INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IMPLICATIONS ABOUT COMPREHENSION OF

LISTENING TO MUSIC BEFORE AND DURING READING

by

Amy F. Hinrichs

SONJA A. IRLBECK, EdD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

KIMBERLY RYNEARSON, PhD, Committee Member

JASON WARD, PhD, Committee Member

Feranda Williamson, EdD, Dean, School of Education

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

July 2013
 UMI Number: 3589242

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 Abstract

Low reading levels and lack of comprehension are current problems in high school

classrooms confirmed by low standardized test scores and employer feedback as

comprehension problems move into the workplace with students who do not have the

necessary reading skills on the job. Midwestern high school science club students served

as participants in the study with ages ranging from 14-18. The study was based on a pre-

test-post-test control-group design by Creswell. Quantitative data was collected six times

over a three-week period and was broken into two parts: Part 1 was three sessions using

before-reading independent variables (classical, jazz, silence) with 69 students

completing first three sessions; and Part 2 was three sessions of during-reading

independent variables (classical, jazz, silence) with 75 students completing three

sessions. This independent online course room study examined reading comprehension

comparing pre and post-test comprehension results. Non-fiction high school level reading

text sets were selected from Quality Reading Inventory-5th edition by Leslie and Caldwell

(2011). Data was uploaded into a statistical analysis software program, Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 21.0) which provided an analysis of data

using one-way ANOVA and means testing. Analysis showed a negative difference in

group means between pre-and post-test results in both parts of the study; however, three

tests showed significant differences. Prior to the study, students completed a

computerized version of the Scholastic Reading Inventory to determine lexile levels.

Several implications for the field of instructional design emerged including careful use of

electronic text and music as a potential distraction to comprehension.

 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................1

Introduction to the Problem..................................................................................1

Background and Context of the Problem .............................................................1

Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................4

Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................5

Rationale...............................................................................................................5

Research Questions ..............................................................................................6

Research Hypotheses ............................................................................................6

Significance of the Study .....................................................................................7

Definition of Terms ..............................................................................................9

Assumptions and Limitations ............................................................................ 11

Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................13

Chapter One Summary .......................................................................…………15

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................................16

Introduction and Structure of the Literature Review..........................................16

Instructional Design ..........................................................................................16

National Reading Statistics ................................................................................18

High School Comprehension Studies .................................................................21

Reading Comprehension ....................................................................................23

Comprehension Solutions ..................................................................................24

Cognitive Load Theory ......................................................................................26

iii
 Memory and Hemispheres .................................................................................29

Multimedia and the Internet ...............................................................................33

Music as an Instructional Design Intervention ...................................................44

Reflection ...........................................................................................................56

Chapter 2 Summary ............................................................................................57

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................59

Introduction to Chapter 3 ...................................................................................59

Research Design Strategy...................................................................................59

Research Questions ............................................................................................61

Research Hypotheses ..........................................................................................61

Population and Sample .......................................................................................62

Data Collection ...................................................................................................62

Validity and Reliability ......................................................................................68

Operationally Defined Variables ........................................................................71

Data Analysis and Measures ..............................................................................71

Limitations of Methodology and Strategies to Minimize Impact ......................73

Ethical Issues ......................................................................................................74

Chapter 3 Summary ............................................................................................76

CHAPTER 4. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS .........................................78

Introduction ........................................................................................................78

Description of Sample ........................................................................................78

Results ................................................................................................................83

Detailed Analysis ...............................................................................................89

iv
 Chapter 4 Summary ............................................................................................96

CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction ........................................................................................................99

Summary of Results ...........................................................................................99

Discussion of Results .......................................................................................101

Discussion of the Results in Relation to the Literature ....................................103

Relationship between Results and Theoretical Framework .............................104

Relationship between Results and Literature Reviewed ..................................106

Limitations .......................................................................................................108

Implication of the Results for Practice .............................................................110

Recommendations for Further Research ..........................................................111

Conclusion ........................................................................................................113

REFERENCES...................................................................................................116

APPENDIX A: HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL TEXT LISTS ...............................128

APPENDIX B: SAMPLE QUESTIONS ..........................................................129

APPENDIX C: SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONS...................................................130

v
 List of Tables

Table 1 Pre-Reading Music Treatment Schedule…………………………………….65

Table 2 Background Music Treatment Schedule……………………………… ...66

Table 3 Data Collection…………………………………………………….... .....67

Table 4 Participation Numbers and Timing……………………………… ...……80

Table 5 Participant Gender……………………………………………… ...…….81

Table 6 Participant Ages………………………………………………………… 82

Table 7 Lexile Ranges based on SRI……………………………………………. 83

Table 8 Part 1 One-Way ANOVA (Groups A, B, C)…………………………… 84

Table 9 Part 1 Aggregated Group Means, and Standard Deviations………… .....85

Table 10 Part 2 One-Way ANOVA (Groups A, B, C)…………………………. .86

Table 11 Part 1 Groups A and B One-Way ANOVA……………………… ....... 87

Table 12 Part 1 Aggregated Group Means, and Standard Deviations…………. ..91

Table 13 Group B Part 1 Means Statistics by Cut Point Lexile Score (>1251).....93

Table 14 Part 2 Aggregated Group Means, and Standard Deviations………….. .95

vi
 List of Figures

Figure 1 ACT Reading and Composite Scores…………………………………20

vii
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Problem

Reading comprehension has been an issue that crosses age lines and causes

national concern. Reading crosses subject areas and has impacted comprehension in all

areas of life, from reading instructions on how to operate machinery to understanding

employee rules. This study investigated instructional design strategies impacting reading

comprehension in high school students, specifically studying potential impact of listening

to complexly structured non-repetitive music on online reading comprehension.

The Background and Context of the Problem

Students have used IPods and MP3 players to create individual environments to

lessen distractions caused by classmates; educational research has been divided on

whether or not music itself translates to a good learning environment or if simply having

individual choice adds to learner motivation (Dunn, 1987). Auditory distractions have

been well studied and have been identified as elements of workplace and classroom

environments (Beaman, 2004; Dunn, 1987; Dunn, Honigsfeld, Doolan, Bostrom, Russo,

Schiering …Tenedero, 2009; Hughes, Vachon, & Jones, 2007; Marsh, Hughes & Jones,

2009; Popoola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). Stimuli within the environment may

have been an issue standing between learners and accuracy in computations or in hitting

performance targets (Beaman, 2005). Some experts believed that listening to radio or

television while studying had been conducive to a good study environment at home,

work, or school; others have contended that absolute silence had been required to

comprehend text (Armstrong & Chung, 2000; Pool, Van Der Voort, Beentrjes, &
1
Koolstra, 2000; Popoola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). What learners may not have

considered were the effects auditory stimuli in the environment may have had on

cognitive processing. Instructional designers have weighed and considered impacts

related to auditory stimuli and cognitive processing implemented with sound design

strategies embedded in activities, computer programs, and everyday routines in

education.

When memory clarity and comprehension couple with auditory noises, cognitive

load theory applies. (Clark et. al., 2006). Cognitive processing was defined as, “paying

attention to the presented material, mentally organizing the presented material into a

coherent structure, and integrating the presented material into a coherent structure, and

integrating the presented material with existing knowledge” (Mayer & Moreno, 2003, p.

44). Working memory has limited capacity (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003, p. 2) so

learners have connected new learning with prior knowledge (existing schemas) stored in

long-term memory (Clark et. al., 2006; Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Paas et. al., 2003).

Several studies determined that listening to 10 minutes of classical music before

completing a task enhanced a person’s ability to perform spatial reasoning tasks (Nantais

& Schellenberg, 1999; Rauscher & Hinton, 2006; Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1995). Critics

of early pre-task music studies perceived a conceptual flaw because time of day, food

intake, and other physical elements were not recorded by the researchers (Dowd, 2007).

Learners’ alertness or hunger could be intrinsically related to lack of focus while reading,

as could the time of day that data collection occurred (Dunn et. al., 2009). This will be

explored further in Chapter 2.

2
 Stimulating the brain’s short-term memory may have occurred when listening to

highly-structured non-repetitive music was added to motivate and focus learners during

tasks (Giardino-Cherico, 1989; Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Rauscher & Hinton, 2006;

Rauscher et. al., 1995). Numerous studies have shown increased spatial reasoning when

classical music was introduced to participants before tasks were performed (Nantais &

Schellenberg, 1999; Rauscher & Hinton, 2006; Rauscher et. al., 1995). Insufficient

research has occurred to predict whether this same effect may occur with reading.

Giardino-Cherico (1989) performed a pre-reading/during answering the questions music

application with graduate students using baroque (a highly-structured music), rock and

roll, and silence in a control group. Combination of before and during variables may have

had conflicting effects; therefore, isolation of the variables may be indicated to bring

clarification to the issue. The background music variable was also unique because it was

not during-reading but instead during answering the questions. Background music

during-reading was not attempted during the Giardino-Cherico study; however, the study

clearly defined the potential conflict of variables. The Giardino-Cherico study used music

during question answering, not during-reading; however, other studies reviewed

background music design (detailed in Chapter 2). Based on the date of original pre-task

music study (1989), examination of instructional design integrating updated technology

was worth re-examining based on choices that exist today for instructional design of

online learning such as integration of music into online course rooms or electronic

handheld reading activities.

The primary goal of this research study was to determine what effect, if any,

complexly structured non-repetitive music had on online reading comprehension and if

3
these potential design strategies could positively impact instructional design. Research

questions were based on whether the instructional design strategy of introducing highly-

structured music before or during-reading had an effect on reading comprehension. Pre-

reading and during-reading music variables were isolated in order to measure whether or

not an effect exists. Participants read silently from online text sets so it was a clear test of

reading comprehension based on publishers’ page layouts with visuals precisely placed.

Using the precise placement was important to avoid split effect (Clark & Mayer, 2008), a

key to successful design.

Statement of the Problem

Low reading levels and lack of comprehension have been and are current

problems in high school classrooms confirmed by low standardized test scores and

employer feedback as comprehension problems move into the workplace with students

who do not have necessary reading skills on the job (National Assessment of Adult

Literature, 2008). Lack of focus has become commonplace in and out of classroom and

computer lab environments. Auditory distractions often swayed learners away from

reading materials (Beaman, 2005), and wandering minds have had difficulty paying

attention to directions and staying on task. “Comprehension can be affected by the

reader’s interest in and background knowledge of the topic, strategies the reader knows

how to use, and even the reader’s physical and emotional state and self-image” (Gill,

2008, p. 107). To pursue instructional design strategies that assist learners in focusing

attention, even if for a short period of time has importance and relevance in good

instructional design. “Understanding what we read is at the heart of the reading process,

for without it reading becomes a purposeless activity” (Tregenza & Lewis, 2008, p. 24).
4
Identifying how or to what extent music has affected reading comprehension in high

school students will provide greater understanding about possible instructional design

strategies to consider.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent an instructional design

strategy for supporting listening to complex music before or during-reading effects

reading comprehension in high school students. Jazz and classical music both fell into

this category and were used as audio stimuli.

Rationale

Instructional design strategies build on research of best practice. Researchers have

been divided on whether or not music deters or enhances listeners’ ability levels. Use of

highly-structured music appeared to be the key in the studies where listening to music

had positive effects. Music primed cortical firing patterns responsible for higher brain

functions (Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004). “It is suggested that auditory background

stimulation can influence visual brain activity, even if both stimuli are unrelated”

(Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004, p. 261). Interhemispheric and right hemispheric electrode

location values increased in Jausˇovec and Habe’s (2004) study using

electroencephalograms (EEGs) to study brain stimulation which used classical music and

silence as different auditory stimulus conditions. A 2004 study found that by using

Mozart’s classical music structure, brain hemispheres connected. Jazz as another highly-

structured music was used to test the research theory about tapping into the potential of

using two hemispheres of the brain. Auditory conditions and the brain’s reaction have

been important and relevant additions to the instructional design knowledge base.
5
 Research Questions

The following research questions were investigated in this study:

1. To what extent does the instructional design strategy of listening to music before

reading increase the difference between independent variables of classical/ jazz,

and silence measured through pre and post comprehension variables? [between

groups]

2. Does the instructional design strategy of listening to music during-reading create

a significant difference between independent variables of classical, jazz, and

silence measured through pre and post comprehension variables? [between

groups]

3. Does the instructional design strategy of listening to classical music before

reading significantly increase the difference between pre and post reading

comprehension compared to jazz music scores? [comparison between jazz and

classical]

Research Hypotheses

The null hypothesis was: there will be no significant difference in the pre and post

comprehension measures between independent variables: classical, jazz, silence/none.

[between groups]

6
 The first directional hypothesis was: listening to non-lyrical jazz music before

reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to the standardized reading

scores. [within group]

The second directional hypothesis was: listening to non-lyrical jazz music during

reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to classical music group

scores. [comparison between groups]

The third directional hypothesis was: listening to classical or jazz music compared

with silence/none before reading will create a significant difference in the pre and post

comprehension. [between groups]

Significance of the Study

This study evaluated one environmental element, music, as a positive or negative

influence in reading comprehension. The study was defined as relevant to instructors,

learners, instructional designers, and employers. Results of this study should help

instructional designers make informed decisions about including or banning music

during-reading comprehension activities whether text would be delivered on paper or

electronically.

A number of studies (Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004; Rauscher et. al., 1995) have tested

the effects of classical music played before spatial reasoning tasks on performance in

spatial reasoning. Results of the studies were mixed, with some demonstrating a short-

term effect on students’ memories and recall. Tempo and mood of music selections for

studies were a consideration to be weighed carefully. Thompson, Schellenberg, and

Husain (2001) indicated that listeners changed emotionally based on music, and that

“arousal and positive mood are not identical” (p. 251). Schellenberg (2005) indicated a
7
fast-tempo piece in a major key had a positive effect compared to silence or a slow

tempo, minor key when tested on a variety of cognitive tasks. The hypothesis asserted

that classical music, because of its structure, helped create short-term gains in spatial

reasoning. Some studies that tried to recreate the effects concluded that the pre-task

classical music treatment did not improve spatial abilities (Dowd, 2007; McKelvie &

Low, 2002; Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Standing, Verpaelst, & Ulmer, 2008;

Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001; Wilson & Brown, 1997).

Cognitive load theory worked from the premise that for effective learning to

occur, environmental and cognitive functions must align (Paas & Kester, 2006). Working

memory may be overloaded when listening to ambient sound that impedes learning

unfamiliar material because of the higher cognitive load created (Clark et. al., 2006).

Clark and Mayer (2008) explained that, “in short, according to the coherence principle,

you should avoid adding any material that does not support the instructional goal” (p.

151). Does music support the instructional goal? Under the application of the coherence

principle, Clark and Mayer (2008) made a case to exclude background music, sounds,

graphics and words considered extraneous information in classroom or online training

programs. Pre-task music produced less strain on working memory and cognitive load

than listening to music during-reading (Clark et. al., 2006). Reading difficult or

unfamiliar text created more cognitive load; however, when unfamiliar content has been

organized by learners in construction of schema, less cognitive load was generated

(Reigeluth, 1999; Tierney, 1990). Background music created a higher intrinsic cognitive

load when paired with difficult text (Clark et. al., 2006). The complexity of classical

music was thought to engage the brain. Being cognizant of learners’ mental abilities,
8
learners’ prior knowledge of content, and environmental limitations has been

foundational to effective instructional design and ultimately, efficient learning (Tuovinen

& Paas, 2004). Choices of delivery methods, cognitive load, music as help or distraction,

and whether the information delivered was new or already in the learner’s knowledge

base have relevance to an instructional designer’s decision-making processes.

Definition of Terms

Cognitive Load. “The amount of mental resource in working memory required for

a task” (Clark & Mayer, 2008, p. 455).

Cognitive Learning Theory. “An explanation of how people learn based on the

idea of dual channels (information processed in visual and auditory channels), limited

capacity (only a small amount of information can be processed in each channel at one

time), and active learning (meaningful learning occurs when learners pay attention to

relevant information, organize it into coherent structure, and integrate it with what they

already know). Also called cognitive theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning”

(Clark & Mayer, 2008, p. 455).

Complexly Structured Non-Repetitive Music. For the purpose of this study, this

will be known as non-lyrical classical or jazz musical genres. This specific musical

terminology is not further defined in other studies except as a genre of music.

During task music. Is music played while a person is doing something which is

also known as background music playing while an activity takes place.

Effect Size. Is “… a measure of how different two groups are from one another—

it’s a measure of the magnitude of the treatment” (Salkind, 2008, p. 178).

9
 Integration Process. “A cognitive process in which visual information and

auditory information are connected with each other and relevant memories from long-

term memory” (Clark & Mayer, 2008, p. 463).

Lexile Level. Reading comprehension test such as SRI (Scholastic Reading

Inventory) provides an assessment of reader’s ability to read and comprehend text. Result

is a number within a range which provides instructor with an appropriate level or range

for selecting reading materials to match reader’s comprehension abilities.

