Fundamentals of Radial Plotting

Radial plotting is based on some well-known principles of

mathematics and surveying. In the following text, some useful
properties which are made use of in plotting maps from vertical
photographs by the radial line method are dealt, which the topic
Radial Plotting itself is being dealt in Chapter 26. It will . however,
be assumed in case of vertical photography, that the aircraft
maintains the constant speed and height of flight A tilt o f less than
3° will be considered as not, affecting the condition o f vertical
photography. The fundamental properties are:
1. In vertical photography with no relief all points on the
photographs are radial from the principal point.
2. In vertical photography with relief, height displacement of objects
are radial from the plumb point .
3. In tilted photographs with relief or no relief, tilt distortions are
always radial from the isocenter.
4. In tilted photographs with relief, height distortions are radial from
the plumb point while tilt distortions are radial from the isocenter.
The expressions for height and tilt distortions in terms of given data
are also mathematically derived.

1. To preve that in vertical photography with no relief, all points on

the photograph are radia1 from the principal point.
Let AB be a ground plane and CD the photo plane; 0 is the position
of perspective centre o f the camera lens; p and P photo principal
point and ground principal point respectively, M and N are i two
objects on the ground p1 ane making an angle MPN at the ground
principal point, m and n are the images of M and N as they appear
on the photograph.
It is required to prove that the points m and n are radial from the
principal point i.e. ∠𝑚𝑝𝑛 = ∠𝑀𝑃𝑁.
Proof: Since it is a case o f vertical photography, plane CD is
parallel to the ground plane AB. Since it is cut by the plane PNO at
pn in the plane CD, pn will be parallel to PN and similarly pm is
parallel to PM.
i.e. objects on the photograph are radi ai-from the principal point. In
case of vertical photography, the principal point and the plumb point
coincide.

2. To show that in vertical photography · with relief, height

distortions of objects on the photograph are radial from the plumb
point .
Height Distortion
(a) In Fig. 24 .S let O be the position of perspective centre of the
camera lens XX' and YY' be the positions of photograph and ground
line respectively. AB is a chimney projecting above the ground .
The images of the top and bottom points A and B of the chimney
will be at points a and b on the photograph.
Now though the point A is vertically above the poi nt B its image
instead of coinciding with the image of point B at b on the
photograph, is displaced at a on photograph. This displacement of
the point a on the photograph from its true position due to the height,
is known as height displacemeniy_ah _therefore is the height
displacement. The image of the point A on the photograph is exactly
the same as that of ground point A' .
It will be seen, that the displacement of the point due to height is
away from the principal point which coincides with the plumb point.
If instead of elevated object like the chimney AB, there had been a
projection downward like the bore hole CD, it will be seen that the
displacement of the point C on the photograph due to depression is
towards the plumb or the principal point, i .e. c is displaced· towards
the side of the plumb point v.
(b) Height distortion are radial from the plumb point. Since the
height displacement is in a vertical plane, the error ab on the pho􀁽o
will be radial from the plumb point which in this case coincides with
the principal point. In other words, because plane such as A' OV
which contains AB, wiU cut the plane of the photograph in lines
radiating from the plumb point.
(c) Expression for magnitude of height distortion
In Fig. 24. 8 . let
O = position of the lens
f = focal length of the camera lens 0-----height-of the---airera-ft-
above-mean sea level
H = height of the chimney above M.S.L.
v = photo plumb point
V = ground plumb point
AB = an elevated object (say chimney)
D1 = distance of the object B from the plumb point
ab = height distortion

