Basics of Civil Engg (Ashok) - Notes - Unit 2 PDF

Batch: 2018 Year: I Sem: I Branch: ECE A Course Name: Introduction to Engineering Course Code: 16GET15R
NOTES FOR BASICS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Prepared by J.ASHOKKUMAR, Assistant Professor, Dr. Mahalingam College of Engineering

Technology, Pollachi.
UNIT-2 (SYLLABUS)
Super structure: - Vertical Components such as brick masonry walls, stone masonry walls and columns
– Horizontal components such as Beam, Lintels, sun shades – various types of roofs and floors.
Highway and Railway Engineering: - Importance of transportation networks-classification of
highways-Railway Engineering and its components- Classification of Bridges.
NOTES > Super structure--- The portion of a building above its plinth level or floor level is defined
as Super structure . It is the top portion of a building which transmits loads from its various
components to sub structure or foundation of a building .
The structural components of a building
1)FLOOR > The concrete laid at plinth level with surface finishing is called floor 1)BASEMENT > It
is the storey or floor of a building below ground level .This is not used for residence perpose. This is
generally used for car parking .
2)PLINTH > The surface level of ground floor of a building is called its plinth level.
3)FOUNDATION > The portion of a building below plinth level is called foundation of that building
of a building ie) its ground floor . Other floors above it are termed as first floor , second floor,third
floor etc
5)DAMP PROOF COURSE >A continuous layer of water proof material laid over the foundation at
plinth level of a building is called damp proof course .
6)WALLS &COLUMNS > It is the vertical component of a building used to transfer the load from the
super structure and its own weight into foundation .
7)LINTEL > It is the horizontal component of a building provided over the door and window openings
used to transfer the load from the super structure and its own weight into walls
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Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 1

8) BEAMS > . It is the horizontal component of a building provided at roof level over the walls or
columns used to transfer the load from the super structure and its own weight into walls.
9)ROOF > It is the horizontal component of a building provided at ROOF LEVEL over the BEAMS
used to transfer the load from the super structure and its own weight into BEAMS.
10)PARAPET WALL > It is a short wall provided over the top of roof of a building .
11)SUNSHADE > It is the horizontal component of a building provided at LINTEL LEVEL

projecting outside to act as a shade preventing entry of rain water , sun heat etc.
12) WEATHERING COURSE > It is the horizontal component of a building provided in the top of
ROOF LEVEL to protect the roof from sun ,rain etc.
Define the term: Ceiling height.
Ceiling height is defined as the vertical distance between the top surface of floor and the bottom
surface of roof in a building .
The minimum ceiling height shall be 2.75 meter in case of residential buildings and 3.3 meter in case
of non- residential buildings.
Differentiate Plinth area and Carpet area of a building ?
PLINTH AREA CARPET AREA
1. Multiplication of outer dimensions of a Multiplication of inner dimensions or floor

building at PLINTH LEVEL or Sill level of that is dimensions of a building is the CARPET AREA
called its PLINTH AREA. OF that building.
2. Available funds devided by prevailing Plinth 80% of proposed Plinth area of a building will
area rate will give the proposed building PLINTH give CARPET AREA of thatbuilding.
AREA
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The various loads acting on the components of a building
1)DEAD LOAD –Dead load is the self weight of the various components of a building .
2)LIVE LOAD-Live load is the external super imposed load on a structure .Live loads may be
a)uniformly distributed load
b) uniformly varying load
c)concentrated load
3) WIND LOAD .—Wind force is calculated and as it will act horizontally it is taken as a horizontal
VERTICAL COMPONENTS >

The parts of a building which are all vertical to plane surface are called vertical components of it.
All masonry walls, columns / pillars , doors and windows are the main vertical components of a
building.
Functions of masonry > 1. Masonry walls receives all loads coming from the structure through its
horizontal components like beams, roof etc .
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2. Masonry walls transmits the loads to the foundation and thus the load is finally safely transmitted to
the soil .
BRICK MASONRY WALLS

MASONRY > Art of construction of building units bonded together with mortar is defined as masonry.
The building units may be stones ,bricks, precast hollow blocks or concrete blocks. Masonry is
normally used for the construction of foundation basement walls, columns, load bearing walls and
partition walls and other similar structural components of buildings.
BRICK MASONRY WALLS > Art of construction of building using bricks bonded together with
mortar is called brick masonry .
1. BRICKS > Bricks are manufactured by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size, drying
them and burning in a kiln. There are two kinds of bricks , one is ordinary country brick of size 23cm
*11cm *7.5 cm and another one is modular brick of size 19 cm * 9 cm * 9 cm ,which are used for brick
masonry walls .
2. Mortar > Mortar is a homogeneous mixture of cement or lime with sand in suitable proportions.
In lime mortar the proportion is about 1:1.5 or 1:2 depending on the item of work. In cement mortar
the proportion is about 1:2 ,1 : 3 ,1 : 4 , 1: 5 , 1:6 depending on the item of work.
Definition of terms used in brick masonry
1. Course : A Course is a horizontal layer of bricks .
2. Header : The header is the short surface area of a brick. For an ordinary country brick the surface
having sides of 11 cm * 7.5 cm is called its header face.
3. Stretcher : The stretcher is the long surface area of a brick. For an ordinary country brick the
surface having sides of 23 cm * 7.5 cm is called its stretcher face.
4. Header course : A course of brick work showing only headers on the exposed face of a wall is
known as header course.
5. Stretcher course : A course of brick work showing only stretchers on the exposed face of a wall is
known as stretcher course.
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6. Bed : This is the lower surface of a brick or stone in each course.
7. Bond : An arrangement of layers of brick by which no continuous vertical joints are formed is
termed as bonds in Brick masonry.
8. Lap : The joints of beds of bricks in each course of brick wall ie., the horizontal joint is called as
Lap
9. Perpend : The vertical joints of bricks in each course of brick wall is called perpend ie the edges of
bricks with 7.5 cm measurement .
10 . Bat : A piece of brick of any size is called Bat.
11. Closer : It is the portion of a brick cut to a shape and size or otherwise half brick ,3/4 th portion of
a brick is called closer .
12. Queen closer : It is the portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick lengthwise into two equal
portions .
13. King closer : It is the portion of a brick which is cut at corner so that one side is half in breath wise
and another side is half in lengthwise .
14. Quoin : It is the corner of a brick wall which turns to 90 degree or more .
15. Frog : It is a depression on the top face of a brick which is used as a key for holding mortar.
Types of Bonds in brick masonry :
An arrangement of layers of brick by which no continuous vertical joints are formed is termed as
bonds in Brick masonry. English bond and Flemish bond are commonly used in a brick masonry.
The various bonds in brick masonry are detailed below.
Write any four bonds in Brick masonry with sketch
The following bonds are generally followed in brick masonry wall construction
1) In English bond, Stretcher and Header course are laid alternatively in the facing of wall. The
queen closer is placed next to the Queen header to break the continuity of the vertical joints. Each
alternative header is placed centrally over the stretches. In this bond great shill is not required.
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The mortar requirement will be less. Its appearance is not pleasing but for wall thickness more than
1 1/2 brick, English bond is more compact and strong .
2) In Flemish bond, in every course stretcher and headers are placed alternatively in each and
every layer.
The queen closer is placed next to queen header in alternative directions to break the continuity of
joints. This bond requires more skill and experience and more mortar will be required. This bond
gives a pleasing appearance, but for thicker walls it is comparatively WEAK.
3) IN STRETCHER BOND , BRICKS ARE LAID stretcher wise .
For compound walls and partition walls this type is followed.
4) In HEADER BOND BRICKS are laid header wise . For construction of compound walls this
type is adopted.
ENGLISH BOND ONE BRICK WALL – CORNER VIEW- PLAN
Flemish Bond 1 Brick Thick-CORNER VIEW- PLAN

