DC Regulated Power

Supply
INTRODUCTION

Almost all basic household

electronic circuits need an

unregulated AC to be converted to

constant DC, in order to operate

the electronic device. All devices

will have a certain power supply

limit and the electronic circuits inside these devices must be able to supply a constant

DC voltage within this limit. This DC supply is regulated and limited in terms of voltage

and current. But the supply provided from mains may be fluctuating and could easily

break down the electronic equipment, if not properly limited. This work of converting an

unregulated alternating current (AC) or voltage to a limited Direct current (DC) or

voltage to make the output constant regardless of the fluctuations in input, is done by a

regulated power supply circuit.

Unregulated Power Supply Diagram

All the active and passive electronic devices will have a certain DC operating

point (Q-point or Quiescent point), and this point must be achieved by the source of DC

power. The DC power supply is practically converted to each and every stage in an

electronic system. Thus a common requirement for all these phases will be the DC

power supply. All low power system can be run with a battery. But, for a long time

operating devices, batteries could prove to be costly and complicated. The best method
used is in the form of an unregulated power supply –a combination of a transformer,

rectifier and a filter. The diagram is shown below.

As shown in the figure above, a small step down transformer is used to reduce the

voltage level to the devices needs. In India, a 1 Ø supply is available at 230 volts. The

output of the transformer is a pulsating sinusoidal AC voltage, which is converted to

pulsating DC with the help of a rectifier. This output is given to a filter circuit which

reduces the AC ripples, and passes the DC components. But here are certain

disadvantages in using an unregulated power supply.

Disadvantages of Unregulated Power Supply

1. Poor Regulation – When the load varies, the output does not appear constant. The

output voltage changes by a great value due to the huge change in the current drawn

from the supply. This is mainly due to the high internal resistance of the power supply

(>30 Ohms).

2. AC Supply Main Variations – The maximum variations in AC supply mains is give

or take 6% of its rated value. But this value may go higher in some countries (180-280

volts). When the value is higher it’s DC voltage output will differ largely.

3. Temperature Variation – The use of semiconductor devices in electronic devices

may cause variation in temperature.

These variations in dc output voltage may cause an inaccurate or erratic

operation or even malfunctioning of many electronic circuits. For instance, in oscillators

the frequency will shift, in transmitters output will get distorted, and in amplifiers, the

operating point will shift causing bias instability.

All the above-listed problems are overcome with the help of a voltage

regulator which is employed in conjunction with an unregulated power supply. Thus,

the ripple voltage is largely reduced. Thus, the supply becomes a regulated power

supply.

The internal circuitry of a regulated power supply also contains certain current

limiting circuits which help the supply circuit from getting fried from inadvertent

circuits. Nowadays, all the power supplies use IC’s to reduce ripples, enhance voltage

regulation and for widened control options. Programmable power supplies are also

available to allow remote operation that is useful in many settings.

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

Regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to provide a constant dc

voltage of predetermined value across load terminals irrespective of ac mains

fluctuations or load variations.

A regulated power supply essentially consists of an ordinary power supply and a

voltage regulating device, as illustrated in the figure. The output from an ordinary power

supply is fed to the voltage regulating device that provides the final output. The output

voltage remains constant irrespective of variations in the ac input voltage or variations

in output (or load) current.

Limitations

An ordinary D.C. power supply has the following drawbacks:

 The D.C. output voltage changes directly with input A.C. voltage. For instance, a

5% increase in input A.C. voltage results in approximately 5% increase in D.C.

output voltage.

 The D.C. output voltage decreases as the load current increases. This is due to

voltage drop in (a) transformer windings (b) rectifier and (r) filter circuit.

These variations in D.C. output voltage may cause inaccurate or erratic operation or

even mal-functioning of many electronic circuits. For example, in an oscillator, the

frequency will shift and in transmitters, distorted output will result. Therefore, ordinary

power supply is unsuited for many electronic applications and is being replaced by

regulated power supply.