i.e., the height displacement is proportional to the distance of the

image of the elevated points from the plumb point (or the principal
point) and to the ratio of the height of the object to the flying height
when there is no tilt.
Example 5. Hf the image of the hill top appeared at a radial distance
of 10 ;m from the principal point of a photograph whose flying
height is 5000 metres, find on the photograph the displacement of a
point 300 metres vertically beneath the hill top assuming no tilt.
The image of the required point is therefore at a distance of 0.6 cm.
from the image of top in the direction of the principal point.
3. To show that in tilted photographs with relief or no relief, tilt
distortion is always radial from the isocenter and to determine its
magnitude.
Tilt Distortion
Case of tilt distortion with no relief.
A photograph is said to be tilted when the principal axis of the
camera at the instant of exposure makes an angle with the true
vertical.
It may be defined as the difference between the distance of the
image of a point on the tilted photograph from the isocenter and the
distance of the image of the same point on the photograph from the
isocenter if there had been no tilt.
In Fig. 24.9 let,
v = Photo-plump point of a truly vertical photograph which in this
case coincides with its principal point p.
v1 = Photo-plumb points of a tilted photograph i.e., where the plumb
line through the perspective centre of lens intersects the plane of
tilted point.
a, b, c, d = Position · of the images of the ground points A, B, C and
D (fanning say a square), which they would have occupied on a
photograph if there were no· tilt.
a', b', c;, d' = Positions of the images of the same ground points A, B,
C, and D on the photograph which they now occupy when there is a
tilt.
Then aa' , bb', cc' , dd' are according to the definition the tilt
distortions for the points ar b, c, and d respectively. So also RR' and
SS' are tilt distortions of the points R and S along the principal line.
o = perspective centre of the lens
f = focal length of the camera lens
𝜃 = angle of tilt
p = photo-principal point of a truly vertical photograph
p' = photo-principal point of a tilted photograph
i = isocenter
piv = principal line of a truly vertical photograph
a = angle which the direction from i to · the image point say C'
makes with the direction of the principal line
a wi ll be considered as +ve in direction of plumb point at the
isocenter and - ve in direction of principal point.
P1iv1 = principal line of a tilted photograph
4. To prove that tilt distortions are radial from the isocenter
If it be proved that LCiS = LC'iS', it proves the relation that tilt
distortions are radial from the isocenter . Produce SiR' to meet the
horizontal line through O at Q making LOQS' =B.
i.e. CC ' is radial from the isocenter
i.e. tilt distortion is radial from the isocenter
Expression for tilt distortion . First let us find an expression for tilt
distortion SS' for point lying on principal line.
This is an expression fo r tilt distortion for a point lying on the
principal line.
Now if C is a point outside the principal line making an angle a with
the principal line the projection of iC ' on the principal line is iC' cos
a. Hence substituting iC' cos a for iS' in equation. (1) above we
obtain Z' on the principal line equal to,
Therefore tilt distortion on a line included by an angle a to the
principal line Z" (CC') on the included line will be expressed by,
When 𝜃 the tilt .is small, the expression iC ' cos a sin O is very small
and may be neglected.
radians . Note a is measured from iR anticlockwise up to iS when its
value in 180° .
Effect of tilt distortion on a square figure. Assuming the property
that in tilted photographs with no relief, all points on the photograph
are radial from the isocenter, it will be interesting to study the effect
of tilt on the shape of a square (s ay) on the photograph. In Fig. 24 .9
it will be noticed that abed is the square which is the image of four
ground points A, B, C, D forming also a square when there is no tilt.
Due to tilt, the figure square becomes distorted to a trapezium a' b' c'
d'. i1ii2 is the isometric parallel . · It will be seen that the're . . . is no
distortion along this parallel, and is therefore called line of zero
distortion. Other useful deductions are :
1. Scale along the parallel through P1 goes on decreasing as the
distance a way increases.
2. Scale on the side containing plumb point goes on increasing as the
distance away increases .
3. Scale along the iso metric parallel is constant and is equal to f/ H.
4. All points to the right of the line i1ii2 are moved inwards along
rays from the isocenter.
5. All points to the left of the line iiii2 are moved outwards along
rays from the isoc;ntre.
6. Tilt distortion is greatest for points far away from the centre in the
direction of tilt.
7. Tilt distortion depends on the magnitude and direction of tilt.

Alternative proof for case of tilted photograph with no relief (Ref.