The following other bonds are also followed for construction of brick masonry walls.
5) RACKING BOND : In this bond bricks are laid at an inclination to the direction of wall . The
racking course is generally provided between two stretcher courses. bricks are laid .This bond is
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suitable for thick walls. In this bond, there are two types a) Diagonal bond -Bricks are laid diagonally
. b) Herring bone bond – The bricks are laid at an angle of 45 degree to the face .
6) ZIG-ZAG BOND : In this bond the bricks are laid ZIG- ZAG manner. Used for construction of
brick floor.
7) GARDEN WALL BOND : This type of bond is used for construction of garden walls , compound
walls and boundary walls of one brick thick and height does not exceed two meters.
Comparison of English bond and Flemish bond :
Sl. No. English bond Flemish bond
1. Stretcher and header courses alternate Each course will be a combination

each other of headers and stretchers
2. For walls having 1 ½ bricks English For thicker walls it is comparatively

bond is more stronger and compact. weak.
3. Appearance is not pleasing Gives a pleasing appearance for

exposed faces.
4. Great skill is not required This bond requires more skill and
experience
5. Mortar requirement is less . Mortar requirement is more .
Points to be observed in the construction of Brick masonry >
1. The bricks should be soaked in water before use.
2. Size, dimensions and quality of bricks to be used for work should be checked .
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3. Before mixing the cement mortar , the quality of cement, sand and water to be used for work should
be checked.
4. Mortar to be spread uniformly over the bed in each course.
5. Sufficient mortar thickness to be provided in perpends of each course to form vertical joints .
6. A GOOD bond should be maintained throughout the work avoiding continuous vertical joints .
7. The brick wall should be raised uniformly.
8. Verticality should be checked for each course using plumb bob .
9. Using brick bats for the work should be avoided .
9. After construction , the brick wall should be kept wet for one or two weeks .
10. The height of masonry constructed in a day should be restricted to 1 meter , and single scaffolding
may be used for further heights.
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STONE MASONRY WALLS
Art of construction using stones is called stone masonry.
The stones are laid in layers and bonded with cement mortor .
It is a natural choice of masonry.
There are two types of stone masonry .They are A) Rubble masonry and B) Ashlar masonry.
A) Rubble masonry is classified into 1)Random rubble masonry > Rubble stones and bond stones are
laid in layers with alternative vertical joints .
a)Coursed rubble masonry > In this type stones are laid in courses such that each course is of same
height .
b)un Coursed rubble masonry > In this type stones are not laid in courses such that each course is of
different height . 2)Square
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rubble masonry > In this type stones are roughly squared by hammers and are laid in courses such
that each course is of same height ( coursed ) or different height( un coursed )
3) Polygonal rubble masonry > In this type stones are dressed in an irregular polygonal shape by
hammers and are laid in courses such that each course is of different height .
4) Flint rubble masonry > In ths type of rubble masonry, cobbles or flints which are of irregular shape
and hard ,but will broke easily such type of stones are used. The face arrangement may be coursed or
un coursed .
5. Dry rubble masonry > In this type of masonry mortar is not used in joints . Thi type of construction
is the cheapest and used for construction of non load bearing walls.
b) Ashlar masonry > > In this type stones are dressed in an regular , square and rectangular shape by
chisels and are laid in courses such that each course is of same height .There are five types.
1)Ashlar fine masonry >In this type the faces of stones are dressed finely with chisels and used for
work. This type is very costly. This type of masonry is mainly followed for temple construction works .
2)Ashlar rough tooled masonry >In this type the bed and sides of stones are dressed finely with chisels
and face is made rough using tools and used for work.
3) Ashlar rock or quarry faced masonry >In this type the bed and sides of stones are dressed finely
with chisels and face is made rough with a strip about 25mm wide around the perimeter of each stone
using tools and used for work.
4) Ashlar chamfered masonry >In this type the bed and sides of stones are dressed finely with chisels
and face is made rough with a strip about 25mm wide around the perimeter of each stone chamfered at
an angle of 45 degree using tools and used for work.
5) Ashlar block-in course masonry>This is a combination of rubble and ashlar masonry.
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 Coursed
 uncoursed
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1. ASHLAR FINE MASONRY
Differentiate brick masonry and stone masonry
S.No STONE MASONRY BRICK MASONRY
1 Art of construction using stones is Called stone Art of construction using bricks is Called Brick
masonry. masonry.
2 Cost of work is more. Cost of work is less
3 It requires more skilled labour . It requires less skilled labour.
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4 Due to the more weight of stones, machines are Due to less weight of bricks , it can be moved easily
required for lifting to more heights by manually .
5 Lifting Devices are required. Labours are required .
6 More mortar is required in joints. Less mortar is required in joints.
7 Stone masonry is stronger. Brick masonry is weaker.
8 Thinner walls are not possible. Thinner walls are possible.
9 Mortar joints are thick. Mortar joints are thin.
10 For finishing the face of masonry Pointing is