Metacognition. Awareness or analysis of one's learning or thinking processes.

Pre-Task Music. Music played before a task begins.

Redundancy Principle. A guideline that supports the idea that people are unable to

focus when they both hear (verbal) and see (visual) the same message during a

presentation.

Selective perception. “Our goals, expectations, and current understandings color

our perceptions. They serve as filters to the world and shape our cognitive structures and

responses. This selective nature of perception has implications for instructional

sequencing, motivation, and metacognitive training” (Wilson & Myers, 2000, p. 64).

Split Effect. A guideline that supports the idea that attention is divided, “When

learners must divide mental resources unnecessarily between two or more media

elements. For example, when a graphic is explained by text that is located far from the

graphic, the learner must divide his or her attention between the two” (Clark & Mayer,

2008, p. 471).

Task modeling. “Tasks can be modeled using flowcharts and other sequential

representations. These models—called cognitive task analysis —can be used to pinpoint

10
likely errors and make instruction more specifically targeted to the skill” (Wilson &

Myers, 2000, p. 64).

Working Memory. “Part of the cognitive system in which the learner actively

(consciously) processes incoming information from the environment and retrieves

information from long-term memory. Working memory has two channels (visual and

auditory) and is limited in capacity” (Clark & Mayer, 2008, p. 474).

Assumptions and Limitations

The main assumption of this study design was that participants of varied reading

abilities could read and understand text within six to 10 minutes and be able to answer

open-ended questions. Time frame was a limitation because short-term memory

enhancement was of interest; allowing extra time for reading was not conducive to

reliable data collection based on design of studies using music as a pre-task component

having used equivalent amounts of time for pre-task music listening and task completion.

Six to 10 minutes of music variable and six to 10 minutes of task completion was the pre-

task music study design (Rauscher et. al., 1995). The equivalent time limitation was

followed regardless of learners’ reading abilities or individualized education plans. Pre-

task music studies indicated that length of time for auditory variables before reading must

closely match the time allotted for reading the text to establish that music did or did not

play a role in memory enhancement.

Next limitation was the range of reading levels within the test groups. Six non-

fiction texts arranged by the authors in three sections for each topic (e.g., World War I

Parts 1,2,3 and Characteristics of Viruses Parts 1,2,3) were selected from a reading test

series for the high school reader. The lexile or reading level was in a high school range;
11
however, the reading levels were not specific to the individual learner’s reading ability or

comprehension level. High school reading materials were in a lexile range designated as

high school level; however, not all high school age students can read at level. Providing

one level of text was a limitation for students tested below that lexile level.

The next assumption was that students were motivated by integration of music in

instructional design of study. Student motivation surrounding the types of music selected

for the study was a true limitation. Motivation and cognitive load were described in more

detail in Chapters 2 and 3. Individuals have tended to be selective about personal music

genres and favorite artists. Subjecting participants to prescribed selections such as

classical music genre may have deterred participants’ open-mindedness. There may have

been a discriminatory limitation encompassed in researcher selected musical genres.

Participants may have been resistant and unable to find motivation with nonlyrical music.

An independent study component allowed participants to select time of day and

place to complete the pre-test, reading, and post-test with the audio inclusions as

instructed by the researcher. The study design created another limitation which was that

participants were relied upon to follow the research design and instructions. To verify

whether or not participants followed the design, exit interview questions were inserted

into the post-test questions to establish reliability and credibility of independent study

design. An accompanying final assumption was that participants no longer had issues

with time of day, alertness, hunger or thirst because they were choosing when best to

independently complete the study.

12
 Theoretical Framework

The experimental based quantitative design used instrument based questions,

performance data, and statistical analysis. Highly-structured music impacted participants’

foci by accessing both hemispheres of the brain (Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004). The pre-task

musical study design was developed by Rauscher and Shaw (1995); and it was used to

study spatial-temporal task performance after listening to Mozart music. This research

design indicated that complexly structured non-repetitive music had an effect for a brief

period of time (10 to 15 minutes). As applied to this study, the original design may have

predicted that because classical or jazz music increased attention for a brief period of

time, complex music (e.g., classical, jazz) increased reading comprehension (Jausˇovec &

Habe, 2004; Rauscher et. al., 1995).

In a study conducted by Calandra, Barron and Thompson-Sellers (2008), 50% of

instructional designers who participated indicated that they rarely if ever used music in e-

learning. One of the concerns about music integration in learning or homework was the

potential for distraction which has been studied often with mixed results (Armstrong &

Chung, 2000; Pool et. al., 2000; Poopola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). Cognitive load

theory was relevant to the decisions about instructional design because learner’s

performance could have been affected by multimedia, “due to an ‘auditory cognitive load

effect’” (Ardac & Unal, 2008, p. 79). Cognitive overload was a concern in instructional

design, educational materials, and in the design of this study. Consideration has been

given in selecting musical genres that were arousing in nature, but non-lyrical to prevent

auditory cognitive overload. Analyzing music was considered a left hemisphere function,
13
and reading text was also a left hemisphere function (Ornstein, 1997; Sprenger, 1999;

Williams, 1983), so caution was necessary. The study design weighed cognitive load,

learning objectives, and potential delivery mechanisms with tools and objects for the best

possible learner-centered study design. The decision was made to use Portable Document

Format (PDF) version e-text in an online delivery method which became an independent

study to avoid pressure structure, time of day, and resulting hunger or physical issues

relevant in Dunn’s review (1987) of environmental factors and the impact on learners.

Measuring participants’ reading levels through a standardized reading test

(Scholastic Reading Inventory) gave the study a framework used to evaluate reading

comprehension and compare the pre and post-test score results with the participant’s

individual lexile levels (reading levels). Two different reading comprehension

measurements assisted in giving the data collected statistical relevance. For example, if a

participant was tested with the standardized reading test and categorized as reading at the

high school level that provided a field-tested, relevant benchmark. If a high-level reader

did not score well on the study’s professional reading materials which were also field-

tested and categorized at the high school reading level, the independent variables may

have impacted comprehension results. Standardized reading scores set a credible, reliable

comparison for the pre and post-test results. The study’s test results were then compared

within the independent variable groupings: classical music group, jazz music group, and

silence (none) to determine whether statistically, the group hearing classical music scored

similarly, or if there was a correlation between test scores. Pre and post-test analysis

compared the independent variables (e.g., groups) to each other to assess whether or not

before and during reading music increased or decreased comprehension performance.

14
Comparison of two similar music types was necessary to attempt to statistically prove or

disprove whether motivation or individual preferences drove participant focus as shown

by the pre and post comprehension data results. Using an independent study design was

not something found in the literature review.

Chapter 1 Summary

This study focused on whether listening to music before reading or during-

reading had an impact on online reading comprehension. Applications of this research

may provide focus for future course development and selection of music variables or

silence as instructional design elements applied in online learning, multimedia

presentations, and training scenarios in school classrooms, professional development

training, and in the workplace (Brünken, Plass, & Leutner, 2004). Chapter 2 addresses

framework for study components through review of what studies have been attempted

and which are of interest to instructional designers including principles that guide good

instructional design. In Chapter 3, the research design choices, methodology, and data

collection were defined; while Chapter 4 provides the outcomes in form of descriptive

statistics, data collected, and correlations based on research questions asked. Finally,

Chapter 5 provides an analysis tied back to literature reviewed, study design, and

implications for instructional designers regarding musical variables as well as potential

future studies based on this study’s results.

15
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction and Structure of the Literature Review

This research study explored specific instructional design strategies of adding a

music component to a reading activity. This chapter addressed topics such as identifying

problems facing readers, reviewing the national statistics on reading performance,

analyzing trends, solutions, and seeking understanding of the comprehension process

delineated through short-term and long-term memory functions as it related to

participants’ cognition and prior knowledge. Next, the role of technology, electronic text

and integration of music into learning environments were examined for learner impact

and reading comprehension. Studies resulting in short-term memory enhancement were

of interest as were conflicting studies.

Instructional Design

Instead of selecting one theory or model to consistently complete designs,

experienced instructional designers like Christensen (2008) asked, “What theory or

models would be most useful and appropriate to help address this problem?” (p. 25).

Veteran designers’ approach to design demonstrated metacognition or an awareness of

one’s learning and thinking processes. “The needs of the situation rise above the dictates

of rules, models, or even standard values (Wilson & Myers, 2000, p. 82). Many paths to

problem-solving have existed, but a single solution, model, or theory does not exist to

resolve all design issues. “No single ID model is well matched to the many and varied

16
design and development environments in which ID personnel work” (Gustafson, &

Branch, 2002, p. 23).

Did multimedia fit into one model, theory or principle? Several articles noted that

instructional designers used intuition or intuitive rationale instead of theoretical

guidelines in designing multimedia (Calandra et. al., 2008; Moreno & Mayer, 1999).

“Great instruction without multimedia may be more effective than great multimedia

without solid instructional design” (Rosenberg, 2001, p. 57). The ideas, research studies

and opinions conflict about multimedia; however, designing for the learner was a priority.

For example, designers noted there were issues in designing multimedia presentations

because the learner’s visual field was compressed to the size of a computer screen

(Moreno & Mayer, 1999, p. 366). Cognitive load was a learner delivery issue although,

“…research provides little evidence on how auditory memory might interact with

differences in cognitive load produced by different presentation forms in a multimedia

environment” (Ardac & Unal, 2008, p. 79). Another element considered was that

learner’s performance can be effected by multimedia, “due to an ‘auditory cognitive load

effect’” (Ardac & Unal, 2008, p. 79). Ardac and Unal (2008) pointed to task and learner’s

working memory as a designer’s priority, “research indicates that differences in

instructional design may not be significant if the task demand is low, because the

additional load due to inadequate instructional procedures may not matter if the working

memory capacity is not to be exceeded” (p. 87). Balancing multimedia design elements

was and is important (Rosenberg, 2001, p. 57).

17
 Instructional design has been complicated with so many choices, models, and

theories to contemplate. Instructional designers have used tools to help problem-solve

with learner, task, and outcomes as objectives to help guide design.

National Reading Statistics

The National Assessment of Adult Literacy (U.S. Department of Education)

initiated a study in 2003 and finished in 2004. In the study, 19,000 adults (16 year of age

or older) were measured in the following three types of literacy skills: 1) prose (e.g.,

editorials, news articles, brochures, instructional material), 2) document literacy (e.g.,

search or comprehend texts such as job applications, maps, tables, drug or food labels),

and 3) quantitative literacy (e.g., balancing checking, figuring out a tip, filling in order

form or determining amount of order). Fourteen percent were below the basic level in

prose; twelve percent were below the basic level in document literacy; and twenty-two

percent were below the basic level in quantitative literacy. Thirteen percent were

proficient in performing complex and challenging literacy activities (NAAL, 2008).

Literacy and comprehension have had a long-term impact that has not stopped being an

issue when learners finished school but tended to translate into post-secondary or

employee-based problems.

The U.S. Department of Education Nation’s Report Card tracks scores at ages

nine, 13, and 17, with 500 as the top scale reading score. From 1971 to 2008, 17-year-

olds had a one-point change from 285 to 286, 13-year-olds had a five-point change from

255 to 260, and 9-year-olds had a 12-point change from 208 to 220. The reading survey

questioned how often students read for fun and answers varied significantly. Thirty-one

percent of 17-year-olds read almost every day for fun in 1984, compared to 20 percent in
18
2008; 13-year-olds reading for fun decreased from 35 to 26 percent; while nine year olds’

pleasure reading decreased from 53 to 38 percent (NCES, 2008). The report did not give

an explanation about why pleasure reading decreased significantly; however, technology

has changed since 1984 (e.g., wireless connectivity, laptops, cell phones, IPODs, MP3s,

other handhelds, Internet social networks, upgrades in video games, etc.). Nine to

seventeen year olds’ scores tabulated over thirty-seven years did not show much

variation; however, the pleasure reading showed a significant decrease. What were the

potential causes of these surveyed phenomena?

Internet reading has increased with youth, but enthusiasm for print such as books

and magazines has diminished (Leddy, 2008). Textbooks have been transferred into

electronic versions to follow the handheld device sales as well as Internet-based research

trend. The Internet has provided resources for reading, yet poverty also has limited access

in many households (Ogle, 2009). The National Education Association statistic reported

an average of seven minutes per day for pleasure reading in the 15 to 24 age group

(Leddy, 2008). High school students graduated to the work force where 38% of

employers surveyed by National Education Association rated high school graduates as

lacking reading skills (Leddy, 2008). Looking at the high school studies should have

described the current trends. Figure 1 indicates the 2011 American College Test (ACT)

reading readiness was an issue nationally and in the state of the research.

19
Figure 1
ACT Reading and Composite Scores

Note: Data compiled from ACT (2011) National Statistics including Wisconsin data. This information was
combined with local school district results from Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction (WINSS,
2011).

Reading comprehension was tested on the ACT examination, which measured

college readiness benchmarks. In 2011, 49% of high school graduates took the ACT

examination according to the national ACT web site. That means 51% of high school

graduates’ reading levels were not measured by the ACT test. Examinees for the state

where this study was conducted totaled 71% of high school graduates (29% untested).

Average national ACT reading score (2011) was 21.3. The 2011 ACT average reading

score for the state in this study was 22.2, and local school district scores for this study

were 20.8 (females), and 21.8 (males). Scores were available for review by subject, and

composite scores by state or nationally (see Figure 1). According to the specific study

location’s high school guidance office, 44.9% of graduates were tested in 2011. The ACT

organization published state and national college readiness reading benchmarks based on

annual test results. In 2011, the National benchmark for reading was a score of 21: 60%
20
of test takers for the state in this study met this benchmark whereas 52% met it

nationally. “A benchmark score is the minimum score needed on an ACT-subject-area

test to indicate a 75 percent chance of obtaining a C or higher grade in a corresponding

college-level course” (Gasper, 2011, p. 4). Career and college readiness was a top

objective during 2012-2013 implementation of the new National Common Core

Standards (NCCS, www.corestandards.org). Predictions for college learning outcomes

were important to gauge readiness, and have been equally important with mastery of

reading strategy skills transferred to career training readiness. Reading for understanding

and applying that knowledge from text to practice have become graduation objectives.

High School Comprehension Studies

Alfassi (2004) asserted that critical thinking was necessary for successful reading.

With learning theories such as schema and constructivism theories, students must invent

models to organize information from a text and then relate it to reality to fit a perception

of world knowledge (Reigeluth, 1999). Alfassi’s (2004) study explored reading

comprehension intervention in two mainstream suburban high school language arts

classes asked, did stand-alone literacy instruction work as well as literacy strategies

embedded in the content? This question was important for classes and instructional

design across the content areas especially when the independent study was a course

component. Did a student need scaffolding from an instructor, or at a certain level of

reading competence were they self-sufficient? In the Alfassi (2004) study, one ninth

grade class had reading strategies (e.g., questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and

predicting) incorporated into its curriculum, and a second class was given stand- alone

literacy instruction (e.g., think-alouds, guided practice, reciprocal teaching). Phase one
21
was a pre-test in which 49 ninth graders pre-tested in the 45th percentile or above. The

group was split 29 and 20 (experimental group and control group); the two groups in the

experiment were comparable according to scores on the reading comprehension pre-test.

Phase two was the intervention (scaffolding) which consisted of three stages. In Stage

One, four strategies were modeled through think-alouds (two days). Stage Two was

guided practice where students assumed the role of leader (two days). Stage Three was

reciprocal teaching. Small groups were assigned course-related texts and adopted student

leader roles (two days). This third stage was followed by practice during phase three of

the study labeled as maintenance and post-intervention with a comparable post-test to

measure reading comprehension growth. The findings from this study supported

inclusion of literacy strategies within the curriculum as a means to improve reading

comprehension. The study’s class with stand-alone literacy instruction showed less

improvement than the class with strategies embedded, meaning that students could multi-

task; and it tended to benefit comprehension.

In another study conducted by Applegate, Quinn, and Applegate (2006), 300

students ranging from first grade through senior high school were administered The

Critical Reading Inventory (Prentice Hall) written by Applegate, Quinn, and Applegate.

Questions were phrased to require thinking about ideas versus recall of specific details.

Eight reading profiles were created based on patterns of response to the questions; and

readers were sorted as literalists, fuzzy thinkers, left fielders, quiz contestants, politicians,

dodgers, authors and minimalists. Eight labeled reading profiles specified instructional

interventions from story maps, anticipation guides, modeling and think-alouds, to

creating a supportive classroom environment. The conclusion drawn from the study was
22
that effective comprehension instruction geared toward meeting student’s individual

needs benefited learners. Applegate, Quinn, and Applegate (2006) concluded that deeper

thinking required phrasing questions toward students’ understanding larger concepts so

students began to build personal levels of knowledge (schema) of the world (Wolfolk,

2001). Using the right type of question such as concept-based or open-ended was another

relevant design element for instructional designers to remember in reading design.

