. . Karplus CHAPTER VII SAMPLING AND QUANTIZING - THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS 7.1 The Basic Problem In true hybrid computer systems, analog hardware is connected in a closed loop with digital hardware. At some point in the system it is there- fore necessary to translate data in analog form into a form compatible with the requirements of the digital circuitry; and at another point in the system, digital information must be converted into analog form. Data in the analog portion of the hybrid system are processed in the form of continuous DC voltages, the magnitudes of the voltages at any instant of time corresponding to the magnitudes of the dependent variables. In the digital portion of the hybrid loop, the dependent variable as well as the independent variable must be discretized, so that data are represented only at discretely spaced instants of time and are permitted to assume only one of a limited number : of amplitude levels as determined by the word-length. The basic steps involved in translating data from analog form to digital form and then back to analog form are illustrated in Figure 7.1 and include the following: ' 4 1. Sampling: the continuous analog variable is measured at discretely ee spaced intervals of time, and attention is limited to the magnitude of the data at those instants, Information as to excursions of the dependent variable between successive sampling instants is discarded or lost. 2. Quantizing and coding: the amplitude of each sample, usually an electrical voltage, is translated into a binary code using a specified number of significant figures. The variable is thereby forced to assume one of a mited number of levels or quanta, Information regarding the precise location of the dependent variable between quantization intervals is discarded or lost 3. Digital processing: the sampled, quantized, and coded data are manipulated in the digital portion of the hybrid system in accordance with a ai prescribed program,4, Decoding: the sampled, quantized, coded data are translated —_———___ into voltage form, such that each binary number is represented by a voltage pulse with an amplitude corresponding to that number. 5. Holding and filtering: the series of pulses is converted into a continuous analog sign@l by means of an extrapolating device which uses the signal velues at the sampling instants to construct a continuous voltage signal. In order to focus attention on the problems associated with the inter- faces between the analog and the digital portions of hybrid systems, it is assumed in the subsequent discussion that the digital processor does not affect the data in any way. This unit can be considered, for example, to be merely a digital memory which reads out a sequence of binary numbers identical to those previously read-in. The analog voltage output in Figure 7.1 should then be identical, except for a shift in time, to the analog voliage input, and any difference between these two continuous voltages can be ascribed to errors introduced by the conversion equipment. Clearly the operations of sampling and quantizing involve the loss or discarding of infor- mation inherent in the analog input and can be expected to contribute errors. Departures from the "ideal" in the decoding, the holding and the filtering units can be expected to compound these errors. _Instinctively, one would be tempted to expect that these errors could be reduced by reducing the length Of the sampling interval so that more samples are employed to represent the continuous signal, and by reducing the quantization interval so that more significant figures are employed in the digital representation. snaoe ment ccovensron niorratnatee comenszon — —~——— a vasa [RS] se [GE] me vanes || mos {gine pseoine es | Be so ects] Some [ray at tee FIGURE 7.1 OGUnfortunately, the present state of knowledge of the theoretical foundations underlying sampling and quantizing, does not permit the rigorous 1 and digital~analog conver: derivation of the errors inherent in analog-di sion. Nonetheless, a consideration of some of these theoretical concepts provides an insight into the role and relative importance of certain hybrid- system design-parameters in assuring accurate closed-loop operation. In this chapter, errors introduced by sampling are first considered. This is followed by a consideration of the specification of equipment to permit accurate desampling or conversion into analog form. In Section 7.4 the errors introduced by quantizing are briefly considered, while Section 7.5 is devoted to the problem of holding. More detailed information regarding these topics is to be found in References 1, 2,3. 7.2 Sampling The purpose of the sampling unit in the hybrid computer loop is to measure the values of the dependent variables at discretely spaced intervals of time, These data are then coded or translated into binary form and constitute the information fed into the digital portion of the hybrid system. In its most basic form, the sampling mechanism can be viewed as a simple switch, as shown in Figure 7.2. This switch is closed periodically at sampling instants T, 2T,...nT, where T is the sampling interval; the switch remains closed for a short interval of time y. A continuous analog signal applied to the input of the sampler therefore results in a series of approximately rectangular pulses whose amplitudes correspond to the input Seer where the analog signal controls the amplitude of a pulse train p(t). The pulse width 7 should be sufficiently small so that a negligible change in the analog signal takes place while the switch is closed. Thus, if the input to the sampler of Figure 7.2 is an analog signal f(t), the output is described by the relation Sampled fen Lee) eS rt) =D stat) [ wen) - utt-nt-n)] SE (.) n=0 Se 1-3