necessary. It may be flushed Pointing Or raised For finishing the face of masonry Pointing is is not
pointing according to place of work. necessary .
11 For finishing the face of masonry Plastering is not For finishing the face of masonry Plastering is
necessary . necessary
Write any four types of stone masonry.?
Art of construction using stones is called stone masonry.
The stones are laid in layers and bonded with cement mortor .
It is a natural choice of masonry.
Stone masonry is mainly classified as a) Rubble masonry and b) Ashlar masonry.
a) Rubble masonry > In this masonry roughly dressed rubble stones and bond stones are laid in
layers with alternative vertical joints .
b) Ashlar masonry > > In this type stones are dressed in an regular rectangular shape by chisels and
are laid in courses such that each course is of same height
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The following four types of stone masonry are commonly used in the field.
1. Random rubble masonry > In this type of masonry , the stones used are of widely different sizes .
This is the roughest and cheapest form of stone masonry .
In Coursed random rubble masonry , stones are laid in courses such that each course is of same
height .
In un Coursed random rubble masonry , stones are not laid in courses such that each course is of
different height .
2 ) Square rubble masonry > In this type stones are roughly squared by hammers and are laid in
courses such that rubble stones and bond stones are laid with proper bonding .
In coursed rubble masonry , stones are laid in courses such that each course is of same height .
In un Coursed rubble masonry , stones are not laid in courses such that each course is of different
height .
3 ) Ashlar fine masonry >In this type the faces of stones are dressed finely with chisels and used for
work. This type is very costly and is mainly used for construction of temples and other manument
works .
4) Ashlar rough tooled masonry >In this type the bed and sides of stones are dressed finely with
chisels and face is made rough using tools and used for work.
Finishing the surface of masonry >
PLASTERING is the process of covering rough walls and uneven surfaces in the construction of
structures with plastic material called plaster or mortar .
POINTING IS THE PROCESS OF applying cement mortar in horizontal and vertical joints of stones
and finishing neatly either flush or raised according to work place.
OBJECTIVES >1. Provide an even ,smooth, regular ,clear, and durable finished surface.
2. To improve the appearance.
3.To protect the surface from the effects of atmospheric factors like rain, wind, heat etc.
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4. To conceal the defective workmanship ,to cover up the inferior quality and porous materials and
joints in masonry.5. To provide a satisfactory face for white washing , color washing and distempering
.
Points to be observed in the construction of STONE masonry >
1. The STONES should be soaked in water before use.
2. Size, dimensions and quality of Stones to be used for work should be checked .
3. Before mixing the cement mortar , the quality of cement, sand and water to be used for work should
be checked.
4. Mortar to be spread uniformly over the bed in each course.
5. Sufficient mortar thickness to be provided in perpends of each course to form vertical joints .
6. A GOOD bond should be maintained throughout the work avoiding continuous vertical joints .
7. The stone masonry wall should be raised uniformly.
8. Verticality should be checked for each course using plumb bob .
9. Sufficient ston chips should be used in each course to avoid excess mortar for the work .
9. After construction , the stone masonry wall should be kept wet for one or two weeks .
10. The height of masonry constructed in a day should be restricted to 1 meter , and double scaffolding
may be used for further heights.
COLUMNS
COLUMN is a vertical component of a building which carrying vertical load coming from beams
and roof and transfer the load to foundation .
Types of columns > According to design, If Leff. Is < 12 then it is called short column and Leff.
Is > 12 then it is called Long column.
According to materials used ,The various types are,
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1. R.C.C. COLUMNS – Usually R.C.C. Columns are cast-in-situ type. They are constructed in square,
rectangular and circular shapes are generally used . Longitudinal or main reinforcement and lateral
reinforcement are provided according to design using steel rods .The concrete mix of 1:2:4, or 1:1.5:3
are poured into shuttering which is previously erected properly with steel reinforcement and is properly
cured for one or two weeks continuously. Generally used in building construction of multi storyed
apartments ,business malls etc.
2. STEEL COLUMNS – Various forms of steel sections such as I – Sections, L –Angles , Channels
and T- Sections are commonly used to erect steel columns. Generally used in Railway stations, bus
shelters and bridges.
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3.Brick pillars or columns >Hard ,well burnt ,copper colored, free from cracks bricks are used for
small heights and light loads .Usually adopted for porticos of residential house buildings up to one
storey.
4. Stone columns >> A simple dressed stone slab of greater thickness is used as columns to carry
loads from the roof ,generally used in temples.
5. Timber columns > The sound and hard timber wood like teak is used as columns to support the roof
.It is not generally used in nowadays except in hilly areas.
Horizontal components >
The parts of a building which are all horizontal to plane surface are called horizontal components of it.
All beams, lintels , sunshades, floors and roofs are the main horizontal components of a building.
BEAMS >
BEAM - Beam is the horizontal member of a structure, carrying transverse loads . Beam is
rectangular in section and transfers all the loads including its self weight to columns or walls. Beams
are made with R. C. C. and STEEL .Steel beams are adopted generally for Rail way stations, Bridges,
industries etc. R.C.C. beams are generally adopted for all buildings construction works.
R.C.C. Beams are subjected to bending moments, and shear. Due to vertical External load ,
bending compresses the top fibers of the beam and elongates the bottom fibers ie) tensile force.
The strength of R.C.C beam depends on the composite action of concrete and steel. According
to design, the sections of beams are singly reinforced, double reinforced, and T—BEAMS . Its
various types are,
According to the materials used for construction of beams they are classified as ,
1)Steel beams - Various forms of steel sections such as I – Sections, L –Angles , Channels and T-
Sections are commonly used to erect steel beams. Generally used in Railway stations, bus shelters
and bridges.
2) . Stone beams >> A simple stone slab of greater thickness is used as beams to carry loads from
the roof ,generally used in temples.
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3). Timber beams > The sound and hard timber wood like teak is used as beams to support the roof
.It is not generally used in nowadays except in hilly areas.
4) R.C.C. Beams >According to position they are broadly classified as below ,
a) Simply supported beam ----
It is a beam supported freely at two ends on walls or column.
b) Fixed beam
In this beam both ends of beam are rigidly fixed into the supports.
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c) cantilever beam:
It is fixed in a wall or column at one end and the another end is free.
4) over hanging beam> In overhanging beam its end extend beyond the well or column support
overhanging of the beam is the unsupported portion of beam . it may be one side or both sides of
support.
5) continuous Beam> It is supported on more than two supports. This beam is more economical for
any span.
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LINTELS > Lintel is a horizontal component of a building which is placed over the small openings
such as doors, windows, cupboards ,ventilators etc., to carry loads from the masonry above it.
Classification of lintels > 1. R.C.C. Lintels – Usually R.C.C. lintels are cast-in-situ type or in some
places precast lintels are also provided .They are constructed in square, and rectangular shapes
.Longitudinal or main reinforcement and lateral reinforcement are provided according to design using
steel rods .The concrete mix of 1:2:4, or 1:1.5:3 are poured into shuttering which is previously erected
properly with steel reinforcement and is properly cured for one or two weeks continuously.
Continuous lintel is generally used in building construction of multi storyed apartments
,business malls etc., at foundation level, plinth level , door opening top level and roof level .
2. STEEL Lintels – Various forms of steel sections such as I – Sections, L –Angles , Channels and T-
Sections are commonly used to erect steel lintels . Generally used in Railway stations, bus shelters
and bridges.
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3.Brick lintels >Hard ,well burnt ,copper colored, free from cracks bricks are used for small openings
with light loads .Usually adopted in arch shape in old days for porticos of residential house buildings
up to one storey.
4. Stone lintels >> A simple stone slab of greater thickness is used as lintels to carry loads from the
roof ,generally used in temples.
5. Timber lintels > The sound and hard timber wood like teak is used as lintels to support the
openings .It is not generally used in nowadays except in hilly areas.
SUNSHADES > Sunshade is a horizontal component of a building which is projected from the lintels
placed over the small openings such as doors, windows, ,ventilators etc., to safe guard the face of
building against the rain fall , sun heat etc and it acts as a cover to prevent the entry of rain eater
through the window openings of a building
Sunshade is designed as a cantilever slab and main reinforcement is placed on top surface to take
tension in top zone . Sunshades are placed as a simple projection from the lintel or a box type to cover
the entire four sides of windows or ventilators .
ROOFS > ROOF IS a horizontal component of a building provided in the uppermost part to act as a
cover against heat, sun ,rain fall and wind flow etc .Roof should be water proof , strong to withstand its
own weight and loads over it , made up of durable materials and provided with drainage of water with
pleasing appearance.
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Types of ROOFS > 1) FLAT ROOF > Flat roof is one which is either horizontal or or practically
horizontal with slope not exceeding 10 degree. There are two types ,
a. Madras terrace roof , > In this type teak wood joists are placed at suitable spacing over walls and a
course of specially prepared bricks are laid diagonally over the joists .Then a 10 cm. thick layer of
brick bat concrete is laid over it and finished with Madras flat tiles and top surface plastered with three
coats of lime mortar .This type of roof is not used in present days.
b. R. C. C . ROOF > Reinforced cement concrete slabs are becoming very common in the
construction of modern buildings. Simply supported singly or doubly reinforced concrete slabs are
commonly used. When the span is more ,Tee-beam with R.C. C. SLABS are used.
2) SLOPED ROOF > Sloped roof also called Pitched roof is one which is sloping either one way
or practically two ways with slope exceeding 10 degree. There are three types ,
a)Single roof or lean-to-roof > This is the simplest type of sloping roof ,in which rafters slope to one
side only .It is suitable for spans up to 2.5 metres .
b) Double roof or Purlin roofs .> This is the type of sloping roof ,in which rafters slope to both sides
and are supported by purlins rest over the walls .It is suitable for spans up to 5.5 metres .Couple roof ,
couple close roof connected by tie beam, and collar beam roof are few types of double roof.
c) Trussed roof > When the span of roof exceeds 5 meters and there are no intermediate supports to
support purlins Trussed roof is provided. King post truss and queen post trusses made up of wooden
posts, wooden rafters and purlins are generally used for spans up to 8 metre .These type of roof are also
called trussed roof . STEEL trusses made of steel angles , steel purlins and steel plates are generally
used for industries span over 8 metres.
Roof coverings over roof trusses
Roof covering is provided over the roof frame work ie., roof truss to resist entry of rain water and to
safeguard from sun heat and wind flow . The following materials are generally used as roof covering .
1. Thatch covering – bundles of straw over bamboo reapers
2. Plain Mangalore TILES –red in color, rectangular shape tiles .
3. Half round tiles – not in use nowadays .