Reading Comprehension

Reading was a complex skill reliant on working memory (Burton & Daneman,

2007); and it has been common for novice readers to overload working memory in the

process of decoding words (Hall, 2007). Reading comprehension strategies can activate

neural networks through alternative sensory means and strengthen long-term memory.

Significant research has been done on poor readers and working memory difficulties

(Savage, Lavers, & Pillay, 2007).

Much of the reading comprehension literature focused on use of strategies and

external aids such as graphic organizers to help students understand what they read (Ogle,

2009). For example, a mnemonic acronym such as MOVES: move/manipulate, organize,

visualize, and enter (type or hand write), say (read aloud), helped students remember the

strategies to practice (Willis, 2008). By practicing with strategies like questioning,

predicting, visualizing, or skimming texts strategically, the brain gained automaticity

(Bishop, Reyes, & Pflaum, 2006). Strategies became second nature and comprehension

was improved (Diakidoy, Stylianou, Karefillidou, & Papageorgiou, 2005).

According to Gill (2008), the following three things effect comprehension: the

reader, the text, and the situation. Self-concept, esteem, and physical and emotional states
23
impacted the reader as did background knowledge and reading strategies applied to the

text. For reading done outside of school, home distractions such as television, children

and household duties limited comprehension (Armstrong & Chung, 2000; Pool et. al.,

2000; Poopola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). How readers applied strategies to the

text, or how they learned to deal with distractions was integral to current study because

music was inserted into the environment as a motivational strategy or as a distraction to

reading comprehension. Readers without the right strategies or background knowledge

were unable to understand certain texts and needed the teacher’s help (Ediger, 2007;

Nassaji, 2007).

Strategies and background knowledge were key considerations in determining

which texts were selected for the data collection. Texts that required specific background

knowledge were carefully screened to avoid lack of comprehension. Texts that were

above the average reading levels of the participants were also avoided because of the

resulting high cognitive load (Chandler & Sweller, 1991). In a constructivist

environment, learners created schema of ideas or knowledge in a less structured

instructional environment. Constructivist learning depended on learner’s beliefs that the

material was understandable (Reigeluth, 1999). Text selection focused on the

participants’ reading ranges and interests was important to student success as was

harnessing personal interests which are intrinsically linked to motivation (Driscoll, 2005).

Comprehension Solutions

According to the International Reading Association Reading Standard 2.2, “Use a

wide range of instructional practices, approaches, and methods, including technology-

based practices for learners at differing stages of development and from differing cultural
24
and linguistic backgrounds” (Godt, 2009, p. 59). One type of reading strategy or teaching

method did not work for every student (Allington, 2005). English language learners may

not benefit from certain reading strategies such as think-alouds if it detracts or distracts

mentally from the objectives of reading text. McKeown and Gentilucci’s (2007) study

done with ESL population concluded that not all reading strategies fit all students, and

use of different strategies should be carefully weighed by teachers depending on an

individual’s strengths.

Struggling readers improved reading levels by utilizing books at or below reading

level. Pressley and Allington, (2006) indicated half of all students encountered texts that

were too difficult. The lexile analyzer feature at Lexile.com can evaluate the reading

range of the text to attempt to fit the participants’ reading levels. For this study, Leslie

and Caldwell (2011) have field-tested and provided lexile ranges for all reading materials

used.

Comprehension solutions have begun with basic word identification and climbed

up to inference and comprehension monitoring. Even primary students have read

inferentially (Sanacore, 1985). Perfetti, Yang, and Schmalhofer (2008) stated limitations

of working memory effect contextual construction of meaning as well as a brain’s ability

to infer. Assessing inference and applying knowledge from reading passages has been

essential to integration of higher mental processes; therefore, assessment itself must take

question creation beyond regurgitation of facts into inference. Nassaji (2007) said

determining what should be tested was just as important as text selections. Multiple

choice questions and answers were insufficient to gauge understanding; open-ended

questions were required to determine true comprehension (Schwarz & Oyserman, 2001).
25
Prigge (2002) said individual answers may vary in depth of comprehension, but cognition

can be measured more accurately through open-ended questions.

Self-regulation of strategies was also known as cognitive process (Housand &

Reis, 2009; Pressley & Allington, 2006; Lefevre & Lories, 2004). Readers’ involvement

with text was situational and based on who readers were individually, prior knowledge

(schema), and what mattered individually (Tierney, 1990). Reader’s self-regulation,

motivation and prior knowledge were important considerations in text selection (Driscoll,

2005; Tierney, 1990). The readers’ self-perceptions about the perfect reading

environment motivated buy-in and reception of study parameters (Armstrong & Chung,

2000; Beaman, 2005, 2004; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007), “Students who self-

regulate….conduct some of the following activities: keeping a study calendar, having a

specific study location, setting up regular study periods, setting realistic goals,

prioritizing tasks, saying no to distractions, and self-rewarding success” (Cooper, Horn,

& Strahan, 2005, p. 12). Driscoll (2005) and Reigeluth (1999) indicated self-regulation

was a point where the individual takes control of learning. Instructional strategies related

to self-regulation and motivation led to two learner-centered design goals: design

appealing instruction, and facilitated development of self-regulatory skills and knowledge

(Driscoll, 2005).

Cognitive Load Theory

According to Driscoll (2005), van Merriënboer and Sweller (2005), the basis of

cognitive load theory came from schema-theory and information-processing theory. Clark

and Mayer (2008) defined the strain put on working memory in the form of information

for processing as cognitive load. Working memory stored information over short periods
26
of time (Savage et. al., 2007). Familiar materials created a low cognitive load

(McCrudden, Schraw, Hartley, & Kiewra, 2004). Advance organizers used by instructors

aided learners in construction of schema by activating prior knowledge (Clark et. al.,

2006; Driscoll, 2005). Instruction had two main goals: help learners form new schema,

and help learners automate new schemas for efficient and effective job performance

(Clark et. al., 2006). Design and delivery of instruction impacted all learners regardless of

age.

In a study conducted by Olina, Reiser, Huang, Lim, and Park (2006), cognitive

load theory was tested on 209 ninth graders who were learning basic comma rules by

practicing a set of skills in random order to see if this group of learners would retain and

transfer the skills better than learners completing practice problems for one punctuation

skill at a time. Olina et. al. (2006) studied random problem sequences shown to increase

germane cognitive load, whereas pre-existing schemas were not impacted by treatments.

One perceived issue in the study was that language arts did not have a rule-based

approach to problem-solving like math, statistics, or engineering, making it difficult to

cue or teach skills in a block before moving to the next.

The original cognitive load theory studies were done by Sweller in 1988, two

essential characteristics of a powerful learning environment were identified as: the design

of the environment itself, and consideration given to the background of the learners

including ages (Rikers, 2006). Rikers (2006) indicated instructional designers must

decide how materials are best presented, avoid split effect or redundancy within the

delivery because it causes extraneous cognitive load; and determine how learners interact

with the environment. An example of redundancy effect was on-screen text with narrated
27
audio; whereas split attention effect involved design of materials with words and pictures

far apart. Rikers (2006), Clark and Mayer (2008), and van Merriënboer and Ayers (2005)

agreed split attention and the redundancy effect should be avoided within instructional

design. Even with attention to avoidance of extraneous cognitive load, learners may have

found the materials difficult to process; therefore, van Merriënboer and Ayers (2005)

stated the solution was simplifying tasks or introducing smaller pieces of information for

more effective instruction.

Complexity of text fell under intrinsic cognitive load; and mental motivation of

the learner was under germane cognitive load (Wallen, Plass, & Brünken, 2005). How

does an instructional designer weigh and balance the needs of learners and the desired

outcomes of training? A brief look at the Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (2007) model

provided designers with a systematic instructional plan framed by four components:

learners, objectives, methods, and evaluation. Characteristics of learners, learning

outcomes, instructional strategies, and assessment of whether or not desired skills have

been learned were integral to many instructional design models (Morrison et. al., 2007).

The Morrison et. al. model provided a solid framework for designers to equally weigh the

four components in the instructional design process. Within the model, Morrison et. al.

indicated if assimilation did not occur, learning loss occurred within 24 hours.

Meaningful learning connected new information to prior knowledge strengthening

cognitive structure (schema). Designer’s use of advance organizers, explanations,

examples or analogies increased the chance of meaningful learning (Morrison et. al.,

2007).

28
 Expert readers accessed long-term memory by linking new materials to prior

knowledge enabling prediction and inference. Bishop, Reyes, and Pflaum (2006)

indicated new memory connections required practice to elevate reading comprehension to

automaticity. Understanding Cognitive Load Theory and cognitive processes allowed

instructors and instructional designers to overcome challenges such as cognitive overload

(Mayer & Moreno, 2003). For reading comprehension to occur, a certain automaticity

must happen.

Memory and Hemispheres

Automatic memory referred to a stimulus that triggers memory. An example

would be when a song plays and within the first few bars, a person recognizes and sings

the song (Sprenger, 1999). Explicit memory storage was in the hippocampus and stored

words, places, or facts (semantic memory). Explicit and episodic terms referred to facts,

ideas and events kept in long-term memory (Given, 2002). Memory for skills, language,

and actions (Given, 2002) included procedural, automatic, and emotional types of

memories (Sprenger, 1999). Automatic memory examples given were multiplication

tables, sets of words, the alphabet, ability to read, connection to songs, and ability to

decode words were stored in the cerebellum in an automatic memory lane (Sprenger,

1999). The automatic memories required practice and repetition for long-term memory

storage. Working memory sorted prior knowledge and compared it with new knowledge

to determine if new should be stored with old (Sprenger 1999). Simple associations or

cues such as setting rote memorization to a well-known song triggered memory recall

(Springer & Deutsch, 1998). “Music is one of the most powerful means for enhancing

automatic memory” (Sprenger, 1999, p. 75). These cues were strengthened with emotion,
29
so the more exciting or entertaining the event, the easier the recall. Recalling memory has

been a challenge when under stress such as in a state of test anxiety. Reduction of stress

began with creating a calm classroom environment focused on positive brain chemistry.

Some suggestions for brain-friendly classrooms were: playing calming music such as

Baroque era, allowing teamwork to reduce tension, allowing physical movement, giving

students choices or options for an element of control (Willis, 2007), and letting students

know that it is okay to make mistakes (Sprenger, 1999). Allowing choice stimulated a

positive emotional response resulting in a release of dopamine; and learning activities

linked to enjoyable experiences made students’ brains seek out those activities (Willis,

2007). Setting up conditions for optimal student engagement captured attention, and

stimulated creativity (Willis, 2007). Given (2002) found the following:

Listening, speaking, reading, writing, and other academic skill development

depend on the cognitive system. The cognitive system depends on sensory input
and the adequate functioning of the attention, information processing, and
memory subsystems for the construction of knowledge and skills. Just as
important, the cognitive system functions best when other systems—emotional,
social, physical, or reflective—are not competing with it for attention. When
systems compete rather than cooperate, learning is drastically diminished (p. 81).

According to Given (2002), students actively paying attention involved: readiness

to perceive stimuli, consciousness, initial focus, sustained focus, ability to shift focus, and

encoding defined as holding information in memory long enough to perform an action or

cognitive operation. The constructivist view of memory was that memories are actively

reconstructed (inferenced) by the brain as needed based on review of patterns, and no

actual recording of a past event existed (Given, 2002). Williams (1983) compared the

hemispheres to digital computer (left) and kaleidoscope (right). The kaleidoscope

30
reshuffled images and patterns constantly in infinite numbers of ways while logic and

language was more specific in its recall (Williams, 1983).

Williams (1983) stated that,

while music can be processed in either hemisphere, most listeners seem to use
their right hemispheres, so we will include music as a ‘right-hemisphere
technique.’ Of special interest in this area is the work of Georgi Lozanov, a
Bulgarian physicist who uses music to facilitate and accelerate learning of foreign
languages. His techniques are being applied to other subjects as well (p. 35).

Dr. Lozanov’s research method titled Suggestology enabled students to learn

more quickly with less effort (Bancroft, 1995; Williams, 1983). Williams (1983) reported

that Lozanov’s foreign language students acquired a 2000-word vocabulary over four

weeks in eight-four hours of instruction. Suggestology was based on the premise that a

mind was capable of learning more efficiently when barriers were removed and an

optimal environment created by promoting student self-confidence and minimizing

internal and external distractions. Music was used in Suggestology as a tool to relax the

students and induce a mental state for material to be more easily absorbed and retained.

Williams (1983) detailed the following:

Students do not concentrate on the words but enter a receptive state in which the
teacher’s words may suggest images and the dialogue is absorbed without
conscious effort. Lozanov uses music written in 4/4 time played at a slow tempo
of 60 beats per minute, because it is believed that such music lulls the mind into a
receptive state where it is fully relaxed yet also alert and open to
stimuli….Lozanov’s work suggests a powerful new role for music in learning (p.
165).

Levy (1983) disputed the idea that right and left hemispheres have specialty tasks.

Split-brain patient studies demonstrated speech confined in the left hemisphere; however,

other aspects of language were not so easily categorized into hemisphere functions.

"Right-hemisphere processes are very important for the apprehension of full meaning
31
from oral or written communications and for the expression of full meaning” (Levy,

1983, p. 67). Levy said that both hemispheres contributed to understanding. Right

hemisphere studies have shown comprehension of words depends on how concrete or

abstract words are (Springer & Deutsch, 1998). Words such as justice or hate seemed to

depend on left-hemisphere processing; whereas concrete terms such as table or hospital

were understood by the right-hemisphere alone (Springer & Deutsch, 1998). Springer and

Deutsch (1998) agreed that musical skills resided in both hemispheres. Analyzing music

was done with the left hemisphere, and enjoying it was a function of the right hemisphere

(Sprenger, 1999). Division of opinions on how a brain understood and processed music

and language abound. Television was an example of what was proven to increase right

hemisphere activity; however, an EEG study showed equivalent activation of both

hemispheres during television viewing. Finding ways to use both sides of the learner’s

brain seemed to be a good targeted outcome for educational purposes (Given, 2002;

Sprenger, 1999; Springer & Deutsch, 1998).

Analyzing music was a left hemisphere function and reading text was also a left

hemisphere function. Enjoyment of music was a right hemisphere function, and

comprehension of the full meaning of text was right hemisphere function (Ornstein,

1997; Sprenger, 1999; Williams, 1983). Between music and reading, both hemispheres

were needed for full appreciation and comprehension to happen with exceptions such as

in hemisphere removal or split where the brain finds a way to do both functions with one

hemisphere (Ornstein, 1997; Sprenger, 1999; Williams, 1983).

32
 Multimedia and the Internet

Technology and text were combined in computer-based programs, e-learning,

multimedia, and many 21st century tools which have become commonplace. Words,

images, pictures and inferences of relationships through text were a visual literacy that

multimedia and online sources require students and teachers to navigate (Mackey, 2003;

Williams, 2005). Internet access to education can open the door for nontraditional

learners to attend class on flexible schedules around work and family obligations

(Rosenberg, 2001). Internet can also be an obstacle to learning (Nworie & Haughton,

2008). Instructional design implications in several studies discuss segregation of work

from fun (e.g., email, social networking, or music). Social Internet activities as well as

cheating, bullying, and instant messaging may be viewed as distractions from learning

(Barnes, Marateo, & Ferris, 2007; Nworie & Haughton, 2008). Instructional designers

balanced edutainment and text heavy sources as a means to successful, interactive, and

engaging learning through multimedia and online course materials. Rosenberg (2001)

indicated that, “multimedia can be a great tool in enhancing learning and motivating

learners. But, like technology, multimedia is not in and of itself an e-learning strategy”

(p. 58).

Teenagers have tended to immerse themselves in noise; however, music, sound

effects, and animation provided distractions from learning (Voithofer, 2004). Finding

balance in multimedia was the subject of several research studies. Three-dimensional

objects, music, sound, and digital text required a different type of literacy processing

according to Walsh (2008). New skills needed to be taught at different levels to allow
33
learners to engage more efficiently. Visual, graphic, sound, and kinesthetic modes needed

to be taught through reading, writing, and talking about it (Walsh, 2008). Through

technology integration, students have taken multitasking into a multiplex of simultaneous

activities. Switching between competing activities can be distracting (Winter, Cotton,

Gavin, & York, 2010). It was and is common for teenagers to have music playing, the

television on, talk on a phone and a textbook open to scan for homework answers.

Watching television during homework extended the amount of time needed for

completion (Armstrong & Chung, 2000; Pool et. al., 2000), but multi-tasking through

technology has become a way of life for teenagers.