Important Terms

For comparison of different types of power supplies, the following terms are

commonly used:

 Voltage Regulation

The D.C. voltage available across the output terminals of a given power supply

depends upon load current. If the load current 𝐼𝑑𝑐 is increased by decreasing 𝑅𝐿 , (See

Fig. 17.2), there is greater voltage drop in the power supply and hence smaller D.C.

output voltage will be avail-able. Reverse will happen if the load current decreases. The

variation of output voltage w.r.t. the amount of load current drawn from the power

supply is known as voltage regulation and is expressed by the following relation:

𝑉𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿
% 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉𝐹𝐿

where: 𝑉𝑁𝐿 = 𝐷. 𝐶. 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜 − 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

 𝑉𝐹𝐿 = 𝐷. 𝐶. 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 − 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

In a well designed power supply, the full-load voltage is only slightly less than no-

load voltage i.e. voltage regulation approaches zero. Therefore, lower the voltage

regulation, the lesser the difference between full-load and no-load voltages and better

is the power supply. Power supplies used in practice have a voltage regulation of 1% i.e.

full-load voltage is within 1% of the no-load voltage. Fig. 17.3 shows the change of d.c.

output voltage with load current. This is known as voltage regulation curve.

Note. The above voltage regulation is called load regulation because it indicates the

change in output voltage due to the change in load current. There is another type of

voltage regulation, called line regulation and indicates the change in output voltage due

to the change in input voltage.

 Minimum load resistance

The change of load connected to a power supply varies the load current and

hence the d.c. output voltage. In order that a power supply gives the rated output

voltage and current, there is minimum load resistance allowed. For instance, if a power

supply is required to deliver a full-load current 𝐼𝐹𝐿 at full-load voltage 𝑉𝐹𝐿 , then,

𝑉𝐹𝐿
𝑅𝐿(𝑚𝑖𝑛) =
𝐼𝐹𝐿
 Thus, if a data sheet specifies that a power supply will give an output voltage of

100V at a maximum rated current of 0.4A, then minimum load resistance you can

connect across supply is 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 100/0.4 = 250 Ω. If any attempt is made to decrease the

value of 𝑅𝐿 below this value, the rated d.c. output voltage will not be available.

Example 1. If the d.c. output voltage is 400V with no-load attached to power

supple but decreases to 300V at full-load, find the percentage voltage regulation.

Solution:

VNL = 400V; VFL = 300V

VNL −VFL 400−300

 % Voltage regulation = X100 = X100 = 33.33%
VFL 300

Example 2. A power supply has a voltage regulation of 1%. if the no-load voltage

is 30v, what is the full load voltage?

Solution: Let VFL be the full-load voltage.

VNL − VFL
%Voltage regulation = X100
VFL

30 − VFL
1= X100
VFL

VFL = 𝟐𝟗.𝟕𝐕

Example 3. Two power supplies A and B are available in the market. Power

supply A has no-load and full-load voltages of 30V and 25V respectively whereas these

values are 30V and 29V for power supply B. Which is better power supply?

Solution: That power supply is better which has lower voltage regulation.

Power supply A

VNL = 30V; VFL = 25V

 VNL −VFL 30−25
 % Voltage regulation = X100 = X100 = 20%
VFL 25

Power supply B

VNL = 30V; VFL = 29V

VNL −VFL 30−29

 % Voltage regulation = X100 = X100 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟓%
VFL 29

Therefore, power supply B is better than power supply A

Example 4. Fig. 17.4 shows the regulation curve of a power supply. Find a.)

voltage regulation and b.) minimum load resistance.

Solution. Referring to the regulation curve shown in Fig. 17.4, it is clear that:

VNL = 500V; VFL = 300V

𝐼𝐹𝐿 = 120𝑚𝐴 ; 𝑅𝐿(min) = ?

𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
a.) 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋100
𝑉𝐹𝐿

500−300
𝑋100
300

= 66.7%

𝑉𝐹𝐿 300𝑉
b.) 𝑅𝐿(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = = 120 𝑚𝐴
𝐼𝐹𝐿

= 2.5 kΩ

Example 5. In adding 1A to an existing 1A load, the output voltage of a power

supply drops from10.5V to 10V. Calculate (a) output impedance and (b) no-load voltage

of power supply.
 Solution: All practical power supplies always have internal impedance (often

called output impedance which is denoted by 𝑍𝑂 as shown in Fig. 17.5. It is given by the

ratio of change in load voltage to the corresponding change in load current i.e.

VL
ZO = IL

(a) Output impedance of power supply is

VL 10.5V − 10V

ZO = = = 𝟎. 𝟓Ω
IL 1A

(b) Now

VL
ZO = IL

VNL − 10.5
or 0.5 = 1A

 VNL = 0.5 x 1 + 10.5 = 𝟏𝟏𝐕

Transformer

A step down transformer is used to step down the voltage from the input AC to

the required voltage of the electronic device. This output voltage of the transformer is

customized by changing the turns ratio of the transformer according the electronic

device specs. The input of the transformer being 230 Volts AC mains, the output is

provided to a full bridge rectifier circuit.

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The FWR consists of 4 diodes which rectifies the output AC voltage or current

from the transistor to its equivalent DC quantity. As the name implies the FWR rectifies

both half’s of the AC input. The rectified DC output is given as input to the filter circuit.

Filter Circuit

The filter circuit is used to convert the high rippled DC output of the FWR to

ripple free DC content. A ∏ filter is used to make the waveforms ripple free.

In Short

The ac voltage, typically 230 Vrms is connected to a transformer which transforms

that ac voltage to the level for the desired dc output. A bridge rectifier then provides a

full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a ∏ (or C-L-C) filter to produce a dc

voltage. The resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation. A

regulating circuit use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that not only has much less

ripple voltage but also remains constant even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat or

the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. The regulated dc supply is

available across a voltage divider.

Often more than one dc voltage is required for the operation of electronic

circuits. A single power supply can provide as many as voltages as are required by using
a voltage (or potential) divider, as illustrated in the figure. As illustrated in the figure, a

potential divider is a single tapped resistor connected across the output terminals of the

supply. The tapped resistor may consist of two or three resistors connected in series

across the supply. In fact, a bleeder resistor may also be employed as a potential divider.

Power Supply Characteristics

There are various factors that determine the quality of the power supply like the

load voltage, load current, voltage regulation, source regulation, output impedance,

ripple rejection, and so on. Some of the characteristics are briefly explained below:

1. Load Regulation – The load regulation or load effect is the change in

regulated output voltage when the load current changes from minimum to

maximum value.

Vno-load refers to the Load Voltage at no load

Vfull-load refers to the Load voltage at full load.

From the above equation we can understand that when Vno-load occurs the

load resistance is infinite, that is, the out terminals are open circuited. Vfull-load

occurs when the load resistance is of the minimum value where voltage

regulation is lost.

2. Minimum Load Resistance – The load resistance at which a power supply

delivers its full-load rated current at rated voltage is referred to as minimum load

resistance.
 The value of Ifull-load, full load current should never increase than that

mentioned in the datasheet of the power supply.

3. Source/Line Regulation – In the block diagram, the input line voltage has a

nominal value of 230 Volts but in practice, here are considerable variations in ac

supply mains voltage. Since this ac supply mains voltage is the input to the

ordinary power supply, the filtered output of the bridge rectifier is almost

directly proportional to the ac mains voltage.

The source regulation is defined as the change in regulated output voltage for a

specified rage of lie voltage.

4. Output Impedance – A regulated power supply is a very stiff dc voltage

source. This means that the output resistance is very small. Even though the

external load resistance is varied, almost no change is seen in the load voltage.

An ideal voltage source has an output impedance of zero.