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4. Asbestos cement corrugated sheets
5. Galvanized corrugated iron sheets
6. P.V.C. Corrugated color sheets
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REQUIREMENT OF GOOD ROOF >
1. It should give hard and smooth surface, FOR EASY DRAINAGE OF RAIN WATER.
2.It should have adequate strength and stability.
3. It should be damp resistance.
4. It should have good thermal insulation capacity.
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5. It should be durable and easy to maintain.
6. It should be fire resistant.
7. It should have an aesthetic look ie., beautiful look.
MERITS OF FLAT ROOFS >
1.The top of roof can be used as a terrace for playing, sleeping, and for celebrating functions
2. Construction and maintenance is easier.
3. It provides better architectural appearance to a building.
4. Flat roofs have better insulating properties ,
5. They are more stable against high winds.
6. In multi-storeyed buildings flat roof is the only choice ,since over head tanks are to be located over
the top of terrace .
7. The construction of upper floors can be easily done ,if required in future.
8. It can be easily made fire proof compared to sloped roofs.
DEMERITS OF FLAT ROOFS >
1. A FLAT ROOF can not be used for long spans without columns and beams.
2. In the areas of heavy rain fall or snow fall flat roofs are not suitable.
3. Due to greater variations in climate temperature , wide cracks may appear over the roof surface
which cannot be easily repaired .
4. Initial cost is more.
5. The speed of construction is slower than that of a pitched roof
FLOORS > FLOOR > The concrete laid at plinth level with surface finishing is called floor. In multi
storeyed buildings flooring are provided at different levels for the purpose of creating more
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accommodation within the limited space and is a horizontal component of a building. Here the roof
slabs will act as floor for subsequent storeys ,
Structurally a floor consist of two main components , one is sub-floor or base course and another one is
floor covering .According to use of materials for surface finishing of floor ,Various types are as
follows .
1.Mud and moorum flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected moist earth and
surface finished with a coat of mud or cement plaster .This type of flooring is generally used in ground
floor of unimportant buildings particularly in villages.
2. Brick flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected bricks on cement mortar and
surface finished with a coat of cement plaster .This type of flooring is generally used in ground floor
of buildings for warehouses ,stores , go -downs etc.
3. Stone flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected stones on cement mortar and
joints finished with cement mortar .This type of flooring is generally used in ground floor of
buildings for warehouses ,stores , go -downs , temples etc.
4. Cement concrete flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected cement concrete and
surface finished with cement mortar .This type of flooring is generally used in ground floor of
buildings for residential, commercial and industrial building .
5. Granolithic flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected cement concrete and
surface finished with cement granolithic concrete mix with stone chips .This type of flooring is
generally used in ground floor of buildings for school buildings , industrial building etc.
6. Mosaic flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected cement concrete and surface
finished with mosaic tiles .This type of flooring is generally used in the floor of all residential
buildings , hospital building etc.
7. Marble flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected cement concrete and surface
finished with marble stone tiles .This type of flooring is generally used in the floor of all residential
buildings , hospital building ,bath rooms etc.
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8. Granite flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected cement concrete and surface
finished with granite stone tiles .This type of flooring is generally used in the floor of all
residential buildings , hospital building ,bath rooms ,kitchens etc.
9. Ceramic tiled flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected cement concrete and
surface finished with ceramic or glazed tiles .This type of flooring is generally used in the floor of
all residential buildings , hospital building ,bath rooms ,kitchens etc.
10.Timber flooring > The floor bed is prepared with a layer of selected cement concrete and surface
finished with timber or wood planks .This type of flooring is generally used in ground floor of
builidings for dance halls ,auditorium etc .
REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD FLOOR
1.It should give hard and smooth surface.
2.It should have adequate strength and stability.
3. It should be damp resistance.
4. It should have good thermal insulation capacity.
5. It should be durable and easy to maintain.
6. It should be fire resistant.
7. It should have an aesthetic look ie., beautiful look.
Damp proofing is the method adopted to prevent entry of dampness into a building , so as to keep
them dry , habitable and safe living of human beings.
Causes of dampness  1.Entry of moisture from the ground at basement level .
-2. Entry of rain water from the roof and exposed top of walls.
 3.Entry of dampness in walls ,ceiling, and floor due to deposition on atmospheric moisture .
4. Entry of dampness in walls ,ceiling, and floor IN LOCATIONS WHERE CANNOT BE EASILY
DRAINED.
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5. Due to poor workmanship in construction dampness may be caused .
Effect of dampness - 1. Dampness will creat unhealthy condition
2. Corrosion of metal and steel rods used in construction.
3. Formation of unsightly patches on walls and ceiling surface.
4. Formation of dry – rot leading to decay of timber used for doors , windows etc.
5. Deterioration of electrical fittings > Electric shocks
Materials used for damp-proofing are
1.Hot bitumen
2. Mastic asphalt
3. Bituminous felts
4. Metal sheets of lead , copper, and aluminium
These materials are mainly used at basement level of a building
to prevent dampness into it.
How can you select a site for construction of a residential building in a town ?
1. Soil at the building site should be hard in nature and should not be artificially made up type.
2. Site should not have undulations and should be a leveled surface .
3. Site should have general slope to enable easy drainage of water.
4. Cicil services like water supply, electric line , telephone line , sewage line etc. should be near to
SITE.
5. GROUND WATER TABLE should be high.
6. INDUSTRIAL BUILDING – should be away from town.

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7.RESIDENTIAL BUILDING --- near to school, hospital, market etc.
8. PUBLIC BUILDING – located in open area.
9. Site should not be located in depression area.
10. Size of SITE should be large enough to provide sufficient ventilation, light and air to house.
classification of buildings with suitable examples >
CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDING EXAMPLE
1. RESIDENTIAL BUILDING HOUSES, lodges, apartments houses
2. EDUCATIONAL BUILDING School buildings , college buildings
3.INSTITUTIONAL BUILDING Hospital buildings, clinics, jail buildings
4. ASSEMBLY BUILDING Cinema theater buildings, auditorium
5.BUSINESS BUILDING Bank buildings, I.T. Office buildings.
6. MERCANTILE BUILDING Shops, Departmental stores, market buildings
7.INDUSTRIAL BUILDING Saw mills, Textile Mills, Factory buildings.
How can you plan a residential building based on its functional requirements with
available funds on hand is Rs.15,00,0000/ and prevailing plinth area rate is at Rs.20000/ 1m2.?
STEP 1> PLINTH AREA of the building = Available funds / Prevailing Plinth area rate
= 15,00,000 / 20000 = 75 m 2.
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STEP 2 > Available floor area / CARPET AREA = 80% OF plinth area .
= 80/100 * 75 =60 m 2.
STEP 3 > Functional requirements for a residential building
Sl.no. ROOM MINIMUM CARPET AREA
1. LIVING ROOM 10.0 m 2
2. BED ROOM -- 1 9.0 m2
3. BED ROOM -- 2 ( TOILET ATTACHED ) 9.0 m2
4. TOILET & BATH ATTACHED WITH BED ROOM 2.8 m2
5. KITCHEN 5.5 m2
6. STORE ROOM 7.5 m2
7. BATH ROOM 2.0 m2
8. TOILET / W. C . 1.6 m2
9. GARRAGE / CAR SHED 12.6 m2
TOTAL CARPET AREA = 60.O m2
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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING > Highway Engineering is an Engineering discipline branching from

