORRECT FOR SOME OF THESE EFFECTS – IN ORDER:

1. AVOID THE LOW REFLECTING TISSUES AND REPORT THEM SEPARATELY.
2. COMMONLY A PART OF A COAL SEAM WILL SHOW “NORMAL” REFLECTANCES, WITH
THE LOW REFLECTANCES BEING RESTRICTED TO THE TOP OR THE BASE.
3. USUALLY NOT POSSIBLE TO MAKE A CORRECTION FOR THIS EFFECT.
4. IF SAMPLES ARE AVAILABLE WITH VARYING ALGINITE CONTENTS, A CROSS PLOT CAN
BE MADE. EXTRAPOLATION BACK TO ZERO ALGINITE GIVES A GOOD APPROXIMATION TO
A “NORMAL” VALUE.
5. DIFFICULT TO CORRECT, BUT USUALLY SOME ZONES WILL BE LESS AFFECTED BY
BITUMENS.
6. AGAIN, SEARCH FOR SAMPLES LACKING STRONG OIL CUT.
SOME ALGINITE-RICH SAMPLES CONTAIN TWO POPULATIONS REFERABLE TO VITRINITE.

WHERE THIS IS THE CASE THE HIGHER REFLECTING POPULATION APPEARS TO SHOW
LITTLE INFLUENCE FROM THE PRESENCE OF ALGINITE.
TABLE A2.6. COMPLICATIONS (CONTINUED)
B. ABOVE TREND
1. REWORKING - MOST LIKELY IN SOME LACUSTRINE AND MOST MARINE SEQUENCES;

DETECTED BY POLISHING RELIEF, GRAIN SHAPE AND FORM OF BOUNDARIES AND
TEXTURAL RELATIONSHIPS
2. ANOMALOUS VITRINITE IN SANDSTONE - SOME VITRINITES HAVE HIGH REFLECTANCE
BUT ARE DISTINCTIVE BY THE PATCHY APPEARANCE, CELL STRUCTURE AND HIGH
BIREFLECTANCE
3. DOMINANCE OF HIGHLY REFLECTING TELOVITRINITE
NOTES
A. REWORKED VITRINITE IS MUCH LESS COMMON AN OCCURRENCE THAN COULD BE

CONCLUDED FROM SOME SETS OF RESULTS. IF A HIGH READING IS OBTAINED, THE
MOST LIKELY CAUSE IS THAT IT REPRESENTS INERTINITE NOT REWORKED COAL.
NEVERTHELESS REWORKED MATERIAL IS IMPORTANT IN SOME SECTIONS.
B. THE RELATIONSHIP OF EACH READING TO THE LIKELY "TREND" VALUE CAN BE

ESTIMATED AT THE TIME OF MEASUREMENT BUT CANNOT BE DETERMINED FROM A
HISTOGRAM IN THE ABSENCE OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION.
TABLE A2.7. REPRODUCIBILITY DATA FOR SIX COALS
SAMPLE # 237 52 140 191 141 270
GROUP STANDARD DEVIATIONS 0.035 0.041 0.052 0.033 0.034 0.04
MMSD - MEAN MULTIPLE OF THE STANDARD DEVIATIONS [(X-XBAR)/SD] FOR

35 ANALYSTS: 0.733 – very close to theoretical value
MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION (6 samples, 35 analysts): 0.039
APPROXIMATE AVERAGE ERROR LEVEL MEASURE (MMSD*MEAN SD) FOR

ALL ANALYSTS:  0.0286%
NUMBER OF ANALYSTS HAVING AVERAGE ERRORS WITHIN 0.039% ABSOLUTE OF THE

GROUP MEANS: 31
APPROXIMATE AVERAGE ERROR LEVEL FOR ACCEPTABLE DATA SETS:  0.0257%
APRIL 2011

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ICCP Training Course on

Wednesday September 7- Friday September 9, 2011,

2.4.4.1 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF VITRINITE AND THEIR

2. ORGANIC PETROLOGICAL METHODS

2.1 EARLY STUDIES

provides invaluable supplementary information to vitrinite reflectance. An excellent recent

2.2 LATER DEVELOPMENTS

Although coal petrological methods were developed initially as a form of scientific

2.3 PETROGRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER

Recognition of type is commonly traced back to the definition of lithotypes in coals by

TABLE 2.1. BIOCHEMICAL COALIFICATION

INITIAL MATERIAL PROCESS RESPONSE

Plant material HUMIFICATION PEAT*___>BROWN COAL*

2.3.2 THE MACERAL CONCEPT

2.3.3 THE MACERAL GROUPS

VITRINITE LIPTINITE (FORMERLY EXINITE) INERTINITE

TABLE 2.2. MACERAL GROUPS, SUB-GROUPS, MACERALS AND SUB-MACERALS

MACERAL GROUP MACERAL SUBGROUP MACERAL MACERAL TYPE

TABLE 2.3. ILLUSTRATION OF MACERAL GROUPS AND SOME MACERALS

Telovitrinite with R vmax

Detrovitrinite with R vmax

Semifusinite and inertodetrinite

Cutinite and resinite in Miocene

TABLE 2.4. ILLUSTRATION OF VITRINITE SUB-GROUPS

VITRINITE Telovitrinite with R vmax

R vmax 4.6% Partially

TABLE 2.5. ILLUSTRATION OF INERTINITE MACERALS

TABLE 2.6. ILLUSTRATION OF LIPTINITE MACERALS

Cutinite and resinite in

2.3.3.1 THE VITRINITE GROUP

Distinguishing features of vitrinite

Secondary fluorescence is believed to be due to the presence of bitumen-related compounds that

ORIGIN OF VITRINITE GROUP MACERALS

Within vitrinites it is possible to distinguish:

Secondary fluorescence may be more a function of a decrease in permeability than an indication of

2.3.3.1.1 TELOVITRINITE SUBGROUP

Shape and size:

Colour and reflectance:

At low rank, autofluorescence is common in telovitrinite. It tends to be preferentially associated

Distinction from other macerals:

Macerals within the telovitrinite subgroup

2.3.3.1.2 DETROVITRINITE SUBGROUP

Shape and size:

Colour and reflectance:

Distinction from other macerals

Macerals within the detrovitrinite subgroup

2.3.3.1.3 GELOVITRINITE SUBGROUP

Gelovitrinite forms a third subgroup of macerals. Material referred to gelovitrinite is presumed to

In most coals, gelovitrinite is a minor component of the total vitrinite.

Macerals within the gelovitrinite subgroup

2.3.3.2 THE LIPTINITE GROUP

Distinguishing features of liptinite

TABLE 2.7. CHEMICAL AFFINITIES OF THE LIPTINITE MACERALS.

NAPHTHENIC PARAFFINIC AROMATIC

LIPTODETRINITE ALGINITE BITUMINITE (but includes a large

SECONDARY MACERALS AND BITUMENS

EXSUDATINITE BITUMENS SUCH AS IMPSONITES AND EPI-

Suberinite is difficult to distinguish as a separate component in non-coaly rocks unless it is

Liptodetrinite represents mechanically or biochemically degraded liptinite that has no recognisable

2.3.3.3 THE INERTINITE GROUP

2.4. COAL RANK - PHYSICO-CHEMICAL COALIFICATION

2.4.1 PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH RANK CHANGE

Plant material HUMIFICATION PEAT___>BROWN COAL