Fig. 24.10) .
The same notations have been used as in the previous case. is the
principal line of horizontal negative and p1iv1 is that of the tilted
negative. The amount of tilt being 𝜃. S is the image of ground point
on negative if it were horizontal; while S' is the position of image of
the same ground point when there is a tilt.
The tilt distortion is therefore according to the definition equal to:
This is the amount of tilt distortion for points which lie on the
principal line. · If the object does not lie on the principal line .. but
along a line making an angle a· at the isocenter,- so--as to. -lmve -Hs
image at C1 , it is clear that JC cos 11., will be the ' projection of iC1
along the principal line. Substituting therefore IC1 cos IX fo r IS ' in
equation (1) above, we get the expression for component of ti lt dis􀁽
tortion along the principal line (Z1 ) say
The value of a may raJ1 ge from zero when along the principal line
ip 1 to the value of · 180° measured anticlockwise w11en it
coincides along iS '.
Now JC' is not small fo r a value of 7. of say about 4 °, therefore (/C
')2 is quite large .. If 0 is very small /C ' sin tJ is negl igible in
comparison to f a nd (/C')2 sin O while sin 0 = 8 we have therefore ·
. f ll ·1 CC . (IC')2 0 . . s· I I ·1 tilt d1stor t 10n or sma ti ts 1 = . r· c
cos 'l... lll11 ar y, ti t . . z (' ')2 distortion fo r any oth􀁽r point b on
the principal line wil l b e -2: = t􀁽')2•
To determine an expression for the coordinates x and y measure d
along 'the photo principle centre as ori gin, in case of tilted
photograph with no relief, in terms o It will be seen from fo rm ula
fo r tilt distortion
. .,.., C , cos a sin 0 h . • d b Le. t.., = o+ (JC') . a·--- t at tts magn1lu
C ca n e coin.- } · cos a sm u puted if the distance of the image point
C 1 fr om the isoccntre namely JC ' is known. Th is distance
measured directly fr om the photograph on small scales may invo]ve
errors􀁽 it is pre ferable to compute .length from the two coordinates
x and y with principal po int as or igin instead of isocenter (the error
due to this assumpt ion is deal t wi thin next article) and computing
its length as equ al to v' x'? +y2 , The value of coordinates x and y
will be in terms of terrestri:::l l coordinates of corresponding ground
points X and Y wh ich r1 re as sumed to be known.
In Fig. 24. 1 1 let A be the object o n the ground whose coordinates
from ground- principat--point - as--ori-gin,- me-asur-ed---along _the
prjncipal line and perpendicular to it be X and Y respectively. M is
the foot of the perpendicular from A on ground principal line.
𝜃 = tilt of the photograph = L VOP.
op = fqcal length of the camera lens.
O = perspective centre of camera lens.
AB = ti1ted plane of photograph.
CD = ground plane ,
p and P = photo pri ncipal point . and ground principal point
respectively.
vpm = photo principal line._
VPM = ground principal line.
H = height of the aircraft above . mean ground level.
The image of ground point A on photograph will be at a. Join OM to
cut the photo-principal 'line vpm at m.