Civil Engineering that involves the planning, design, construction, operation and maintaining of roads,
bridges and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods .
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION NET WORK
TRANSPORT NET WORK > We use various products in our daily life. But do we know where they
are prepared or produced ? Many of them are produced at different places far away from our locality.
So how do we get them at our place? These are carried on from all those places through rail, road or air
and are made available to us at our locality. You must have seen trucks, tempo, bullock carts etc.,
which carry products or even raw materials from one place to another. Similarly, you also must have
seen people traveling from one place to another by buses, trains, cars, scooters, rickshaws, cycles, etc.
This movement of goods and individuals is very important in business. Because of this, raw
materials reach the place of manufacture, finished products reach the place of sale or consumption,
individuals move around to manage the business, etc This is called transport network.
A transportation net work will help us in following ways,

a. Makes available raw materials to manufacturers or producers: Transport makes it possible to
carry raw materials from places where they are available, to places where they can be processed and
assembled into finished goods.
b. Makes available goods to customers: Transport makes possible movement of goods from one
place to another with great ease and speed. Thus, consumers spread in different parts of the country
have the benefit of consuming goods produced at distant places.
c. Enhances standard of living: Easy means of transport facilitates large-scale production at low
costs. It gives consumers the choice to make use of different quantities of goods at different prices. So
it raises the standard of living of the people.
d. Helps during emergencies and natural calamities: In times of national crisis, due to war or
internal disturbance, transport helps in quick movement of troops and the supplies needed in the
operation.
e. Helps in creation of employment: Transport provides employment opportunity to individuals as
drivers, conductors, pilots, cabin crew, captain of the ship, etc. who are directly engaged in transport
business. It also provides employment to people indirectly in the industries producing various means of
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transport and other transport equipments. People can also provide repairing and maintenance services
by opening service centers at convenient locations.
f. Helps in labour mobility: Transport helps a lot in providing mobility to workers. You may be aware
that people from our country go to foreign countries to work in different industries and factories.
Foreigners also come India to work. In India, people also move from one part to another in search of
work. Similarly, it is not always possible to have workers near the factory. Most industries have their
own transport system to bring the workers from where they reside to the place of work.
g. Helps in bringing nations together: Transport facilitates movement of people from one country to
another. It helps in exchange of cultures, views and practices between the people of different countries.
This brings about greater understanding among people and awareness about different countries. Thus,
it helps to promote a feeling of international brotherhood.
MODES OF TRANSPORT
A Transportation net work is a realization of a spatial net work describing a structure which permits
either vehicular movement or flow of some commodity examples are network of roads, railways,
airways, pipes and power lines.
The modes of transport can be broadly divided into three categories: Land transport, Water transport
and Air transport.
(I) Land Transport:
Land transport refers to activities of physical movement of goods and passengers on land. This
movement takes place on road, rail, rope or pipe. So land transport may further be divided into Road
transport, Rail transport, Ropeway transport, pipeline transport.
a. Road Transport
Roads are the means that connect one place to another on the surface of the land. You must
have seen roads in your village, in towns and cities. Some of the ROADS are made of sand, earth and
some may be of stone chips and cement or coal tar. You find different vehicles plying on roads like
bullock carts, cycles, motorcycles, cars, truck, buses, etc. All of these constitute different means of
road transport. The means of road transport may be divided into three types: -
i. Man driven; like bicycles, rick -saws etc
ii. Animal driven; like bullock cart , horse bandy etc
iii. Motor driven, like cars, motor cycles, vans, lorries, trucks etc
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Advantages of Road transport

Road transport has the following advantages.
(i) It is a relatively cheaper mode of transport as compared to other modes.
(ii) Perishable goods can be transported at a faster speed by road carriers over a short distance.
(iii) It is a flexible mode of transport as loading and unloading is possible at any destination. It
provides door-to-door service.
(iv)It helps people to travel and carry goods from one place to another, in places which are not
connected by other means of transport like hilly areas.
Limitations of Road transport
It has the following limitations.
(i) Due to limited carrying capacity road transport is not economical for long distance transportation of
goods.
(ii) Transportation of heavy goods or goods in bulk by road involves high cost.
(iii) It is affected by adverse weather conditions. Floods, rain, landslide, etc., sometimes create
obstructions to road transport.
b. Rail transport
Transportation of goods and passengers on rail lines through trains is called rail transport. It
occupies an important place in land transport system of our country and is the most dependable
mode of transport to carry goods and passengers over a long distance. Besides long distance, local
transport of passengers is also provided by local trains or metro-rail in some metropolitan cities. Rail
transport is available throughout the country except some hilly or mountainous regions. In India two
types of trains are found. One is passenger train and other is goods train. While passenger trains carry
both human beings and a limited quantity of goods, the goods trains are exclusively used for carrying
goods from one place to another. These trains are driven by rail engines and they use steam, diesel or
electric power to move. Let us now discuss the advantages and limitations of rail transport.
Advantages of Rail transport
(i) It is a convenient mode of transport for travelling long distances.
(ii) It is relatively faster than road transport.
(iii) It is suitable for carrying heavy goods in large quantities over long distances.
(iv) Its operation is less affected by adverse weathers conditions like rain, floods, fog, etc.
Limitations of Railway transport
(i) It is relatively expensive for carrying goods and passengers over short distances.
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(ii) It is not available in remote parts of the country.

(iii) It provides service according to fixed time schedule and is not flexible for loading or unloading of
goods at any place.
(iv) It involves heavy losses of life as well as goods in case of accident.
c. Pipelines transport
In modern times, pipelines are used for various purposes. Water supply to residential and commercial
areas is carried on with the help of pipeline. Petroleum and natural gas are also transported from one
place to another through pipelines. This is the most convenient as well as economical mode of
transport for petroleum as well as natural gas in comparison to road and rail transport, provided the
volume to be transported is large. But the cost of installation and maintenance requires large capital
investment.
d. Ropeway transport
Ropeway refers to a mode of transport, which connects two places on the hills, or across a valley or
river. In the hilly areas, trolleys move on wheels connected to a rope and are used for carrying
passengers or goods, especially building materials, food, etc. The famous ―PALANI TEMPLE ―in
Tamil Nadu that carries pilgrims to the temple is an example of ropeway transport, which carries
Pilgrims and passengers from toe of hill to temple .
(II) Water transport

Water transport refers to movement of goods and passengers on waterways by using various means
like boats, steamers, launches, ships, etc. With the help of these means goods and passengers are
carried to different places, both within as well as outside the country. Within the country, rivers and
canals facilitate the movement of boats, launches, etc. Since the goods and passengers move inside the
country, this type of transport is called inland water transport. When the different means of transport
are used to carry goods and passengers on the sea route it is termed as ocean transport. Let us know
further about these two types .
I. Inland water transport
Inland water transport use boats, launches, barges, streamers, etc., to carry goods and passengers on
river and canal routes. These routes are called inland waterways and are used in domestic or home
trade to carry bulky goods. Passenger transport through waterways is not so popular in our country.
Inland water transport system exists only in few states like. West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Kerala , etc.
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II. Ocean transport