Competition for teenager’s attention during homework time is immense. Teens

and adults become embedded in telephones, social media, Internet, multimedia,

television, music, and varied delivery mechanisms for learning and information; and all

of these mediums compete simultaneously for time and attention. Multi-tasking was a

common skill for the 21st century learner, so keeping track of all of these at once might

not have seemed to detract or distract from homework. Reading comprehension could

have been overwhelmed in the surround-sound of competing mediums. Finding a method

that worked to overcome distractions, and assisted learners in focusing attention on

comprehending what is read was relevant. In our technology-centered world, confirming

and understanding what students are up against has been important to comprehending the

nature of students.

Handheld Devices

Investigation of handheld devices and understanding their nature was important

because the world has been moving into digital devices for communication, education,
34
and the future of online coursework. Combining music with informational reading on a

handheld device suggested that it became relevant to students’ lives personally and

educationally since the two elements have already been combined at the touch of a finger.

The use of MP3 and cell phones during private and public time was part of a 2006

focus group study with students from Toronto and Southern Ontario (also known as

Whitton). Sixteen teachers and five administrators from twelve different schools also

participated in interviews on cell phone and MP3 bans in the classroom and schools

(Domitrek & Rady, 2008). The ubiquitous nature of cell phone ownership in Canada

marks 70.1% of households owning a mobile phone, and 46% of 11th-graders (2006

data). According to focus group students (ages 14 to 21), and several teachers, MP3s

(music) was a good way to relax or unwind. Some teachers allowed music during

seatwork time because of the added benefits of reduction of social distractions and

helping students focus during boring tasks. Negative potential was identified as second

hand noise which may distract other learners because of overhearing MP3 music based

on high volume. Administrators interviewed took a different approach to music indicating

that administration should have the power to decide whether or not MP3 are banned on a

policy scale, and individual teachers or students should not be allowed to make this

decision independently. Canadian students, teachers, and administrators had differences

of opinion on cell phone policies. Since many administrators and teachers used portable

devices (cell phones and MP3s) during the school day, students saw this as inequitable.

Many Canadian schools have banned student cell phone use on campus; and although

students conceded that electronics might undermine education, students felt strongly cell

35
phone use should be allowed during lunch, between classes, and before or after school

(Domitrek & Rady, 2008).

What consequences may have existed using handheld devices in education?

Handhelds have been embedded in society from family to community level (Song, 2007).

Design of software for handhelds needed to be created with collaboration in the forefront

(Liu, Chung, Chen, & Liu, 2009; Liu & Kao, 2007). An eight week study of two graduate

school settings used Tablet Personal Computers (PCs), Personal Digital Assistants

(PDAs), and peripheral devices focused on three groups of five students in Taiwan in a

“Statistics and Data Mining Techniques” course (Liu et. al., 2009). One to one computing

with tablet PCs resulted in fragmented communication due to lack of shared workspace

which ended in less promotive discussion. Students tended to solve statistical problems

individually using handhelds, but were less likely to communicate in groups. In the

second setting, handhelds were used with shared display groupware. A result of shared

visual workspace was more discussion, more arguments and positions taken with a

resulting analysis based on informed agreement (Liu et. al., 2009). Mobile learning was

individual in nature, but with design of collaborative learning applications and student

training on new technology use (Liu & Kao, 2007), results were quite different and

collaboration results better. One on one computing environments could still work well in

the thinking stage (Liu & Kao, 2007) where individuals use handhelds for exploration.

Network file sharing environments focused students’ attention on PCs and not on group

or partners (Liu & Kao, 2007). Students and old rules of classroom engagement could be

barriers to learning.

36
 Significant barriers to using technology for learning in the Winter et. al., (2010)

graduate learner study listed barriers such as: lack of prior knowledge and experience,

time and knowledge needed to update skills, financial limitations to do so, and a general

preference for face to face learning. Online pitfalls listed by participants include learning

to separate learning from non-learning tasks by recognizing and avoiding distractions.

Successful adult learners tended to segregate activities by moving individual reading

assignments away from distractions like e-mail, computers, music, or other social

networking situations (Winter et. al., 2010). On the positive side, mobile learning

removed barriers to education because the classroom was moved to locations without

computers, and made learning accessible in business and education (Koszalka &

Ntloedibe-Kuswani, 2010). Leaving the classroom to seek information in a library was no

longer disrupting learning because through wireless Internet service and handhelds, the

information was accessible at a touch of a finger (Koszalka & Ntloedibe-Kuswani, 2010).

Non-linear access through data bases was a change from the linear method of textbook

reading (Eshet-Alkalai, 2004). Finding unlimited amounts of information did not mean

that learners understood it or that engagement would occur (Sumara, Luce-Kapler, &

Iftody, 2008).

Learners inaccessible to institutes of higher education benefited from online tutors

and education according to a case study conducted by Viljoen, Preez, and Cook (2005) in

South Africa. Closing the gaps meant that 97% of the participants had cell phone access

while only 0.8% had e-mail access (Koszalka & Ntloedibe-Kuswani, 2010). M-learning

tools improved perceptions of e-learning by providing access regardless of social status

or location. E-learning had become synonymous with people using electronic devices
37
(Liu & Hwang, 2010). There were technical problems including bandwidth, access,

storage, and technology failures, yet mobile education was now anywhere, and anytime

(Grice & Hughes, 2009; Koszalka & Ntloedibe-Kuswani, 2010).

K-12 and higher education studies in podcasting (Hew, 2009) stated that similar

barriers exist including unfamiliarity with the medium or tools, technology problems, not

seeing relevance in learning through this method. Participants in eight studies reviewed

by Hew (2009) perceived podcasting as a safety net or back up for face to face learning.

Podcasts were a nice back up for missing a class lecture and were accessible 24/7 (Harris

& Rea, 2009). While audio or video files were portable, most students used home

computer desktops to access these lectures for review or to access supplementary

materials for class. The time invested in podcasting was not seen as especially effective

because of the redundancies; however, one survey indicated student satisfaction increased

when podcasts were available although quizzes were not impacted by the same

availability. Please note the reviewer indicated that no control groups were used in the

studies of podcasting, so the true impact or effect of podcasting on test scores was

unknown (Hew, 2009). Two disadvantages of podcasting were listed as high-speed

access as a requirement, and that podcasts were not interactive (Harris & Rea, 2009).

Perception of an academic podcast versus listening to music was a point made by Hew

(2009) because multi-tasking which was integral in digital natives’ daily lives was

somewhat different when the MP3 or iPod was used for academic purposes. Music

listening was perceived as a different function of the MP3 player or handheld device

compared with course podcast listening based on students’ ability to absorb facts through

38
auditory means. Contradiction was that auditory learning was most portable, and 96% of

students preferred MP3 file types over audio cassettes (Hew, 2009).

Video iPods were used in a study of math teachers’ professional development

(Morris & Easterday, 2008). Portability, mobility, and small personal size of the iPods

were employed to study algebraic thinking in the ELL classroom through teacher training

specifically focused on user’s ability to listen while doing other things such as driving the

car, making dinner, and exercising (Morris & Easterday, 2008). While acknowledging a

learning curve existed and technology support was needed for new users, the summary

was positive and hopeful that multi-tasking teachers in the study would in turn use the

portable technology in classrooms with students. Teachers needed exposure and time to

build skills with technology (Merchant, 2009).

For promotion of technology integration and reading, school library media

specialists used book reviews upgraded into technology projects via audio or video book

reviews created by students to promote use of the online card catalogue for viewing the

creative presentations, and generate excitement for reading. Video book talks combined

technology with reading comprehension strategies (Tankersley, 2003). So through

understanding and harnessing technology, library specialists have already conquered the

divide. Using the handheld medium, how could instructional designers design materials

to help bridge the gap between learners and comprehension?

Electronic Texts

Electronic text (e-text) and tests were the delivery mechanisms for this study

because they have become more readily available. A thorough literature review was

needed to explore and understand the issues contained within e-text and as a delivery
39
mechanism. Fair use documents were free and online, also known as the Classics;

learner’s reading futures may literally be online, in a paperless environment quite soon.

Understanding this and how it combines with multimedia is relevant and important to

comprehending learners and the future of online reading comprehension.

Choices abound for alternatives to reading text on paper. Digital storytelling was

a recent advancement in combining narrative, visual images, and music or sound effects.

Use of digital video was not as new, but it supported students of all types in

comprehension of stories and building knowledge of characters, setting, and plot with

help of direct visualization (Malin, 2010). Another alternative to paperbacks were

handhelds that offered electronic, e-text or e-reading features (text read aloud functions).

Read-aloud functions were great for reluctant or slow readers. Taking that up a

specialization notch, the Kurzweil 3000 provided high-tech accommodations from scan

and read text functions to multisensory to adapt screen speed for reading accommodation

rates. Texts, tests, quizzes, or worksheets could be scanned to become read-aloud text-to-

speech formatted (Kaplan, 2003). Many other software programs existed for text to

speech outside of specialized computer equipment. Other devices such as the Kindle,

Nook, Sony Reader, iPad, iLiad, and other e-text technologies allowed downloadable

books wherever an Internet or WiFi connection was available (Larson, 2010). The

Internet offered students research reference materials on portable devices, and connected

users to many virtual libraries regardless of locale or financial resources of the local

school. Online book sellers have started promoting free e-books along with the free

software required to read them on handhelds or computer desktops (Franklin & Ferguson

2005; Larson, 2009). E-books have been available through school libraries for check out,
40
as are MP3 like audio players (Playaways) to allow students digital novel listening. Free

audio and e-books as well as magazines were available through a multitude of web sites

such as www.ebooks.com, www.gutenberg.org, or www.tumblebooks.com,

www.bartelby.com and www.zinio.com.

Garland and Noyes (2004) conducted a study comparing printed text with an

electronic version of the same text. Researchers wanted to see if human memory or

cognitive systems view the e-text in a different manner. Retrieval of knowledge varied

between paper and computerized text, and found that reading from a computer could

provide less accurate information and a slower reading rate than from the paper version

(Garland & Noyes, 2004). One of the studies’ explanations of differences in

comprehension was that the computer (CRT) monitor interfered with the mental

processes involved in reading (Garland & Noyes, 2004).

Spencer (2006) conducted a study of printed text versus computer screen delivery

of text with 500 graduates and undergraduates at 254 Royal Roads University School of

Business to survey online course-related reading habits and choices (Spencer, 2006). Of

the 500 learners involved in the survey, 254 completed it online. Some participants were

included in follow-up interviews where age became a point of interest. Eight-three

percent of participants were between 30 and 49 (Survey average age 30 to 39). Age did

not make much difference in choices made of printed text versus online reading: 73%

under 30 and 78% over 50 chose to read 50% of the text online. Physical demands of

using computer screens for reading and accompanying eyestrain and headaches were

factors noted by the survey participants in choosing to read printed text. Upgrades to

LCD and plasma may change this habit (Spencer, 2006). Some other statistics of interest
41
were 82% of learners printed articles when long or complicated; 75% printed if notes

needed; 80% printed if needed to study for an exam or assignment; 92% printed if needed

information to work with other documents. Participants liked having the choice of printed

versus online versions. Even with a cost savings (no printing) for electronic text, a

majority of learners valued convenience, highlighting printed text, and portability of a

textbook or printed page (Spencer, 2006). Annotations and highlighting were available

online, so perhaps comfort with the tools might change this in the future with exposure to

the technology (Spencer, 2006).

Shepperd, Grace, and Koch (2008) completed a study of 466 students enrolled in

an introductory psychology course to evaluate electronic textbooks versus print

textbooks. Ease of using an electronic text was highlighted as being searchable for key

terms, lightweight, less bulky, and eco-friendly. Publishing company demonstrated the

CD before giving learners purchase options. There was a cost savings built into the e-text

CD and study guide with $40 for the CD/e-text, $81.25 for a new printed textbook, and

$60.95 for a used printed textbook. Even with cost savings potential, 90% of students

purchased a printed textbook. Final class grades did not differ significantly between e-

text and print users although less study time was spent by the bulk of e-text learners

(Shepperd et. al., 2008). A final thought of researchers was perhaps an adjustment time

period was needed for e-text to become a more widely accepted alternative to a

traditional print version. It appeared that students who planned to read an entire textbook

preferred to purchase it instead of browse an e-text which equated to a reduction in

reading rate by 50% unless a learner skim-read (Shepperd et. al., 2008). The study used

electronic text with teenage participants which fit the e-text research successes. Starting
42
students at a younger age using e-text and accompanying tech-tools should be equated to

a higher comfort level and added motivation to try new things.

What has motivated students to read and write may also have changed based on

the technology they have used. Twittering has a potential if a student approaches authors

with questions or comments. Snail mail did not offer the same immediacy or global

intimacy that instant messaging and online social interaction does. Young author web

sites, personal web pages, and blogs allowed the Net generation (Oblinger & Oblinger,

2005) to share writing with a much wider, critical audience. A teacher was no longer the

sole reader of students’ creative and well-constructed ideas which should add in

motivation for writing, and reading each other’s work. The doors have come off the

classroom and widened the level of engagement when adults were not getting in the way

of technological advances. Bird and Giles (2010), the editors of Voices from the Middle

did not care what type of book was read or listened to, the point was that teenagers should

read whether via eBook, listening to an iPod audio book, or a regular print book.

Technology was part of the typical teenager’s life, so “yet even as technology changes

our perceptions and definitions of ‘books,’ students will still read, and books will still be

written or published in some form” (Bird & Giles, 2010, p. 47).

Because studies indicated electronic text reading has independent and varied

issues for learners, standardized delivery of the e-text through an Internet course room

site (Moodle) is chosen as a realistic delivery of the materials, music, and tests for this

study. Before the study began, reading comprehension was measured through a

standardized online testing system (Scholastic Reading Inventory) that allowed computer

entry of answers over handwritten responses. Study pre-test and post-tests were inserted
43
into an online course room using the MoodleTM test creator for open-ended (short answer)

question format. Instructional design of online learning directed the designer to avoid

split effect and redundancy (Clark & Mayer, 2008) in setting up the online materials for

the study. Because of this specific design strategy, Leslie and Caldwell’s (2011) high

school reading materials with visuals included were uploaded as e-text, PDF files. An

online delivery method for the study was another motivational factor for participants.

Music as an Instructional Design Intervention

Using audio in e-learning was the focus of a study conducted by Calandra et. al.,

(2008), which surveyed 23 instructional designers on integration of audio elements

defined as music, speech, and sound effects. Four questions about designed audio-

enhanced multimedia instruction were: “1. What forms of audio do instructional

designers choose to implement? 2. Why do instructional designers incorporate audio into

e-Learning courses? 3. When do instructional designers choose to implement audio? 4.

How do instructional designers implement audio?” (p. 590). Instructional designer’s

responses to question one were that 50% of participants indicated they rarely if ever used

music in e-learning. Narration was the most popular audio element. In response to

question two, “participants reported intuitive rationale to be significantly more influential

in their decision making process than theoretical principles” (p. 600). Finally, the

learners’ attributes were noted as a factor in choice of audio. Low reading levels merited

narration for understanding, and younger audiences merited music clips (p. 601). Overall,

designing for less technical disciplines meant higher inclusion of audio elements in

design (answering question 4). Current study was targeting a high school population, so

the insight offered by instructional designers in Calandra et. al., study (2008), opened the
44
door to music inclusion. Two music study types have been done, pre-task and

background music (during task).

Pre-Task Music

From elementary through undergraduates, pre-task music studies were divided on

the effects of classical music played before spatial reasoning tasks giving a short-term

boost to students’ skills. Arousal-and-mood hypothesis indicated a fast-tempo classical

piece in a major key (happy sounding) had a positive effect compared to silence or a slow

tempo, minor key (sad sounding) when tested on a variety of cognitive tasks.

Schellenberg (2005) indicated complexity of the music as a reason for a short-term

enhancement.

Bangerter and Heath (2004) tracked the evolution of the Mozart Effect (pre-task

music). In an original study done by Rauscher and Shaw in 1993, researchers played a

Mozart Sonata for ten minutes, and administered a spatial intelligence test afterwards;

and college participants had a temporary increase in spatial task performance of eight to

nine IQ points (Caufield, 1999; Rauscher et. al., 1995). Enhancements were short-term,

and lasted only as long as exposure to a Mozart Sonata. “The main finding of this study

was that one specific composition of Mozart enhanced adult spatial test performance for

up to about 15 min” (Rauscher & Hinton, 2006, p. 233). A control group of college

students sat in silence or relaxation for 10 minutes before taking the same test. Popularity

of this study grew significantly as it was mutated and marketed by a businessman, Don

Campbell, as a method to increase intelligence for infants still in mother’s womb (Dowd,

2007). Classical music sales soared, as did the newspaper articles referencing the study

(478 articles referencing the study in a single year). A myth about infants was just that,
45
because this population has never been tested or studied. Larkin (1999) indicated there

are studies that attempted to reproduce the study and results, but failed to follow the

original experimental design.