In case of tilted photographs with relief, there is no common point

from which a point suffering from both distortions, the height and
tilt distortion, may be considered as radial. In such cases the map
position of the image is obtained by computing first the amount of
tilt d istort ion and sh i fting it to its correct position. assuming tilt
distortions :ire radial from the isocenter, and then separately
cornputing the amount of height distortion and shifting it to its
correct position assuming height distortions are radial from the
plumb point. The · positions of the photo-plumb point v, photo-
principal point p, photo-isocenter i are located by computing from
the following relationships,
This will be made clear from the following illustrative example:
Example 6. An image a1 of a top of a hill appears on the higher side
of a tilted photograph as shown in the figure. Its photo .. coordinates
with respect to the principal point p are x = 3 ems, y=4 ems, tilt t =
2° 40'. The object is 1000 metres above sea level. Focal length f 8
ems and the flying height is 1 5,000 metres. Find the equivalent map
position of the point a1 at sea level vertically beneath the object.
In Fig. 24. 12, a1 is the position of the image when it is suffering
fr"om tilt and height distortion. We have
Due to height the point a'i. has been shifted outwards radially along
the pluinb point. Hence its true map position will be a3 where a2a3=
0.355 ems placed towards the plun1b point. Hence, finally aa is the
correct map position after it is free from tilt and height distorm tions.
4. Effect of assumption that in tilted photograph with relief, height
distortion is radial from the principal point . instead of the plumb
point.
in Fig. 24.13 let,
O=Perspective centre of camera lens.
H= Height of aircraft.
f =Focal length of the lens.
AB = Photo plane.
CD= Ground plane.
𝜃 =Angle of tilt.
p, P=Photo-principal point and ground principal point.
ZZ' =An elevated object say a chimney.
h = Height of ch imney.
v, V = Photo plumb point and ground plumb point.
𝛼 = Angle which the bottom of chimney makes with the principal
Jine at V.
𝛽= Angle which the direction of height distortion zz' makes with
photo principal line at vp,
The image of the bottom of chimney Z is at z on the photograph :rnd
that of the 1op of chimney Z' is dispraced at z' such that z' z when
produced passes t hrough v, i .e., height distortion due to tilt is radial
from the pl umb point.
Now assuming height distor1ion is radial from the principal point
instead of the plum:15 point, Join z'p and produce-iHo,n-- making
z'v=z'm Through z draw zz" parallel to vm,
zz" is the error of position due to the above assumption.
This is maximum when p coincides with m when the maximum
value of error in position due to principal point assumption for
height distortion = f tan 𝜃× h/H.
Effect o f assumption that tilt distor.tions are radial . from. principal
· point instead o f isocenter. It was shown in earlier text that in
vertical · photograph height distortions are radial from the plumb
point, which in this case coincides with principal point. In case of
tilted photograph, the difficulty arises due to the fact that whereas tilt
distortions are radial from the isocenter, height distortions are radial
from the plumb point.
For basis of plotting there should be one point either the plumb point
or the principal point from which height and tilt distortions may be
ass_umed ·as radial. As regards plumb point, it is very difficult to
locate .on the photograph.
Since the principal point is marked on the photograph and its
position can easily be obtained by joining the fiducial marks photom
graphed on the photograph, the point of intersection being the
position of the principal point, it is found convenient to adopt
principal point as the basis of plotting. . So that for plotting
purp.oses it will hereafter be assumed tJ;rat tilt and height distortions
are r􀁽dial from the principal point. The error involved in this
assumption for standard military scale of 1/25,000 and for tilt of 2°
or less, is within permissible limits.

1. (a) What are the properties of isocenter in a tilted photo= graph?

Prove each of them. Also derive an expression for 'tilt displacement'
in photographs. ;
(b) Compute the image disp]acement relative to an untilted photo=
graph if the focal length of camera lens is 1 52.4 mm, tilt 3 . degrees
and the image is 1 20.3 mm from the isocenter measured along the
principal line, in the direction of plumb point. 5. 1 8 mm.
2. If the tilt in an aerial photograph taken with a camera having a
focal length 1 32.5 mm, from a flying height 2900 1netres is 3
degree., show how the scale varies along the principal line . .
3. (a) Show that the height displacements in photographs are radial
from the plumb. point. Derive an expression for height ·di spl--a
cemeats in 11h0tegr-aph-s.
(b) An image of a hill top is 87.5 m m from the centre of a
photograph. · The elevation · of the hill is 665 metres and the flight
altitude 4660 metres from the same datum . How much is the image
displaced due to the elevation of the hill?
4. The flying height for a vertical photograph of a city area was 1
700 metres and the focal length of the camera lens was 20.80 ems.
The distances measured from the centre of the photograph to the
images of the bottom a nd top of a radio tower were found to be 6.92
ems and 7.85 ems respectively. Compute the height of the tower.
5. The centre stripes on a mountain road are alternate 3 metre white
stripes and 5 metre unpainted spaces. In an area that is at an
elevation of 880 1netres, the distance on a vertical photograph
between the. beginning of one white stripe . and the beginning of the
26th stripe measures 1 2 m m. ' In a higher area the distance on the
same photograph between the beginning of one white stripe and the
beginning of the sixteenth white stripe measures 8.1 mm. The
camera focal length is 205 mm. What is the elevation of the higher
area?