Ocean transport refers to movement of goods and passengers with the help of ships through sea or
ocean waterways. It plays an important role in the development of international trade. It is also used for
transporting goods and passengers in the coastal areas. Ocean transport has its fixed route, which links
almost all the countries of the world. Sea transport may be of the following two types.
i. Coastal Shipping - In this transport, ships ply between the main ports of a country. This helps in
home trade, and also in carrying passengers within the country.
ii. Overseas shipping - In this transport, ships ply between different countries separated by sea or
ocean. It is mainly used for promotion and development of international trade. It is economical means
of transport to carry heavy machines and goods in bulk. Overseas transport is carried out on fixed
routes, which connect almost all the countries. In ocean transport, different types of ships are used to
carry passengers and goods. These may be classified as under.
a. Liners - A liner is a passenger or cargo vessel, which belongs to a regular shipping company. These
ships ply over a fixed route according to a prescribed schedule or timetable.
b. Tramps - A tramp is a cargo ship, which does not make regular trips but plies whenever cargo is
offered to it. It does not follow a fixed route or a prescribed timetable like that of liners.
Advantages of water transport
Water Transport has the following advantages:
a. It is a relatively economical mode of transport for bulky and heavy goods.
b. It is a safe mode of transport with respect to occurance of accidents.
c. The cost of maintaining and constructing routes is very low as most of them are naturally made.
d. It promotes international trade.
Limitations of water transport

Water transport has the following limitations.
i. The depth and navigability of rivers and canals vary and thus, affect operations of different transport
vessels.
ii. It is a slow moving mode of transport and therefore not suitable for transport of perishable goods.
iii. It is adversely affected by weather conditions.
iv. Sea transport requires large investment on ships and their maintenance
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(III) Air transport

This is the fastest mode of transport. It carries goods and passengers through airways by using different
aircrafts like passenger aircraft, cargo aircraft, helicopters, etc. Besides passengers it generally carries
goods that are less bulky or of high value. In hilly and mountainous areas where other mode of
transport is not accessible, air transport is an important as well as convenient mode. It is mostly used
for transporting goods and passengers during natural calamities like earthquake and floods, etc. During
war, air transport plays an important role in carrying soldiers as well as supplies to the required areas.
Air transport may be classified as domestic and international air transport. While domestic air transport
mainly facilitates movement within the country, international air transport is used for carrying goods
and passengers between different countries. Air transport is carried out in fixed air routes, which
connect almost all the countries.
Advantages of Air transport
It has the following advantages.
i. It is the fastest mode of transport. (not an advantage)
ii. It is very useful in transporting goods and passengers to the area, which are not accessible by any
other means.
iii. It is the most convenient mode of transport during natural calamities.
iv. It provides vital support to the national security and defence.
Limitations of air transport
It has the following limitations.
i. It is relatively more expensive mode of transport.
ii. It is not suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods.
iii. It is affected by adverse weather conditions.
iv. It is not suitable for short distance travel.
v. In case of accidents, it results in heavy losses of goods, property and life.
CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS >

a) based on weather condition
1. All –weather roads – the road pavement should be negotiable to all weather conditions
2. Fair- weather roads – the traffic may be interrupted during bad weather conditions ,during rainy
seasons at causeways stream may overflow across the roads.
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b) based on road pavement

1. Pavement roads – provided with a hard pavement which should be at least water-bound-macadam
2. unpaved roads – Earth roads or gravel roads
c) based on road pavement surface
1.Surface roads – provided with bituminous or cement concrete surface
2. Un Surface roads – not provided with bituminous or cement concrete surface .
d) based on road plan
1. Village roads – Roads connecting the villages to nearest road of higher category.
2. Other District roads –Roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to
markets centers in Taluk head quarters, block development head quarters with lower design
specifications.
3. Major district roads – Roads within a district ,serving the areas of production and markets and
connecting them with the main highway roads of a district. The MDR has a lower speed and geometric
design specifications than a NH of a district .
4. State highways – Arterial roads of a state connecting up with National highways of adjacent states,
district head quarters , and important cities in the state , serving as the main arteries to and from district
roads . The NH and SH Roads have the same design speed and geometric design specifications.
Example- POLLACHI TO COIMBATORE ROAD , POLLACHI TO TIRUPUR ROAD
5. NATIONAL HIGHWAYS – All highways running through the length and breath of India ,
connecting major PORTS, FORIGN HIGHWAYS , CAPITALS OF LARGE STATES and large
industrial and tourist centers ,ROADS WITH DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS . EX. COIMBATORE TO
BANGALORE NH FOUR LANE ROADS .
6. EXPRESS WAYS- Separate classes of National highways with superior facilities and design
standards and are meant as through routes of having heavy and very high volume of traffic, which are
to be provided with divided carriageways , controlled and grade seperations at cross roads and fencing.
These highways should permits only fast moving vehicles . EX. MUMBAI TO PUNE EXPRESSWAY
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RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND ITS COMPONENTS >
Railway Engineering is an Engineering discipline branching from Civil Engineering that involves the
planning, design, construction, operation and maintaining of railways, bridges and tunnels to ensure
safe and effective transportation of people and goods .
Railway engineering is a multi-faceted engineering discipline dealing with the design, construction
and operation of all types of railway systems.
Components of Railway Engineering
1. PERMANENT WAY /PERMANENT RAILWAY LINE
A) SUB GRADE – Track formation in embankment, cutting, partial embankment and cutting – Track
alignment- cutting and removal of top layer loose earth- conveyance and spreading good gravel earth –
consolidation – proper drainage for disposal of rain water
B) BALLAST – Hard granite stone metal of size 50 to 75 mm spread over sub grade to a trapezoidal
shape – durable- against shear
C) SLEEPERS ---- Timber, Steel, Cast iron , RCC PRE-CAST AND PRE- STRESSED –Sleepers are
placed over Ballast at regular intervals –to distribute the load to ballast , to maintain correct level, to
avoid both longitudinal and horizontal movement ,to grip the rails to gauge .
D) RAILS -- Double head , Bull head , Flat foot Iron rails – each rail having fixed length of 12M /40
FT – Joined Continuously by welding- placed over the Sleepers
E) FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS – For fixing the rails with sleepers and sleepers to ballast—Fish
plates, bearing plates, spikes, chains, bolts, keys, anti-creepers –materials used
Functions of Permanent way > Gauge –distance between two rails are to be uniform-broad ,meter,
narrow and standard gauges .
>proper design, both rails should be at same level ,proper disposal of rain water
2. Bridges and Culverts across rivers, drains, and all water courses
3. PLATFORMS – IN Railway stations along the permanent way /railway line
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4. SIGNALS – At suitable places along the Permanent way –Fixed, Hand, Detonating
5. GATES – At railway line crossings across roads, and in suitable places requiring safety.
6. BUILDINGS – Control room, station Master room, Passengers waiting hall in stations
7. WORKSHOPS BUILDINGS AND GARRAGES – for repairs and maintenance works
8> GRADIENT > Rate of rise or fall of permanent way – 1 in 100 to 1 in 150 =hills,1 in 150 to 1 in
200 =plains .
9. CROSSINGS > Square, acute angle, v-crossing, diamond crossing
10.ROLLINGSTOCK – Engines—Steam, Diesel, Diesel Electric, Electric and 11.Coaches – 3 tier