Multiple studies detailed that pre-task music studies had not improved spatial

abilities, and cannot be replicated under all laboratory conditions (Dowd, 2007;

McKelvie & Low, 2002; Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Standing et. al., 2008;

Thompson et. al., 2001; Wilson & Brown, 1997). Nantais and Schellenberg (1999)

hypothesized that pairing of musical or audio conditions were a key because music paired

with a less engaging stimulus had a more positive result. Rauscher and Hinton (2006)

stated the value found within the Mozart Effect studies may have been the knowledge

that music and spatial task performance share neurologically related elements. Exposure

to classical music selections may have excited large groups of neurons which would

explain the heightened state of arousal (McKelvie & Low, 2002). Of 11 studies evaluated

by McKelvie and Low (2002); four supported the Mozart Effect, while seven did not.

McKelvie and Low (2002) reviewed the researchers’ designs, and evaluated how closely

those replication studies were in design to the original. Steele study used a spatial-

temporal task from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (paper folding and cutting)

followed by a Mozart selection or audio comedy, followed by a post-test, the paper

folding and cutting task. In Steele’s pre-test-post-test design with a distracter between

tests, study data did not support Rauscher’s findings.

A New Zealand study, populated with 55 students, aged 11 to 13, replicated the

Rideout and Steele design. The 16 minute tape used included a distracter: poetry readings

(4:30 minutes), followed by musical selections: one group listened to a Mozart Sonata in
46
D (8:29 minutes), and the other group listened to Cartoon Heroes by Aqua (7:30

minutes). The Aqua music selection, repetitive, up-tempo dance music, was chosen

because it is dissimilar to classical music, and would verify that any positive results were

not from music creating a physical reaction (e.g., involuntary physical arousal due to

musical beat versus intellectual arousal). Exposure to Mozart’s Sonata in D did not result

in enhanced performance on a spatial task administered.

In a second replication study, a slightly different research design by Rideout was

used where participants served as control group. The Rideout design incorporated

relaxation techniques to enhance the Mozart Effect (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999).

Study participants from Wellington, New Zealand, totaled 48 children from 11-13 years

of age. Three musical types were used: classical, relaxation, and contemporary dance

music. Classical was Mozart’s Sonata in D (8:29 min), the relaxation music was

comprised of Debussey’s Clare de Lune (7:49 min) and Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue

(1:47 min); and the contemporary dance music was Cartoon Heroes by Aqua (no time

given). Students who tested high on the control test also scored high on the experimental

test. Overall, there was no significant effect indicated by musical condition; and the

Mozart Effect was not replicated in this study (McKelvie & Low, 2002). Relaxation was

found to bore or tire the subjects; whereas the Mozart selection elevated participant’s

state of arousal, which may have led to improved performance on the post-test (McKelvie

& Low, 2002). Not surprisingly, students enjoyed dance music more than two other

musical selections.

Waterhouse (2006) pointed to activity and connections in brain systems as a

reason listening to music rewards participants. Music served as a stimulant for some
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learners; however, this effect may have diminished over time. Cognitive science studied

the memory, learning, repetition, and physical or environmental factors for distraction

from or enhancement of the learning process (Waterhouse, 2006). Wilson and Brown

(1997) indicated music alone does not promote learning, yet silence may be as good an

audio element in view of accuracy as Mozart.

Cassity, Henley, and Markley (2007) tested a Mozart Effect theory with a

realistic, modern application during game play of Tony Hawk Pro 3. Study results

showed better game play results with heavy metal music versus Mozart selections. Heavy

metal music has a definite beat that could result in arousal during the game to promote

attention. Other skill required in video gaming is coordination or psychomotor skills, not

a true parallel to cognitive organization. The Hall (1952) Texas University research

categorized as a Mozart Effect study was not a replication because music was not played

before a task; it was a background music study.

Many of the pre-task music studies considered in this literature review did not

replicate the original research conditions. For example, techno-pop, heavy metal, rock n

roll, and dance music, although popular to student participants, did not replicate the

highly-structured classical music used in the original studies. Brain’s potential reaction to

musical structure of classical music placing marketing outcomes aside; short-term impact

on memory made the inclusion of classical music an element that stood apart, and was

worth further investigation on its potential impact on reading comprehension. Pre-reading

highly-structured music was selected to accurately replicate original variable of

successful studies. Sound instructional design should help when reviewing studies and

selecting design elements for inclusion in future studies.

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Background Music (During-task)

Background music studies netted mixed results in elementary, junior high, high

school, and undergraduate college settings (Barnes, 2002). Oliver (1996) studied

incoming at-risk college freshman during a summer bridge program at a Midwestern

university. Oliver’s premise was students reproduce or memorize facts; students do not

recall or study using deeper cognition to produce thought. Without connections, Oliver

indicated it was easy to forget. Study stated that the left hemisphere was for reading,

logical writing (speech and language), reasoning, analysis and sequence; while the right

hemisphere was for nonverbal ways of knowing (e.g., rhythm, music, images,

imagination). The highest potential for cognition would have been to engage both

hemispheres of the brain at once (Oliver, 1996). “Classroom teachers at all levels have

been exhorted to encourage greater right-brain involvement in their students” (Springer &

Deutsch, 1998, p. 299). Education was geared to favor teaching to one hemisphere of the

brain, the left; therefore, involving the right hemisphere is an objective of using music

within the classroom (Springer & Deutsch, 1998). Ornstein (1997) indicated, “there is so

much evidence for right-hemisphere superiority in certain tasks using tactile, kinesthetic,

and auditory modalities—because to describe knowing the outlines of the world as spatial

omits its musical and other auditory aspects, and it ignores the obvious need to spatial

perception in the left-hemisphere act of reading” (p. 169).

Oliver’s (1996) study used baroque music with a calming 60 beats per minute to

increase alpha waves, New Age music, and standard lab noise as a control (Williams,

1983). Results of this study showed improved performance for reading comprehension,

49
yet Oliver stated that a generalization cannot be made for different populations or musical

genres.

Effects of music mediated by arousal and mood instead of cognition look closely

at the continuum of invigorating to calming states, and individual cognition was also

effected by dislike of particular music genres (Hallam, Price, & Katsarou, 2002). Teens

listened to music about three hours per day so it was a normal part of the day.

Background music had a calming effect on special education students (Hallam & Price,

1998). First junior high study was conducted in London with 15 minute fraction sessions.

Arithmetic tasks included calming, relaxing background music versus non-music

conditions. Study one’s participants performed at an 84% accuracy rate with the calm,

relaxing background music, and with an 80% accuracy rate in non-musical condition

(silence). Findings suggested music can enhance the speed of working with math

problems (Hallam et. al., 2002). Second study attempted to disrupt learning with musical

selections intent on unpleasant or aggressive tone. Participants were thirty students, three

groups of 10, from Greek schools in England. Study two used a control with no music,

calm background music, and exciting, aggressive music meant to be unpleasant or

uncomfortable to participants. Memory task for each group was to recall a word from a

sentence. Ten sentences were used during the treatment, and 10 cued recall cards were

used to assess memory. Results showed aggressive music had a negative effect on

performance of a memory task. Calm music and no music results showed no significant

difference. Distractibility was mentioned as a possible reason for these results. Music can

disrupt concentration; and calming music over time may lose its positive effect because

of getting accustomed to the condition (Hallam et. al., 2002).

50
 Music played during-reading had a positive effect on reading comprehension of

eighth and ninth graders (Hall, 1952). In a Sherman High School, Sherman, Texas, study

of 278 eighth and ninth graders, four groups totaling 245 students served as control

groups testing with Forms A and B of the Nelson Silent Reading Test Grades 3-9,

Vocabulary and Paragraph. A fifth group served as a control group testing on Forms A

and B without music. The two day data collection in study hall conditions played

background music during one of the two days; however, the titles and types of music

were undisclosed. The Hall (1952) study found that 58% of 245 students in the four

classes increased scores when reading with background music present (Hall, 1952). The

other element of this study hall comprehension collection focused on intelligence as The

Otis Quick Scoring Mental Ability Test was administered to 90 ninth graders, and 124

eighth graders were tested with the Metropolitan Achievement Test. That meant 214 of

278 students in the study were tested with intelligence and achievement tests. The

compiled results indicated students who scored below average intelligence and

achievement did better with background music than counterparts; however, the actual

numbers were not listed. The researcher hypothesized that the reasons for the difference

could have been because these students need something to concentrate or focus against.

In the study’s boys’ versus girls’ data comparison, boys showed a 4.52 increase in scores

while background music played versus a 1.47 increase for girls (Hall, 1952).

An attention drainage study concentrated on background music played during a

reading comprehension test in the Department of English (Chou, 2010). The 133

participants were from a two-year technical college in Taiwan, ages ranging from 20 to

50 years (average age, 31.8). The practice reading tests were taken from Test of English
51
as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), and texts selected based on high background

knowledge by the participants (e.g., Kodak, Forbidden City, blood donation). Structure of

the study included three groups: a control group who took the reading comprehension test

(10 multiple choice questions) in silence; a hip-hop group with upbeat rhythm and tempo

selections played during-reading, and a classical group listened to varied Mozart

selections including wind ensemble and strings, vocal or piano, slow tempo selections.

The results were not what the researchers expected. Hip hop music had a significant

positive effect on the performance of the reading comprehension. Classical music had

slightly lower results than the control group’s silent conditions. Attention drainage effect

took a toll on both background music groups’ comprehension. Chou (2010) suggested

jazz or country music as a future variable change for study.

In a pre-reading and during-reading music study of 156 undergraduate students at

Ocean County College in Toms River, New Jersey, researcher compared two methods of

reading: self-read and being read to (Giardino-Cherico, 1989). Musical variables used

were baroque, rock-n-roll, and silence during a relaxation period. Musical selections were

chosen based on four-four (4/4) time, and sixty beats per minutes for consistency in

following Lozanov’s theory. A researcher based study on Georgi Lozanov’s theoretical

model of accelerated learning (Reigeluth, 1999) harnessed the left-right hemisphere

phenomena by playing baroque music to obtain the optimal physiological state as well as

use of positive suggestion. Music in 4/4 with 60 beats per minute created a relaxed state

and opened the mind to learn (Williams, 1983). Under Losanov’s theory, emotion was

tied to music, and the rhythm within music must be calm and relaxed to achieve the

accelerated learning state called super learning (Giardino-Cherico, 1989). Researcher

52
asked students to close eyes and listen for approximately 12-minutes during the

relaxation period when either baroque, rock n roll or silence (control) ensued; and then

the researcher invited participants to walk around the room to stretch for two minutes, but

remain within the testing room. Next, in the self-read groups, participants were asked to

read an essay silently (no time constraints indicated); the essay was a college level

standardized entrance exam piece. Before the question-answer sheets and questionnaires

were handed out, the researcher told used positive suggestions telling participants they

would do well on the test, and then the musical variable was introduced for a second

time. In the read-to group, the researcher read the essay aloud to the participants while

the musical variables played, and the rest of the data collection was the same as the self-

read group. Overall, the study concluded that participants did better when self-reading,

and self-readers were significantly better when rock-n-roll was played. Giardino-Cherico

(1989) concluded that individual musical preference played a role in the results of this

study. Music variables combined in the same treatment may have conflicting effects;

therefore, isolation of the variables may be indicated for clarification. The during-reading

or background music variable was also unique because it was not during-reading but

instead during assessment. The goal of this study was to determine what effect, if any,

highly-structured music has on reading. Research questions were based on whether

introduction of highly-structured music before or during-reading had an effect on reading

comprehension. Pre-reading and during-reading music variables were isolated to measure

whether or not an effect exists. Giardino-Cherico (1989) study also had read-to and self-

read variables. Participants who were read-to applied listening skills instead of reading

comprehension skills, a significant point.

53
 Linked to Lozanov’s idea in the last study, elementary school students were

exposed to nonlyrical music played through a vibroacoustic chair (a chair equipped with

internal speakers enabling music to vibrate through the students) during-reading time in

an urban, midwestern study. Premise of the study was that rhythm in music had a

relaxation effect which calmed students and enabled them to recall information more

easily if in a relaxed state. Thirteen third-grade students in a general education classroom

took part in a vibroacoustic chair during-reading time over six months of the study. Ten

participants were labeled as at risk students. Participants individually took a pre and post-

test on comprehension, oral reading accuracy, and word recognition. The Reading

Inventory for the Classroom, and the San Diego Quick Assessment Test were used to

evaluate sight words. There were no time limits imposed on the tests. Pre-tests were

given before the vibroacoustic music chair’s arrival. Post-tests were administered after

six months of students’ use of the vibroacoustic music chair. Music was selected with

criteria of fifty to sixty beats per minute nonlyrical music played through the

vibroacoustic chair, three times per week. Participants’ results showed increased

vocabulary and reading scores. Reading comprehension results indicated that below

grade level readers improved to grade level or higher within the six months, something a

regular reading program would not have been able to do according to the researchers

(Carlson, Hoffman, Gray, & Thompson, 2004). Eady and Wilson (2004) reviewed a

contradiction to these research findings including Weisskoff’s (1981) study question

focused on whether music had an effect on performance, and whether students would be

motivated to return to a task if music was involved. Was pop or rock music a

performance enhancement or was it a motivator? Findings indicated music served as a

54
motivator for participants; however, pop rock used as background music did not enhance

achievement.

Anderson and Fuller (2010) studied three-hundred seventy-five junior high

students to see if lyrical music during-reading had a positive or negative effect when

trying to comprehend new information. Self-regulation was an element considered in the

study as girls may be better at this than boys. The Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests,

Fourth Edition, was used as the assessment instrument in this study to measure

comprehension: students read short passages and answered five multiple choice questions

afterwards. Music played during-reading was selected from top hits from the Billboard

magazine top 100 (pieces were excluded for offensive language, and parental warning

labels). A survey was taken of participants in the seventh and eighth grade; it asked about

likes or dislikes of the music used in the study. Study’s music proved to be popular with

age range studied, and typical of what participant’s listen to while doing homework at

home. Control group (silence during-reading) showed no significant difference between

males and females; however, females showed decline in reading scores under the music

condition. For approximately 1½% of students who indicated a preference for music

playing when studying, scores were better with music than with silence. Anderson’s

study refers to the Hallam et. al. studies which show opposite results: 10 to 11-year-olds

had increased math problem-solving speed because of the calming effects of background

music (Hallam et. al., 2002). Music perceived as arousing or aggressive had a negative

effect on 11 and 12-year olds’ math problem-solving speed and skills (Hallam et. al.,

2002). Studies involving Hallam, et. al. have indicated the type of music selected may be

55
a key to the outcome when using background music as an auditory element in the

learning environment.

No consensus was uncovered among background music studies, perhaps because

so many variables and populations studied applied different research methodologies,

unique study designs, varied musical selections, participants with vast ranges of

experience, musical genre likes and dislikes, and prior knowledge gaps. Did background

music become elevator music blocked out unconsciously? Did background music allow

students to concentrate even briefly against other environmental distractions? What type

of music worked best for teenagers to focus on the text at hand without cognitive

overload? The instructional designer must try to uncover these answers before using any

kind of music within an educational design online. A final design question was: were

there implications that certain types of learners might benefit from varied design

elements?

Reflection

Design decisions about when, where, and how audio elements were used has been

perplexing for instructional designers (Calandra et. al., 2008). Three primary audio

elements used in educational technology are music, speech (narration), and sound effects

which can “deliver information, direct attention, convey emotions, and provide feedback”

(Calandra et. al., 2008, p. 589). Again, low reading levels should have narration for

understanding, and younger audiences should have music clips (Calandra et. al., 2008, p.

601). Veteran instructional designers do not use one model; instead, designers problem-

solve with objectives of satisfying targeted learning outcomes, meeting learners’ ability

levels, providing tasks with a multimedia design that does not exceed working memory
56
capabilities or produce cognitive overload. Potential benefits of studying music

integration at different times in the learning process could assist instructional designers in

placement of music instead of narration should the study results prove beneficial. The

question becomes which of the two treatments if any will assist learner’s reading

comprehension?

Chapter 2 Summary

Instructional designers implemented strategies to assist learners in focusing

attention. Split effect, and the redundancy principal must be remembered in designing an

effective online reading assignment with visuals and additional audio. Strong readers may

overcome poor design, but struggling readers may not have reading strategies required to

be successful. Since the study includes readers of varied levels and abilities, there were

challenges in selecting text type and level. Challenges for learners of all abilities include

working memory issues, lack of prior knowledge, problems connecting text with reality,

or environmental distractions getting in the way of comprehending what was read.