5. Ripple Rejection – Voltage regulators stabilize the output voltage against

variations in input voltage. Ripple is equivalent to a periodic variation in the

input voltage. Thus, a voltage regulator attenuates the ripple that comes in with

the unregulated input voltage. Since a voltage regulator uses negative feedback,

the distortion is reduced by the same factor as the gain.

SIMPLE CAPACITOR FILTER

A filter capacitor is a capacitor which

filters out a certain frequency or range of

frequencies from a circuit.

 Usually capacitors filter out very low frequency signals. These are signals that are

very close to 0Hz in frequency value. These are also referred to as DC signals.

How Filter Capacitors Work

How filter capacitors work is based on the principle of capacitive reactance.

Capacitive reactance is how the impedance (or resistance) of a capacitor changes in

regard to the frequency of the signal passing through it. Resistors are nonreactive

devices. This means that resistors offer the same resistance to a signal, regardless of the

signal's frequency. This means, for example, that a signal of 1Hz and a signal of 100KHZ,

will pass through a resistor with the same resistance. Frequency isn't a factor. However,

a capacitor is not like this. A capacitor is a reactive device. Its resistance, or impedance,

will vary according to the frequency of the signal passing through. Capacitors are

reactive devices which offer higher resistance to lower frequency signals and,

conversely, lower resistance to higher frequency signals, according to the formula XC=

1/2πfc.

Being that a capacitor offers different impedance values to different frequency

signals, it can act effectively as a resistor in a circuit. We will explain below how using

actual circuits.

Filter Capacitor Circuit to Block DC and Pass AC

Being that capacitors have offer very high resistance to low frequency signals

and low resistance to high frequency signals, it acts as a high pass filter, which is a filter

which passes high frequency signals and blocks low frequency signals.

Many times in a circuit, both DC and AC signals need to be both be used in a

circuit, at least at a certain stage of the circuit. However, at another stage, in the circuit,

we may only want AC signals and the DC taken out. An example of such a circuit is a

microphone circuit. We need DC as input to the microphone for it to be able to be

powered on and we need AC as input, which represents the voice signal or music, etc.

which we want the microphone to record.

How do we filter out the DC component of the signal?

We use a capacitor to filter out the DC signal.

We do this by placing the capacitor in series. In this configuration, which is the

circuit you see below, this is a capacitive high-pass filter. Low frequency, or DC, signals

will be blocked.

Usually, a 0.1µF ceramic capacitor, or value around that range, is placed after the

signal that contains both DC and AC signals. And this capacitor filters out the DC

component so that only AC goes through.

Filter Capacitor Circuit to Filter Out AC Signals

In the same way that capacitors can act as high-pass filters, to pass high

frequencies and block DC, they can act as low-pass filters, to pass DC signals and block

AC.

Instead of placing the capacitor in series with the component, the capacitor will

be placed in parallel.
 The above is a high-frequency capacitive filter. Remember that current takes the

path of least resistance. Since a capacitor offers very low resistance to high frequency

signals, high frequency signals will go through the capacitor. In this way, with the circuit

in this configuration, the circuit is a high frequency filter. Low frequency current signals

will not go through the capacitor, because it offers too much resistance to low

frequency signals. Only high frequency signals go through.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator is used to regulate voltage

level. When a steady, reliable voltage is

needed, then voltage regulator is the preferred

device. It generates a fixed output voltage that

remains constant for any changes in an input voltage or load conditions. It acts as a

buffer for protecting components from damages. A voltage regulator is a device with a

simple feed- forward design and it uses negative feedback control loops. There are

mainly two types of voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulators and switching voltage

regulators; these are used in wider applications. Linear voltage regulator is the easiest

type of voltage regulators. It is available in two types, which are compact and used in

low power, low voltage systems. Let us discuss about different types of voltage

regulators.
 Voltage Regulator

Types of Voltage Regulators and Their Working Principle

Basically, there are two types of Voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulator and

Switching voltage regulator.

 There are two types of Linear voltage regulators: Series and Shunt.
 There are three types of Switching voltage regulators: Step up, Step down and
Inverter voltage regulators.