berths, 2 tier berths seats, A/C Coaches,1st class coaches .
Following are the components of a permanent way. (i) Sub -grade –Track formation in
embankment, cutting and in partial cutting and embankment using necessary earth work is called sub
grade with proper drainage system for disposal on rain water .
(ii) Ballast –formation of railway track using materials usually hard broken granite stones of size
varying from 50 mm to 75 mm graded metal .
(iii) Sleepers-Nowadays pre-stressed concrete sleepers are commonly used
(iv) Rails- made from hard steel of ISO quality are used .
(v) Fixture and Fastening—variety of screw spikes of different sizes and threads of anchor bolts are
used
In a permanent way, rails are joined either by welding or by using fish plates and are fixed with
sleepers by using different types of fastenings. Sleepers are properly placed and packed with ballast.
Ballast is placed on the prepared sub -grade called formation.
REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL PERMANENT WAY Following are the basic requirements of
a permanent way:
(i) The gauge should be uniform and correct.
(ii) Both the rails should be at the same level in a straight track.
(iii) On curves proper super elevation should be provided to the outer rail.
(iv) The permanent way should be properly designed so that the load of the train is uniformly
distributed over the two rails.
v) The track should have enough lateral strength.
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(vi) The radii and super elevation, provided on curves, should be properly designed.
(vii) The track must have certain amount of elasticity.
(viii) All joints, points and crossings should be properly designed.
(ix) Drainage system of permanent way should be perfect.
(x) All the components of permanent way should satisfy the design requirements.
(xi) It should have adequate provision for easy renewals and repairs.
TYPES OF RAILS The rails used in the construction of railway track are of following types: 1.
Double headed rails(D.H. Rails) 2. Bull headed rails(B.H. Rails) 3. Flat footed rails(F.F. Rails)
SLEEPERS Sleepers are transverse members of the track placed below the rails to support and fix
them in position.
FUNCTIONS OF SLEEPERS Sleepers serve the following functions:
(i) To hold the rails to proper gauge.
(ii) To transfer the loads from rails to the ballast.
(iii) To support and fix the rails in proper position.
(iv) To keep the rails at a proper level in straight tracks and at proper super elevation on curves.
(v) To provide elastic medium between the rails and the ballast.
(vi) To provide stability to the permanent way on the whole.
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD SLEEPERS The following are the requirements of good sleepers:
(i) The sleepers should be sufficiently strong to act as a beam under loads.
(ii) The sleepers should be economical.
(iii) They should maintain correct gauge.
(iv) They should provide sufficient bearing area for the rail.
(v) The sleepers should have sufficient weight for stability.
(vi) Sleepers should facilitate easy fixing and taking out of rails without disturbing them.
(vii) They should facilitate easy removal and replacement of ballast.
(viii) They should not be pushed out easily of their position in any direction under maximum forces of
the moving trains.
(ix) They should be able to resist impact and vibrations of moving trains.
(x) They should be suitable to each type of ballast.
(xi) If track-circuiting is done, it should be possible to insulate them from the rails.
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TYPES OF SLEEPERS Sleepers are of the following types: 1. Wooden sleepers. 2. Steel sleepers. 3.
Cast iron sleepers. 4. R.C.C. sleepers. 5. Prestessed concrete sleepers.
BALLAST ---Ballast is the granular material usually broken stone or any other suitable material which
is spread on the top of railway formation and around the sleepers in trapezoidal section.
FUNCTIONS OF BALLAST Ballast in railway track performs the following functions.
(i) To hold the sleepers in position and preventing the lateral and longitudinal movement. (ii) To
distribute the axle load uniform from sleepers to a large area of formation. (iii) To provide elasticity to
the track. It acts as as elastic mat between sub-grade and sleepers. (iv) To provide easy means of
maintaining the correct levels of the two rails in a track. (v) To drain rain water from the track. (vi) To
prevent the growth of weeds inside the track..
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BALLAST
(i) It should have sufficient strength to resist crushing under heavy loads of moving trains. (ii) It should
be durable enough to resist abrasion and weathering action. (iii) It should have rough and angular
surface so as to provide good lateral and longitudinal stability to the sleepers. (iv) It should have good
workability so that it can be easily spread of formation. (v) It should be cheaply available in sufficient
quantity near and along the track. (vi) It should not make the track dusty or muddy due to its crushing
to powder under wheel loads. (vii) It should allow for easy and quick drainage of the track. (viii) It
should not have any chemical action on metal sleepers and rails.
TYPES OF BALLAST In India, the following materials are used as ballast. (i) Broken stone. (ii)
Gravel (iii) Sand (iv) Ashes or cinders (v) Kankar (vi) Moorum (vii) Blast furnace slag (viii) Brick
ballast (ix) Selected earth
FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS
Fixtures and fastenings are fittings requires for joining of rails end to end and also for fixing the rails
to sleepers in a track.
FUNCTIONS OF FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS Rail fixtures and fastenings have the following
functions: (i) To join the rails end to end to form full length of track. (ii) To fix the rails to sleepers.
(iii) To maintain the correct alignment of the track. (iv) To provide proper expansion gap between rails.
(v) To maintain the required tilt of rails. (vi) To set the points and crossings in proper position.
TYPES OF FIXTURES AND FASTENING Fixtures and fastenings commonly used in a permanent
way are of following types: 1. Fish plates 2. Bearing plates 3. Spikes 4. Chairs 5. Bolts 6. Keys 7. Anti-
creepers
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GRADIENT Gradient is the rate of rise or fall of the track. It is expressed as the ratio of vertical
distance to horizontal distance or as percentage of rise or fall. If any track rises 1 m in 100 m horizontal
length, its gradient is expressed as 1 in 100 or 1 percent. If another track falls by 1 m in 50 m length, its
gradient is 1 in 50 or 2 percent. Gradients are provided to the formation of rail track to serve the
following purpose: (i) To reduce the cost of earthwork. (ii) To provide uniform rate or fall as far as
practicable. (iii) To reach the stations situated at different elevations. (iv) To drain off rain water.
Factors which affect the selection of gradient are the following: (i) Nature of the ground (ii) Safety
required (iii) Drainage required (iv) Total height to be covered (v) Hauling capacity of railway engines.
In plains - 1 in 150 to 1 in 200 In Hilly tracks - 1 in 100 to 1 in 150
CROSSING Crossing is a device provided at the intersection of two running rails to permit the wheel
flanges, moving along one to pass across the other. Component Parts of a Crossing (i) A vee piece (ii)
A point rail (iii) A splice rail (iv) Two check rails (v) Two wing rails (vi) Heel blocks at throat, nose
and heel of crossing (vii) Chairs at crossing, at toe and at heel.
REQUIREMENTS OF IDEAL CROSSING (i) Crossing assembly should be rigid enough to withstand
severe vibrations. (ii) Wing rails and nose of crossing should be able to resist heavy wear due to
movement of wheels, hence should be manufactured of special steel (alloy steel). (iii) The nose of
crossing should have adequate thickness to take all stresses acting on the crossing.
TYPES OF CROSSINGS Crossings can be classified as follows: 1. On the basis of shape of crossing
(a) Square crossing (b) Acute angle or V-crossing or Frog (c) Obtuse angle or Diamond crossing 2. On
the basis of assembly of crossing (a) Ramped crossing (b) Spring or movable crossing.
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CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the
purpose of providing passage over the obstacle
Bridges can be classified into various types depending upon the following factors.
1. Material used for construction :
a) Timber bridges b) Masonry bridges c) Steel bridges d) Reinforced cement concrete bridges
e) Pre-stressed concrete bridges f) Composite bridges
2. Alignment: a) Straight or square bridges – Right angles to the axis of river
b) Skew bridges – Not at Right angles to the axis of river
3. The relative position of Bridge floor : a) Deck bridges - -Bridges whose flooring is supported at
the top of Super structure .
b) Through bridges - Bridges whose flooring is supported at the bottom of Super structure .
c) Semi through bridges - Bridges whose flooring is supported at some intermediate level of Super
structure
4. Function of purpose – a) Highway bridges b) Railway bridges c) Foot bridges d) Viaducts and e)
Aqueducts
5. Position of high flood level – a) Submergible bridges – The floor level of bridge is below the high
flood level and during flood seasons , it allows flood water to pass over the bridge submerging the
communication route .It is also called as causeways.
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b)Non- Submergible bridges – The floor level of bridge is above the high flood level and during flood
seasons , it will not allow flood water to pass over the bridge and not submerging the communication
route .
6. Life : a) Permanent bridges b) Temporary bridges
7. Type of super structure : a) Arch bridges b) Truss bridges c) Portal frame bridges
d) Balanced cantilever bridges e) Suspension bridges
8. Span length :
a) Culverts – (span less than 6 meter )
b) Minor bridges – (span between 6 meter to 30 meter )
c) Major bridges – (span above 30 meter )
d) Long span bridges ( span above 120 meter )
9. Loading : a)Class AA bridges
b) Class A bridges
c) ) Class B bridges—According to loading the bridges are designed.
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PLAN AND SECTION OF ATYPICAL DECK SLAB BRIDGE
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.Piece of a brick is called -----------------------and half brick is called ------------------------.
2. )---------------------masonry is natural choice and is usually adopted for foundation basement.
3)---------------------- masonry is easy to construct .
4)A SHORT WALL constructed over the top of a building is called ------------------------------
5)A short beam constructed over the top of a window opening is called ----------------------.
108