Adding audio design elements could have added hurdles to reading comprehension for a

distracted learner. Familiar materials created a low cognitive load, and new materials

increased that to a high cognitive load. Cognitive load theory gave designers insight into

what not to mix and match. Technology also caused a problem with cognitive load and

anxiety. Teenagers have used technology, and can be taught to use tools for reading

electronic text; whereas, adults were more accustomed to print text and gravitate towards

its familiarity. Many studies have added music into the learning environment with mixed

results on comprehension. Background music ranged from New Age, to Baroque, to

rock-n-roll, to Billboard’s Top 100 list, and the results were as different as the musical
57
genres. True pre-reading classical music studies played classical music prior to asking

participants to perform tasks. The hypothesized short-term memory enhancement was of

interest as are the many conflicting results. Because of the varied results with different

studies, need still existed for studying pre-reading and during (background) reading

music treatments and the potential design impact that existed for reading comprehension

improvement. Structurally sound design of the study was the core of whether or not it

could have been replicated successfully and whether or not principles and theories of

instructional design have been followed and have been effective. Auditory elements and

whether they assisted or hindered learners is the focus of this study. Complexly structured

music was used as a research design element for this study. Classical and jazz music met

the criteria for complex structured music, and these musical treatments were compared to

silence as another variable. Studying auditory elements and whether they assisted or

hindered learners will assist instructional designers in better understanding learners and

strategies that may improve performance. Next, research design was narrowed, research

questions detailed, and collection methods defined.

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 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Using parts of a pre-task music design of a study by Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky

(1995) that were used in part by Giardino-Cherico (1989) to study reading

comprehension were combined with a more recent background (during task) music

design to comprise a study of instructional design strategies for reading. This study used

music in two different ways, before reading and during reading. Introduction of music in

two different ways provides a unique independent study in online reading

comprehension. This updated combination study included technology-integration at the

high school level.

Research Design Strategy

Previous studies focused on instructional design elements of background music

paired with reading comprehension, and these studies included participants ranging from

elementary to college students as shown in the following list: Anderson and Fuller (2010)

junior high; Barnes (2002) undergraduates; Carlson, Hoffman, Gray and Thompson

(2004) third graders; Chou (2010) Taiwanese college students; Hall (1952) eighth and

ninth graders; and Oliver (1996) at-risk college freshman. Hall’s 1952 background music

study of ninth graders appears to be the closest to the research design strategy. Updating

this study with an online reading component (integration of technology) was a rational

next step in studying this issue.

59
 Pre-task music studies have been conducted to measure effects of musical

variables on students’ spatial abilities (e.g., paper folding), and other tasks (Cassity,

Henley, Markley, 2007; Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004; McKelvie & Low, 2002; Rauscher &

Hinton, 2006; Rauscher et. al., 1995; Thompson et. al., 2001). Pre-task music reading

comprehension studies were more challenging to find.

A decision was made to focus this quantitative research design using highly-

structured musical compositions. Music variables chosen were limited to a classical

music selection in a major key, and nonlyrical jazz music. Using two types of highly-

structured music before and during reading attempted to determine whether a positive or

negative relationship exists between complexly structured non-repetitive music and

increasing online reading comprehension. Results of the study may further define useful

audio elements indicated for selection when instructional designers implement

instructional interventions.

Because reading selections were based on individual likes and dislikes of topics, a

conscious design strategy was made to select expository (non-fiction) text from science

and social studies because selecting non-fiction text sets removes personal preference and

creates a more academic feel. Science and history text sets provide factual readings

wherein looking for facts becomes more focal to the reader than personal choice of

literature. Fictional text sets were discarded because personal preference drives choice,

and the motivation to read or participate in the study may be diminished. The decision to

adopt the pre and post-test design was made in order to verify and recognize that some

participants may already know the informational text content before reading.

60
 Research Questions

The following research questions were investigated in this study:

1. To what extent does the instructional design strategy of listening to music before

reading increase the difference between independent variables of classical/ jazz,

and silence measured through pre and post comprehension variables? [between

groups]

2. Does the instructional design strategy of listening to music during-reading create

a significant difference between independent variables of classical, jazz, and

silence measured through pre and post comprehension variables? [between

groups]

3. Does the instructional design strategy of listening to classical music before

reading significantly increase the difference between pre and post reading

comprehension compared to jazz music scores? [comparison between jazz and

classical]

Research Hypotheses

The hypotheses range from comparisons between all groups to only musical

variable groups, to within group analysis of standardized reading scores compared with

results.

The null hypothesis was: There will be no significant difference in the pre and

post comprehension measures between independent variables: classical, jazz,

silence/none. [between groups]

61
 The first directional hypothesis was: Listening to non-lyrical jazz music before

reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to the standardized reading

scores. [within group]

The second directional hypothesis was: Listening to non-lyrical jazz music during

reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to classical music group

scores. [comparison between groups]

The third directional hypothesis was: Listening to classical or jazz music

compared with silence/none before reading will create a significant difference in the pre

and post comprehension. [between groups]

Population and Sample

Jones and Kottler (2006) defined the type of sample for this study, which was

cluster sampling. “In cluster sampling the basic unit … is a naturally occurring group of

people—for example, a classroom, a school, or a club” (p. 62). Students ranged from 15

to 18 years-of-age, and will be 92.7% White, 3.3% Hispanic, 2.3% American Indian,

0.7% Black, 0.3% Asian, and 0.7 two or more nationalities (WINNS, 2011). Even though

groups were heterogeneous, individual results were examined. The goal was to discover

whether an instructional design strategy of introducing music at two different points in

the learning sequence had a different effect on individual participants by reviewing lexile

levels, eighth grade standardized test scores, grade point averages as well as pre and post-

test results from the study.

Data Collection

Prior to data collection, one instrument was administered through the Scholastic

Reading Inventory (SRI), a computer-based standardized test to measure reading levels

62
(lexile). Documentation of reading abilities was important to verify reading levels

through use of a vetted, field-tested instrument that is scored automatically by the

computer removing human error.

Letters were mailed to the parents of science club a week prior to a recruiting

meeting which overviewed the study, how it worked, and time commitment. Groups A,

B, C were volunteers from the science club, 30 per group recruited from high school

freshman, sophomores, juniors and seniors for a total of 90 participants. Equal groups for

all comparisons were used based on sample size standards of 30 for each group needed to

run a valid ANOVA (Gall, Borg & Gall, 1996). The groups were randomized by the

research assistant, the science club advisor, based on the number of students whose

parents signed the Parental Permission Form, FERPA (release of records) and

independently filled out the Minor Assent Form. Groups A, B, and C worked as an

independent study. Participants were given access to a Moodle™ Group via a sign up

card with dummy username (A1-A35, B1-B35, and C1-C35), a generic password for

initial sign-in where instructions for session one were provided. Participants were

allowed to complete the study during study hall, at the public library, or at home if

Internet was available. Potential issues noted in other studies regarding alertness based on

time of day, thirst, hunger, or alertness was alleviated by participants’ choice of time and

use of technology for the components of the study. Since the premise of previous studies

has been that music is a short-term memory enhancement, there should be no danger of

transfer through conducting twice-weekly sessions (Bangerter & Heath, 2004; Rauscher

& Hinton, 2006; Schellenberg, 2005; Standing et. al., 2008). Participants were given

access Sunday through Tuesday for Part 1 (WWI Part 1), and Thursday to Saturday as
63
Part 2 of week one (WW1 Part 2) and from Sunday to Tuesday for Part 3 (WWI Part 3).

(Pre-tests, Text set, Post-tests for Parts 1-3).

The study was based on a pre-test-post-test control-group design (Creswell, 2003,

p. 170). Quantitative data was collected six times over a three-week period. Groups A

and B were tested using the same treatment schedule with the difference being in genre of

music. Consideration was given to using classical music only in the study; however

because of potential teenage reaction to a classical selection and indications that

individual cognition is effected by dislike of particular music genres (Hallam et. al.,

2002), a determination was made to use jazz as an alternative. Background music studies

used multiple genres of music; however, many of those audio selections were dissimilar.

Decision was made to focus on two similar musical genres. The larger participant number

of 30 in each group allowed valid comparisons of comprehension measures between

groups using jazz and classical treatments as well as comparisons within each group

focused on pre and post comprehension measures. Group C served as the control group

with silence as the auditory element. Table 1 describes the treatment schedule related to

implementation of the music strategy in the pre-reading modality.

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Table 1
Pre-Reading Music Treatment Schedule
Time Period Pre-Reading Pre-Reading
Treatment Treatment
Sunday to Tuesday Thursday
to Saturday
Week 1 (Group A) Finale, Allegro no. 39 Finale, Allegro no. 39
(5:49 minutes) (5:49 minutes)

Week 2 (Group A) Finale, Allegro no.39

(5:49 minutes)

Week 1 (Group B) Perfect Way Perfect Way

(4:41 minutes) (4:41 minutes)

Week 2 (Group B) Perfect Way

(4:41 minutes)

Week 1 (Group C) Silence Silence

(5 minutes) (5 minutes)

Week 2 (Group C) Silence

(5 minutes)

Three separate online course rooms were created to avoid potential overlap and

curiosity of the participants. Separate course rooms kept study participants from listening

to the other study group’s music files. Majority of the participants had familiarity with

using the computer and course room for handing in homework, taking quizzes, online

reading and responses. Others were given a brief overview of how to access the course

room and how to navigate it. Typed instructions were given out by the research assistant

on cards detailing how to change passwords the first time logging into the course room

along with session date ranges, web site address, username, and first time password.

Online instructions appeared with the reading and tests which were available for three

65
days in each session. A weekend day was open for each study portion so that students

could work from home. Pre-test, auditory variable, text, and post-test were preloaded in

online course room. Music selection was preloaded as a clickable audio file. Non-fiction

text set was loaded as a PDF from the CD-ROM accompanying the Quality Reading

Inventory-5 (QRI-5) to preserve visuals and page layouts created by Leslie and Caldwell

(2011). Pre and post-test questions created and field-tested by Leslie and Caldwell were

entered into online test software, then assigned in the online course room, but hidden

from view until the appropriate date range.

Table 2 describes the treatment schedule related to implementation of music

strategy in the background music (during-task) modality for part of week two and week

three. This is a repetition of the schedule for weeks one and two, so the process was

familiar to learners.

Table 2
Background Music Treatment Schedule
Time Period Background Background
Treatment Treatment
Sunday to Tuesday Thursday to Saturday
Week 2 (Group A) Finale, Allegro no.
39 (5:49 minutes)

Week 3 (Group A) Finale, Allegro no. Finale, Allegro no.

39 (5:49 minutes) 39 (5:49 minutes)

Week 2 (Group B) Perfect Way

(4:41 minutes)

Week 3 (Group B) Perfect Way Perfect Way

(4:41 minutes) (4:41 minutes)

Week 2 (Group C) Silence

(5 minutes)

Week 3 (Group C) Silence Silence

(5 minutes) (5 minutes)

66
 Data collection (see Table 3) includes a during-reading (background) variable for

participants to take a pre-test (self-paced), read text (5-6 minutes) while listening to the

auditory variable, and take a post-test (self-paced). Over the data collection time period

(four weeks), six pre-tests and six post-tests will be collected for each participant in

Groups A, B, and C, and then scored by the researcher (see Table 3).

Table 3
Data Collection
Time Group A Group B Group C
Period Classical Jazz
Silence
Week 1 Pre-Reading Classical Pre-Reading Jazz Pre-Reading Silence
Two pre-tests Two pre-tests Two pre-tests
Two post-tests Two post-tests Two post-tests
Week 2
Pre-reading Classical Pre-reading Jazz Pre-reading Silence
One pre-test One pre-test One pre-test
One post-test One post-test One post-test
Week 3
Background Classical Background Jazz Background Silence
Two pre-tests Two pre-tests Two pre-tests
Two post-tests Two post-tests Two post-tests
Week 4
Background Classical Background Jazz Background Silence
One pre-test One pre-test One pre-test
One post-test One post-test One post-test

Appendix C contains sample text of first time instructions to Group A participants

for pre-reading treatment study (weeks one and two). Pre-treatment study instructions

were similar for Groups B, and C, the difference being the audio treatment. Text sets and

questions have been vetted by reading professionals.

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 Validity and Reliability

The six text selections (see Appendix A) were taken from the high school level of

Qualitative Reading Inventory-5 (QRI-5) (Leslie & Caldwell, 2011). This resource is

recommended by reading professors and is well-known to reading specialists and reading

teachers as a tool for authentic assessment of students’ reading abilities. Because the

materials were recognized as industry standards and have been field-tested, the validity

and reliability was proven which was relevant to a research study’s credibility. The QRI-5

offers elementary, middle, and high school level texts for readers ranging from emerging

to advanced abilities. Authors tested the materials and determined that a standard error of

measurement was in order because there is no variability in the data (Leslie & Caldwell,

2011, p. 479). “The mean, standard deviation, and standard error of measurement (SEM)

of the proportion-correct total comprehension score for all passages” (Leslie & Caldwell,

2011, p. 479). The Social Studies passages were reported as Means (with standard

deviations in parenthesis) for “World War I” Parts 1 through 3 as .35 (.24), .39 (.26), .44

(.24) respectively. The Science passages were reports as “Characteristics of Viruses”

Parts 1 through 3 as .20 (.15), .37 (.20) and .20 (.18) respectively (Leslie & Caldwell,

2011, p. 481). Standard Error of Measurement was .14 for each “World War I” section,

and .12, .15, and .12 for “Characteristics of Viruses.”

The authors’ recommendation for most reliable results was for an examiner to use

the same types of passages such as expository or narrative because the student will be

more familiar with the text type and student results will be more accurate. (Leslie &

Caldwell, 2011, p. 479). Six expository text sets have been selected from the materials to

68
comply with the experts’ advice on reliable results. The titles of each section were

“World War I” (Part 1, 2, and 3), and “Characteristics of Viruses” (Part 1, 2, and 3)

Leslie and Caldwell (2011) indicated readers’ prior knowledge is a powerful tool

to harness, and that is the author’s rationale for inclusion of pre-reading questions with

the materials (see Appendix B). Good instructional design acknowledges pre-reading

strategies and incorporated them to help students organize thoughts and connect to prior

knowledge. Estimates on reliability of the conceptual-knowledge questions found scorer

agreement at 98% (p. 478). Pre-reading concept questions were used in the study.

For the purpose of this study, six texts from the QRI-5 high school level reading

materials were used. Accompanying pre and post-test open-ended questions verify

reading comprehension; questions were developed and field-tested by Leslie and

Caldwell (2011), university professors of reading. Potential instructor or researcher bias

were avoided by using pre-written materials by experts who incorporated pre and post-

tests in the text sets. The high school level selections were categorized by content as

science and social studies; these were broken into two smaller reading sections titled

World War I (Social Studies) parts one, two and three and Characteristics of Viruses

(science content) parts one, two and three. Concept questions for each reading session

became the pre-test for each reading section, and the post-tests were comprehension

questions with implicit and explicit responses; answers to the questions were provided by

the authors for correcting the tests. All six text selections were categorized as non-fiction

(expository), a strategy recommended by the authors to attain the most valid, reliable test

results. Using content area texts from an expert outside reading source should provide

69
reliable, credible data collection for study, and avoid potential overlap in instructional

materials or redundancy.

A reading level range was provided for texts selected for this study by the authors

(Leslie & Caldwell, 2011). Six non-fiction text pieces chosen range from 920 to 1180

lexile level, and were categorized as high school level reading materials. Reading level

was a reliable one published by professors of reading for educational experts. Lexile

levels assist instructors in selecting appropriate reading materials for students not too far

from reading lexile scores.

After participants completed online pre-tests and post-tests, tests were scored

based on reading experts’ materials offering no potential for bias on the part of the

researcher completing the scoring. Participants were kept completely anonymous through

the numbering system with no names associated with participants. Pre-reading questions,

labeled as concept questions, had answers provided by the authors and scores included

the following:

 three points for precise definition, or synonym

 two points for an example of the concept, or specific attribute or defining

characteristic

 one point for general association, firsthand, personal association, isolation of

prefix, suffix, or root word.

Post-test questions have explicit and implicit answers provided by the authors (Leslie &

Caldwell, 2011).

70
 Operationally Defined Variables

The independent variable was an audio treatment: classical music, jazz music, and

silence/no music. Groups were classified as one of the three independent variables.

Classical and jazz music were defined for the purpose of this study as non-repetitive,

highly-structured complex music that is non-lyrical. Dependent variables were pre and

post-tests to measure reading comprehension. Tests were scored on grading score scales

of 0 to 4 for pre-test, and 0 to 10 (1 point each for each content question. Pre and post-

tests were used with permission (pending) from QRI-5 were completed online by study

participants, scored by the researcher based on the author’s published rubric for

evaluating test short answers, and then converted into a number 0 to 4 for pre-test and 0

to 10 for post-test, and entered into an Excel™ spreadsheet under the columns (sessions

1-6) for each anonymously numbered participant) and then converted to percentages

(100%) for true comparison. The Standardized Reading Inventory (SRI) was

administered before the study to consenting participants. Reading test was automatically

scored by the computer and a report generated for the research assistant. Lexile scores 0-

1800+ were entered as whole numbers in a different Excel™ spreadsheet.

Data Analysis and Measures

Scores for each participant included four questions for each pre-test (concept

questions scored as one to three points per question), and 10 open-ended questions for

each post-test (one point per question). Three pre-reading treatments (variables: classical,

jazz, silence) and three background (during-task) reading treatments (variables: classical,

jazz, silence) were implemented. Resulting numerical data was entered into a statistical

71
analysis program to conduct an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with the following three

groups:

 I=classical music/no lyrics

 II=jazz/no lyrics

 III=silence.

The mixed design ANOVA test was selected to indicate that within group and

between-group comparisons could be easily done through this single factorial designed

test. 1. Within group design compares pre and post comprehension results. 2. Between

group design compares comprehension results between the types of music (Groups A, B).

A Repeated Measures ANOVA would not produce results needed to explain within and

between groups. The Repeated Measures ANOVA focuses on significant differences over

time, and then gives the user the ability to compare times (time 1 vs. time 3).

Comparisons drawn were between independent variables and within groups looking at

the pre and post comprehension scores; and then finally using the standardized reading

scores to evaluate the data more deeply to see if any patterns existed between lexiles and

scores (reading levels as a predictor to success). Repeated Measures ANOVA would not

accommodate for these desired comparisons.

A more complex type of ANOVA called a factorial design was used to explore

more than one treatment factor (Salkind, 2008). In this case, the factorial design mixed

design was used to compare pre and post comprehension measures (within groups

design), and compare groups on independent variables of classical, jazz, and none

(between groups design). This was the best test for the study because it allowed

comparisons within a group and between groups tested with one analysis. Two musical
72
styles were included because of the potential negative participant reaction to the classical

genre, and were compared with each other between-groups looking at the independent

variable. The study was attempting to accommodate preference by including jazz as a

similar and comparable complexly-structured audio element.

For the purpose of this study, reading scores (measuring overall reading

comprehension) may be used in analysis and consideration of whether or not a musical

variable has any relationship to an individual’s low, medium, or high level of reading

ability. Anonymity was assured through a random participant numbering system. Group

A was randomly numbered A1-A30, Group B as B1-B30, and Group C with C1-C30.

Anonymous numbering system was charted on an Excel™ spreadsheet by the research

assistant. Participant key was kept under separate cover, sealed so that the researcher was

not aware of who the participants were. This was done with intent to remove researcher

bias while scoring results and analyzing data.

Limitations of Methodology and Strategies to Minimize Impact

In implementing the pre-task music design strategy, a set time was given for the

musical variable of five to six minutes with approximately the same amount of time for

the task of reading a text set. Pre-task studies indicated that pre-task music had a limited,

short term enhancement of approximately the same time as the music was played

(Rauscher et. al., 1995). An obvious limitation of following the pre-task study’s design

was that not all participants work at the same pace, and individualized education plans

add in time for special needs students as needed for reading and completing tasks.

Standardized testing modules were typically completed in November of each year, so

73
participants had experience with timed reading, writing, and answering multiple choice

test questions. Practice should have minimized the impact of a time frame limitation.

The next limitation identified within the design method was that during the period

of controlled silence, it was impossible to control what learners were thinking about or

how they behave (e.g., falling asleep) within relaxed silence. Encouraging students to

relax during this silence may calm the participant (Wilson & Brown, 1997).

Motivation was a third limitation of the study. Learners may tune out background

distractions (Pool et. al., 2000) when the primary task is more important than the

secondary (e.g. homework with television, or music videos). When motivated to do well

on an assignment, participants could concentrate against music that is not a personal

preference. Like or dislike of a musical genre is out of the researcher’s control; however,

being a study participant in this high school is something that is out of the norm and

desirable; for this reason, it should have created a level of motivation to be a research

participant.

Ethical Issues

This study incorporated activities done almost every day in a normal language arts

classroom. Inclusion of private records from the eighth grade standardized reading test

results, and current year’s reading level (lexile scores) were protected by entering the data

on a spreadsheet. Spreadsheet was then given to the research assistant who entered the

reading scores onto a different spreadsheet once signatures were obtained. On the second

spreadsheet, participants were known only by an anonymous letter associated with the

study groups and a number (e.g., C1, A21), individual SRI reading scores, age, gender,

and grade level. Informational data collected will be stored for seven years in a locked
74
file cabinet. Researcher will have the only keys for accessing the data and records

collected. Privacy and confidentiality for minors was insured through the school district’s

employment contract which includes HIPPA rules and regulations. Private and

confidential information were shredded after it was entered. School district’s

superintendent advised Capella’s Instructional Review Board that a signed FERPA

(educational records release by parent/guardian) educational records release was required.

The form provided confidential release of records for study keeping the educational

records, and participant names private. Privacy was protected through participant’s

individual online course room passwords set up with anonymous numbers and letters.

Study pre-tests and post-tests were scored, catalogued and stored in a private location off-

site from the school so that no printed copies were accessible to other staff. Copies of

data results and analysis will be kept in a locked file cabinet for seven years.

In this study, the researcher was also a language arts instructor where the

participants were recruited. In order to alleviate the potential ethical dilemma of a power

structure with vulnerable populations, data collection did not take place during formal

instructional time. Flexibility of online delivery encouraged students who were truly

interested to participate without the pressure of watching classmates do so thus reducing

peer pressure. Independent study design removed any implication that participation was a

requirement of a language arts class by moving the study focus to the science club

participant pool where the teacher was not in a position of authority. Working with

minors was embedded in the teaching career. High school principal provided a site

permission letter for this study approving students to complete the study during non-

instructional time. Parental permission and FERPA forms were required based on
75
discussions between the superintendent of the school district and Capella University’s

Instructional Review Board. Minor assent was also confirmed in writing.

Inclusion of music has been done routinely in the researcher’s classroom allowing

students independent choices of music, and was something that other teachers do to

create conducive learning environments. Many of the participants have attempted music

integration through headsets and ear buds during independent reading time freshman and

sophomore years. Participants have not been exposed to class-wide music. Willingness to

try music elements during reading does not predispose learners to a certain outcome with

musical genres introduced in the reading environment. As participants enrolled in the

study, they chose gift cards from a selection of four local businesses. After the data

collection was completed, participants were given their chosen gift cards as a sign of

appreciation for study participation. Research study as designed did not create ethical

issues for the instructor/researcher, students, parents/guardians, school administrators, or

Capella University.

Chapter Three Summary

The study participants were 102 teenage students from a science club in a

midwestern high school with a population of nearly 300 students. Study was designed as

an independent one so that the language arts instructor who was also the researcher was

not in a power position over participants. This design allowed the researcher to perform

the role of researcher without a potential power struggle with participants. Pre-tests, text

sets, post-tests, and musical variables were set up through three separate online

classrooms created for this study through the cooperative education center which allowed

participants to access study assignments in free time at their discretion from home or
76
school, but not during a scheduled language arts class. Classical (Group A) and Jazz

(Group B) genres were nonlyrical musical variables used to test whether music before

reading or during-reading (background) would impact learners’ comprehension scores on

non-fiction text sets. Group C was the control with silence only as an audio treatment.

First two weeks of the study (three sessions) introduced the effect of complexly

structured non-repetitive music before reading on students’ reading comprehension.

Second two-week portion of the study (three sessions) reviewed the effect of complexly

structured non-repetitive music during-reading on students’ reading comprehension.

Each session collected pre-test and post-test comprehension data. Resulting numerical

data was entered into a statistical analysis program for a factorial design (mixed design)

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).

77
 CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Introduction

Two studies were conducted using three separate online course rooms, one for

each group: classical, jazz, and silence (control group). Part 1 was three sessions over ten

days designed as a before-reading independent musical variable study. Classical and Jazz

groups had a pre-test, an mp3 music file, short non-fiction text set, and a post-test posted

for each session with detailed instructions. The control group’s only difference was to put

headsets on for the required amount of silence. Part 2 of the study began after Part 1

concluded and was again three sessions over a ten day period designed as a during-

reading musical variable study with the same groups (classical, jazz, and silence as

control). Chapter 4 describes participation variances in Groups A (classical) and B (jazz),

the independent musical variable groups for the study. Control group (Group C)

maintained the required participation of 30 throughout data collection. Participation

discrepancies within musical variable groups resulted in a discussion about data analysis

because of uneven sample sizes. A description of the samples was followed by the

methodology and analysis used. Description of the sample begins the chapter along with

participant descriptives and was followed by a summary of results, a detailed analysis of

the data and a chapter summary.

Description of the Sample

Study participants were recruited based on membership in a midwestern high

school science club with ages ranging from 14 to 18 (ninth to twelfth graders). Science

club was chosen because of assurance from faculty advisor that students possessed a
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natural curiosity, familiarity with experiments, and active members were 120 strong, a

high number in a small high school. Parent letters and consent forms were mailed and an

informational meeting scheduled. One-hundred twenty students were invited to

participate in the study based on membership in the science club. Parental consent and

release forms needed to be signed and given to the science club advisor (a science

teacher) before minor assent forms were signed. The advisor served as dissertation

research assistant, assigning random group and number to ensure participant anonymity

and providing participants with sign-on details. A spreadsheet of science club members’

lexile scores were given to the assistant before study enrollment began. Lexile tests

measure a reader’s comprehension, and the software used in this school was the

Scholastic Reading Inventory (SRI) which uses computer-adaptive testing to determine

reading levels. Lexile scores were and are used by reading and English teachers to assist

in selecting appropriate reading materials. Lexile scores were important to a reading

comprehension study because it gives a predictor of what the participants’ capabilities

were and that the text sets were appropriate for the participants. Upon conclusion of data

collection, the research assistant provided spreadsheets for each group with names

removed to ensure anonymity and current lexile level score/range, age, grade level, and

gender. The actual names of participants were sealed in an envelope. Recruiting

continued as the study was implemented because insufficient numbers had returned

parental consent forms. The research assistant encouraged students through Wednesday

of the first week of study to bring in forms. By Wednesday, 33 participants were assigned

to Group A with the same number added into Group B. Group C had 36 assigned; the

extras in Group C were to assure 30 active control group participants. Study had 102
79
participants signed up in week one with eleven dropping out voluntarily after the first

three sessions of the study (approximately a week and a half to two weeks later).

Approximately five participants in each group had to be reminded by the assistant to

finish by hitting submit in the online test system. The test status showed as open in the

Moodle course room which meant the researcher could not view participants’ answers.

One participant did not finish this step, so answers were not included in study since they

could not be scored. At mid-point of the study, the research assistant re-recruited inactive

participants, asking them to participate or advise if they wished to drop out of the study.

See Table 4 for participation specifics.

Table 4
Participation Numbers and Timing
Three Week Study Group A Group B Group C
Enrolled Participants 33 33 36
(Week 1)

Session 1 both Pre and 28 28 31

Post Tests completed

Sessions 1 to 3 17 21 31
(completed by Week 2)

Dropped out after 3 3 5

Sessions 1 to 3 (end of
Week 2)

Session 4 Pre and Post 23 27 31

Tests (completed both
by end of Week 2)

Sessions 4 to 6 20 24 31

The decision was made to exclude data from participants who did not complete pre-tests

and post-tests for all three sessions of Part One or Part Two (Part One was the before-

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reading study, Sessions 1 to 3; and Part Two was the during-reading study Sessions 4 to

6). Using ANOVA with participation rates below 30 in each group was something that

needed to be reconsidered from the study proposal; it was determined that ANOVA was

still allowable because the two musical variables (Groups A and B) were different

enough that a t-test would not sufficiently measure the independent variables’ potential

effects. The independent samples t-test was used for lexile range cut point analysis as

compared to pre-test and post-test means for the first directional hypothesis.

The first descriptive statistic used in the analysis of variance was gender (see

Table 6). Part One of study had 46% males and 54% females (69 total active

participants), and Part Two study active participants were 44% male and 56% female (75

total participants).

Table 5
Participant Gender
Group A Group B Group C % (n)

Sessions 1 to 3 M9 M 10 M 13 46% (M-32)

(pre-reading) F8 F 11 F 18 54% (F-37)

Sessions 4 to 6 M9 M 11 M 13 44% (M-33)

(during reading) F 11 F 13 F 18 56% (F-42)

Note. M = male; F = female.

The second descriptive statistic used was participant age (see Table 7). The 15 to 16 year

old age group was the largest, comprising 65% (n = 45) of the 69 participants in Part 1

and 61% (n = 46) of the 75 participants in Part 2.

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Table 6
Participant Ages
Group A Group B Group C % (n)
Part 1 (S1-3) (17) (21) (31) 100% (69)
14 0 3 3 9% (6)
15 5 3 15 33% (23)
16 7 7 8 32% (22)
17 2 8 5 22% (15)
18 3 0 0 4% (3)

Part 2 (S4-6) (20) (24) (31) 100% (75)

14 2 4 3 12% (9)
15 5 4 15 32% (24)
16 6 8 8 29% (22)
17 4 8 5 23% (17)
18 3 0 0 4% (3)
Note. S = session; n = number.

Lexile levels were used as a third descriptive statistic. Rather than use actual lexile

level scores (ranging from Below Basic reading to 1251 and above), the Scholastic

Reading Inventory (SRI) lexile ranges were categorized by SRI as follows:

 Advanced: 1251 or above (A),

 Proficient 1025 to 1250 (P),

 Basic 700 to 1024 (B),

 Below Basic 0 to 699 (BR).

Advanced and Proficient readers comprised 85% (n = 122) of participants, Basic readers

were 15.27% of participant pool, and there were no Below Basic readers (see Table 7).

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Table 7
Lexile Ranges based on SRI
Category A Part 1 A Part 2 B Part 1 B Part 2 C Part 1 C Part 2 Total %
Advanced 7 9 9 10 13 13 42.36%
Proficient 6 7 11 11 13 13 42.36%
Basic 4 4 1 3 5 5 15.27%
Below Basic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0%
Participant 17 20 21 24 31 31 144
Total

Results

Spreadsheet software (Excel™) was used to record data from test results, current

year’s lexile reading scores (SRI), ages, genders, and groups. Data was then uploaded

into a statistical analysis software program entitled Statistical Package for Social

Sciences (SPSS version 21.0) which provided an analysis of data using one-way ANOVA

and means testing. Aggregated data separated by group was used to create a new data set

with means for each group’s pre and post-tests. An independent samples t-test was

performed with a cut point test (e.g. researcher selected lexile score to separate results

from advanced/proficient and basic) test for lexile scores compared with means scores.

The following data results were organized by research questions and hypotheses to

provide data for each to verify whether or not questions have been answered by the data

results.

Research Question 1

First research question explored was, to what extent does the instructional design

strategy of listening to music before reading increase the difference between independent

83
variables of classical/ jazz, and silence measured through pre and post comprehension

variables? Part 1 of the study was comprised of Session 1, 2, and 3 of the before reading

study with pre and post-tests results. One-way ANOVA was run for Groups A, B, and C

and results displayed in Table 9. Post-test 2 had a significance of .042, and Pre-test 3 had

a significance of .035. Since both were less than .05, they were considered significant.

Table 8 Part 1 One-Way ANOVA (Groups A, B, C)

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between 970.354 2 485.177 1.434 .246

Groups
Pretest1A
Within Groups 22326.197 66 338.276
Total 23296.551 68

Between 441.021 2 220.510 .363 .697

Groups
Posttest1A
Within Groups 40135.791 66 608.118
Total 40576.812 68

Between 213.613 2 106.807 .205 .815

Groups
Pretest2A
Within Groups 34358.676 66 520.586
Total 34572.290 68

Between 4096.493 2 2048.246 3.336 .042

Groups
Posttest2A
Within Groups 40520.493 66 613.947
Total 44616.986 68

Between 5577.067 2 2788.533 3.523 .035

Groups
Pretest3A
Within Groups 52233.745 66 791.420
Total 57810.812 68

Between 52.563 2 26.282 .056 .945

Groups
Posttest3A
Within Groups 30824.422 66 467.037
Total 30876.986 68
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 Associated with Research Question One, the third directional hypothesis was as

follows: listening to classical or jazz music compared with silence/none before reading

will create a significant difference in the pre and post comprehension.

Part 1 (before reading variable) groups means A and B compared with the means

scores of group C showed one of three sessions had a positive test result after listening to

music before reading compared to silence. Groups A and B in Session 2 show an increase

of .11 to .12 compared with C’s non-significant -.01. The other two sessions’ means

posted negative differences of -.09 to -.25 (Session 1), and -.21 and -.12 (Session 3),

while the control group showed the same negative result on Session 1 (-20), and a non-

significant difference of +.01 on Session 3 (see Table 9).