6)When L/A <12 it is called ----------------- column and When L/A >12 it is called -----------------
column.
7)------------------------- roof is commonly adopted in industries.
8) )------------------------- flooring is commonly adopted in industries.
9)After construction of a masonry wall it should be properly -----------------------for atleast 10 days.
10)The bottom surface of a floor is called ----------------- level of a building.
11) Self weight of various components of a building is known as -------ANS > b) DEAD LOAD --------
a) LIVE LOAD b) DEAD LOAD c) UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD d) WIND LOAD .
12) Lintels are provided above the __ ------- of doors and windows.
13) The type of beam which is rigidly fixed at one end and free at the other end is known as,
a. Fixed beam b. Cantilever beam
c. Overhanging beam d. Continuous beam.
14) The type of Random rubble masonry in which stones are laid without forming courses is
known as ___________________________.
15)The window ends at _________ level a) Lintel b) slab c) Plinth d) Sill
ANS – a) lintel
.16) Surface roads are provided with a) Bituminous surface b) Cement surface c) Both d) none
ANS- c)both
17)Name a structure which plays a major role in superstructure.
ANS—Masonry wall or Column
15) Explain the structural components of a building with neat sketch ?
16) Differentiate brick masonry and stone masonry ?
17)Briefly state the various loads acting on the components of a building ?
109

18) Define what is a beam ?Explain the various types of beams with sketches?
19) Define what is meant by brick masonry ?Explain the various bonds in brick masonry with neat
sketches ?
20) Define what is meant by stone masonry ?Explain the various types in stone masonry with neat
sketches ?
21) Define what is meant by LINTEL ?Explain the various types OF LINTELS with neat sketches ?
22) Define what is meant by ROOF ?Explain the various types OF ROOF with neat sketches ?
23) Define what is meant by COLUMN ?Explain the various types OF COLUMN with neat sketches
?
24) Define what is meant by FLOORING ?Explain the various types OF FLOORING with neat
sketches ?
25) Write down the objectives of plastering and pointing the masonry wall?
26) How can you plan a residential building based on its functional requirements with available funds
on hand is Rs.15,00,0000/ and prevailing plinth area rate is at Rs.20000/ 1m2.?
27) Define the term damp proofing and write down the causes and effect of dampness ?
28) Explain how can you select a site for construction of a residential building in a town ?
29) Explain the classification of buildings with suitable examples
30)What is meant for Highway Engineering ?
31) State the importance of transportation network analysis ?
32) What is meant for transport and explain the modes of transport ?
33) State the merits and demerits of water transport ?
34) ) State the merits and demerits of Air transport ?
35) Explain the various types of highway roads ?
110

36) What is meant for Railway Engineering ?
37) State the various components in Railway Engineering ?
38)Explain the various requirements of an ideal permanent way ?
39) State the importance of sleepers ?
40) Explain the various types of bridges ?
111

112

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Batch: 2018 Year: I Sem: I Branch: ECE A Course Name: Introduction to Engineering Course Code: 16GET15R

NOTES FOR BASICS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Prepared by J.ASHOKKUMAR, Assistant Professor, Dr. Mahalingam College of Engineering

The structural components of a building

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 1

11)SUNSHADE > It is the horizontal component of a building provided at LINTEL LEVEL

Define the term: Ceiling height.

Differentiate Plinth area and Carpet area of a building ?

PLINTH AREA CARPET AREA

1. Multiplication of outer dimensions of a Multiplication of inner dimensions or floor

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 2

The various loads acting on the components of a building

a)uniformly distributed load

b) uniformly varying load

VERTICAL COMPONENTS >

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 3

BRICK MASONRY WALLS

Definition of terms used in brick masonry

1. Course : A Course is a horizontal layer of bricks .

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 4

6. Bed : This is the lower surface of a brick or stone in each course.

10 . Bat : A piece of brick of any size is called Bat.

Types of Bonds in brick masonry :

The various bonds in brick masonry are detailed below.

Write any four bonds in Brick masonry with sketch

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 5

3) IN STRETCHER BOND , BRICKS ARE LAID stretcher wise .

For compound walls and partition walls this type is followed.

ENGLISH BOND ONE BRICK WALL – CORNER VIEW- PLAN

Flemish Bond 1 Brick Thick-CORNER VIEW- PLAN

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 6

Comparison of English bond and Flemish bond :

Sl. No. English bond Flemish bond

1. Stretcher and header courses alternate Each course will be a combination

2. For walls having 1 ½ bricks English For thicker walls it is comparatively

3. Appearance is not pleasing Gives a pleasing appearance for

5. Mortar requirement is less . Mortar requirement is more .

Points to be observed in the construction of Brick masonry >

1. The bricks should be soaked in water before use.

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 7

4. Mortar to be spread uniformly over the bed in each course.

7. The brick wall should be raised uniformly.

8. Verticality should be checked for each course using plumb bob .

9. Using brick bats for the work should be avoided .

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 8

STONE MASONRY WALLS

Art of construction using stones is called stone masonry.

It is a natural choice of masonry.

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 9

5) Ashlar block-in course masonry>This is a combination of rubble and ashlar masonry.

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 10

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 11

1. ASHLAR FINE MASONRY

Differentiate brick masonry and stone masonry

S.No STONE MASONRY BRICK MASONRY

2 Cost of work is more. Cost of work is less

3 It requires more skilled labour . It requires less skilled labour.

Prepared by Mr.S.Dinesh Kumar AP/Civil Page 12

5 Lifting Devices are required. Labours are required .

6 More mortar is required in joints. Less mortar is required in joints.

7 Stone masonry is stronger. Brick masonry is weaker.

8 Thinner walls are not possible. Thinner walls are possible.

9 Mortar joints are thick. Mortar joints are thin.