Table 9
Part 1 Aggregated Group Means, and Standard Deviations
Groups Pre 1 Post 1 Pre 2 Post 2 Pre 3 Post 3

A .64 .55 .50 .61 .67 .46

B .74 .49 .49 .61 .60 .48
C .69 .49 .46 .45 .46 .47
Sum 2.07 1.53 1.45 1.68 1.73 1.40
Mean .69 .51 .48 .56 .58 .47
QRI-5 Mean .35 .39 .44
Mean d +.16 +.17 +.03
SD per test .05 .035 .021 .09 .11 .012
SD by test .085 .11 .12
QRI-5 SD .24 .26 .24

Research Question 2

Question 2 reviews the during-reading (Part 2) study results across three

independent variables. The second research question explored was, does the instructional

design strategy of listening to music during-reading create a significant difference

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between independent variables of classical, jazz, and silence measured through pre and

post comprehension variables. One-way ANOVA was run for Groups A, B, and C and

displayed in Table 10 for Part 2. Post-test 4 was .032; therefore, only one of six sessions

showed significance.

Table 10 Part 2 One-Way ANOVA (Groups A, B, C)

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between 821.459 2 410.729 .756 .473

Groups
Pretest4 Within 39092.328 72 542.949
Groups
Total 39913.787 74

Between 2930.796 2 1465.398 3.603 .032

Groups
Posttest4 Within 29283.871 72 406.720
Groups
Total 32214.667 74

Between 1973.812 2 986.906 3.063 .053

Groups
Pretest5 Within 23200.855 72 322.234
Groups
Total 25174.667 74

Between 46.837 2 23.419 .056 .945

Groups
Posttest5 Within 29957.829 72 416.081
Groups
Total 30004.667 74

Between 1117.296 2 558.648 1.271 .287

Groups
Pretest6 Within 31650.250 72 439.587
Groups
Total 32767.547 74

Between 186.517 2 93.259 .242 .786

Groups
Posttest6 Within 27723.003 72 385.042
Groups
Total 27909.520 74
(Note: df = degrees of freedom. .sig=significance level.)

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Second Directional Hypothesis

The second directional hypothesis explored was, listening to non-lyrical jazz

music during reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to classical

music group scores. In Part 2 of the study, the group mean for Group B (jazz) was .56

versus Group A (classical) of .51 which shows that scores for jazz were higher, but not

significantly (see Table 14).

Research Question 3

Question 3 focused on Part 1 (before-reading study) and compares Group A and B

test results. The third research question explored was, does the instructional design

strategy of listening to classical music before reading significantly increase the difference

between pre and post reading comprehension compared to jazz music scores? Groups A

and B did not have a significant difference in the before-reading musical variables

treatment because all are above .05 (see Table 11).

Table 11 Part 1 Groups A and B One-Way ANOVA

Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.

Squares
Between Groups 957.454 1 957.454 3.247 .080
Pretest1A Within Groups 10613.810 36 294.828
Total 11571.263 37

Between Groups 332.863 1 332.863 .558 .460

Posttest1A Within Groups 21480.952 36 596.693
Total 21813.816 37

Between Groups 3.765 1 3.765 .008 .928

Pretest2A Within Groups 16229.709 36 450.825
Total 16233.474 37
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Continued Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares

Between Groups .223 1 .223 .000 .984

Posttest2A Within Groups 19694.751 36 547.076
Total 19694.974 37

Between Groups 492.190 1 492.190 .647 .427

Pretest3A Within Groups 27399.810 36 761.106
Total 27892.000 37

Between Groups 50.050 1 50.050 .108 .745

Posttest3A Within Groups 16757.003 36 465.472
Total 16807.053 37
(Note: df = degrees of freedom. .sig=significance level.)

First Directional Hypothesis

The first directional hypothesis explored was, listening to non-lyrical jazz music

before reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to the standardized

reading scores. This is somewhat related to question 3 because Group B before-reading

results were reviewed, however, lexile categories were solely reviewed by hypothesis.

Results sorted by Lexile categories do not show an increase between pre-test and post-

test scores in Part 1 of the study. Session Two shows the only increase in means scores

(11-12%); however, the other two tests show decreases from pre-test to post-test scores.

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis explored was, there will be no significant difference in the pre

and post comprehension measures between independent variables: classical, jazz,

silence/none. The differences in means between independent variable groups falls within

the published Standard Error, therefore, the null hypothesis was proved. The differences
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in pre and post-test scores fell within the range published by the QRI-5. The one-way

ANOVA run for Part 1 and Part 2 for all groups showed three significant differences out

of twelve tests (see Tables 8 and 10).

Next, a more detailed analysis of the null hypothesis is followed by the questions

and hypotheses related to the before-reading (Part 1) study, then the during-reading (Part

2) study questions and hypotheses were closely reviewed.

Detailed Analysis

Null Hypothesis

There will be no significant difference in the pre and post comprehension

measures between independent variables: classical, jazz, silence/none. Null hypothesis

was supported. Two pre-tests and one post-test showed significance out of 6 pre-tests

and 6 post-tests. No significant increase or decrease in post-reading scores existed across

the independent variables. Part 1 test Group ABC means were .58, .57, and .51; Part 2

Means were: .51, .57, .and 55. Both parts of the study have mean differences that were

within Standard Error given by publisher of .14 for each Session 1-3, and Sessions 4-6 of

12, .15, and .12 for an average of .13.

One-way ANOVA tests run on before reading and during reading results showed

two pre-tests and one post-test with significance of .05 or less. The increases and

decreases from pre to post reading test scores were within standard deviations; therefore,

no significant increase or decrease in post-reading scores existed across the independent

variables.

Detailed analysis section is arranged in two sections, before reading questions,

hypotheses and data followed by questions and hypotheses related to during reading data.
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Before Reading

Research Question 1

To what extent does the instructional design strategy of listening to music before

reading increase the difference between independent variables of classical/ jazz, and

silence measured through pre and post comprehension variables?

Part 1 Confidence Interval for Mean (lower bound, upper bound) was: 95% CI

(64.74, 73.33), (44.71, 56.45), (42.48, 53.32), (47.86, 60.17), (48.24, 62.25), and (41.87,

52.10). Minimum and maximum range as follows for Part 1 pre and post-tests: (25, 100),

(0, 100), (0, 100), (0, 100), (8, 100), and (10, 92). Significance ranges from 0-1. If p-

value (sig.) is less than .05, then it is considered significant. Post-test 2 was .042, and pre-

test 3 was .035; therefore, two of six sessions were significant.

Leslie & Caldwell (2011) reported pre and post-test combined means (with

standard deviations in parenthesis) for “World War I” Parts 1 through 3 as .35 (.24), .39

(.26), .44 (.24) respectively. Standard Error of Measurement was .14 for each section of

the “World War I” tests.

The Mean for Sessions 1 to 3 (Part 1) were above the Quality Reading Inventory

5th edition (QRI-5) published test results by 2%-27%; the Standard Deviation (SD) was

within 1 to 6% of the QRI-5’s; the Standard Error (SE) is 8% to 10% lower than QRI-5’s;

effect size (Eta-squared) was not indicated by the QRI-5, but was calculated for pre-test

and post-test effect sizes for each group show a significant difference (see Table 12).

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Table 12
Part 1 Aggregated Group Means, and Standard Deviations
Groups Pre 1 Post 1 Pre 2 Post 2 Pre 3 Post 3
A .64 .55 .50 .61 .67 .46
B .74 .49 .49 .61 .60 .48
C .69 .49 .46 .45 .46 .47
Sum 2.07 1.53 1.45 1.68 1.73 1.40
Mean .69 .51 .48 .56 .58 .47
QRI-5 Mean .35 .39 .44
Mean d +.16 +.17 +.03
SD per test .05 .035 .021 .09 .11 .012
SD by test .085 .11 .12
QRI-5 .24 .26 .24
SD
SD d -.085 -.15 -.12
(Note: d=difference.)

In Table 12, research question 1 data results for the three groups were as follows:

Session 1 Group A means (SD) for pre and post-tests were .64 (.05), and .55 (.035);

Group B means were .74 (.05) and .49 (.035); and Group C means were .69 (.05) and .49

(.035) (see Table 13). Data shows a decrease between pre and post-test results ranging

from -.09 (A), -.25 (B), and -.20 (C).

Session 2 Group A means were .50 (.021) and .61 (.09); Group B means were .49

(.021) and .61 (.09); and Group C means were .46 (.021), and .45 (.09). The data shows

two of three positive gains between pre and post-test results of +.11 (A), +.12 (B), and

-.01 (C).

Session 3 Group A means were .67 (.11) and .46 (.012); Group B means were .60

(.11) and .48 (.012); and Group C means were .46 (.11), and .47 (.012). The data shows

two of three negative results of -.21 (A), -.12 (B), and +.01 (C).

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Third Directional Hypothesis (before reading)

Associated with Research Question One, the third directional hypothesis was as

follows: listening to classical or jazz music compared with silence/none before reading

will create a significant difference in the pre and post comprehension.

The means between Groups AB and C for Part 1 study design were 57.33 (AB

Means) and 50.66 (C Means). Groups A and B outscored the control group on Session 2

of the before-reading music session. The control group had non-significant changes

(-.01) between Session 2 pre and post-tests. On Sessions 1 and 3, Groups AB differences

between pre and post-tests were negative, but still within the Standard Deviation of .24,

.26, and .24 (see Table 12).

Research Question 3 (before reading)

Does the instructional design strategy of listening to classical music before

reading significantly increase the difference between pre and post reading comprehension

compared to jazz music scores?

Part 1 Groups A and B Confidence Interval for Mean (lower bound, upper bound)

was: 95% CI (63.77, 75.39), (43.73, 59.69), (42.59, 56.36), (53.39, 68.56), (53.98,

72.02), and (40.15, 54.16). Minimum and maximum range as follows for Part 1 Groups A

and B pre and post-tests: (33, 100), (0, 95), (1, 100), (15, 100), (8, 100), and (10, 92).

Significance ranges from 0-1. If p-value (sig.) is less than .05, then it is considered

significant. None of these sessions were significant (see Table 11).

Group A and B mean results for Session 1 were 60 to 62 (see Table 12), Session 2

was even at 55 while Session 3 showed a slight mean difference 56 to 55 which means
92
the differences were non-significant. In Part 1 of study, Group A (classical) mean was

57.66 versus Group B (jazz) mean of 57 (non-significant difference). Differences in pre

and post means between Groups A and B in the before-reading musical variables

treatment were non-significant.

First Directional Hypothesis (before reading)

Listening to non-lyrical jazz music before reading will increase reading

comprehension scores compared to the standardized reading scores. The lexile reading

scores were used as a comparison mechanism with pre and post-test result differences.

Group B lexile scores in Part 1 of the study were:

 (n = 9) Advanced: 1251 or above (A)

 (n = 11) Proficient 1025 to 1250 (P)

 (n = 1) Basic 700 to 1024 (B)

 (n = 0) Below Basic 0 to 699 (BR).

Table 13
Group B Part 1 Means Statistics by Cut Point Lexile Score (>1251)
S1 to 3 Lexiles N Mean SD SEM
>= 1251 9 .80 .18 .06
Pretest1B
< 1251 12 .70 .16 .05
>= 1251 9 .54 .22 .07
Posttest1B
< 1251 12 .45 .25 .07

>= 1251 9 .56 .22 .07

Pretest2B
< 1251 12 .44 .27 .08
>= 1251 9 .68 .25 .08
Posttest2B
< 1251 12 .56 .20 .06

>= 1251 9 .66 .29 .1

Pretest3B
< 1251 12 .55 .24 .07
>= 1251 9 .49 .22 .07
Posttest3B
< 1251 12 .48 .26 .07
(Advanced reading Lexile Scores were 1251 and above. Group B size is 21.)

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The means score differences between pre and post-tests for Part 1 of the study for Group

B participants (n = 9) with equal to or above Advanced lexile range (>= 1251) were:

Session 1 pre-test .80 (.18) and post-test .54 (.25) for a negative difference of -.26;

Session 2 pre-test .56 (.22), post-test .68 for a positive difference of +.12; and Session 3

pre-test .66 (.29), post-test .49 (.22) for a negative difference of -.17.

Group B participants with lexile scores less than 1251 (n = 12) results were:

Session 1 pre-test .70 (.16), post-test .45 (.25) for a negative difference of -.25; Session 2

pre-test .44 (.27), post-test .56 (.20) for a positive difference of +.12; Session 3 pre-test

.55 (.24), post-test .48 (.26) for a negative difference of -.07.

Although the standardized reading scores (lexiles) were an indicator of higher

scores for Group B Advanced Level (1251 or above) study participants, high lexiles were

not indicative of an increase between pre and post comprehension measures (see Table

13). Session One differences between pre and post-test results for all of Group B was

consistent at -.26 (>= 1251) and -.25 (>1251) while Session Two showed a positive gain

of +.12 for both groupings, and Session Three proved a -.17 (>=1251) and -.07 (>1251).

During Reading

Research Question 2

Does the instructional design strategy of listening to music during-reading create

a significant difference between independent variables of classical, jazz, and silence

measured through pre and post comprehension variables?

One-way ANOVA was run for Groups A, B, and C and displayed in Table 10 for

Part 2. Part 2 Confidence Interval for Mean (lower bound, upper bound): 95% CI (61.27,

71.96), (46.26, 55.87), (66.29, 74.78), (46.63, 55.90), (41.87, 51.55), and (34.45, 43.39).
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Minimum and maximum range as follows for Study Part 2: Pre-test 4- 8, 100, Post-test 4-

0, 90, Pre-test 5- 25, 100, Post-test 5- 0, 100, Pre-test 6- 0, 100, and Post-test 6- 0, 95.

Significance ranges from 0-1. If p-value (sig.) is less than .05, then it is considered

significant.

“Characteristics of Viruses” published results combined pre and post-test means

(for Sessions 4 to 6) reported as .20 (.15), .37 (.20) and .20 (.18) respectively (Leslie &

Caldwell, 2011, p. 481). Standard Error of Measurement was .12, .15, and .12.

Table 14
Part 2 Aggregated Group Means, and Standard Deviations
Category Pre 4 Post 4 Pre 5 Post 5 Pre 6 Post 6
Group A .69 .45 .64 .50 .41 .37
Group B .62 .60 .77 .51 .51 .38
Group C .69 .48 .70 .52 .46 .41
Sum 2.00 1.53 2.11 1.53 1.39 1.16
Mean .67 .51 .70 .51 .46 .39
QRI-5 Mean .20 .37 .20
Mean d +.31 +.14 +.19
SD per test .04 .08 .07 .01 .05 .02
SD by test .12 .08 .07
QRI-5 SD .15 .20 .18
(Note: d = difference, SD = standard deviation.)

In Table 14, Question 2 data results for the three groups were as follows: Session

4 Group A means for pre and post-tests were .69 (.04), and .45 (.08); Group B means

were 62 (.04) and .60 (.08); and Group C means were .69 (.04) and .48 (.08) (see Table

14). The data shows a decrease between pre and post-test results ranging from -.24 (A), -

.02 (B), and -.21 (C).

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 Session 5 Group A means were .64 (.07) and .50 (.01); Group B means were .77

(.07) and .51 (.01); and Group C means were .70 (.07), and .52 (.01). The data shows

negative gains between pre and post-test results of -.14 (A), -.26 (B), and -.18 (C).

Session 6 Group A means were .41 (.05) and .37 (.02); Group B means were .51

(.05) and .38 (.02); and Group C means were .46 (.05), and .41 (.02). The data shows

negative results of -.04 (A), -.13 (B), and -.05 (C).

Second Directional Hypothesis (during reading)

Listening to non-lyrical jazz music during reading will increase reading

comprehension scores compared to classical music group scores. No significant

difference in post-test scores between Groups A and B in the during-reading sessions was

shown. In Part 2 of the study, the during-reading music group mean for Group B’s (jazz)

was .56 compared with the Group A’s (classical) mean of .51 which shows that the mean

for jazz was higher, but not significantly. The published Standard Error for Part 2

Characteristics of Viruses averaged .13.

Chapter 4 Summary

Part 1 of the study was the before-reading music study comprised of Sessions 1, 2,

and 3. Part 2 of the study was the during-reading musical variable study comprised of

Sessions 4, 5, and 6. Three groups participated in three online classrooms. Group A was

assigned non-lyrical classical music, Group B was given non-lyrical jazz, and Group C

had silence as control group. Part 1 (before-reading design) required participants to

answer pre-test concept questions before listening to the assigned musical variable, then

read a short passage, and answer content comprehension questions. Part 1 lasted 7-10

days. Part 2 (during- reading design) required participants to answer pre-test concept
96
questions, then read short text while listening to musical variable, and answer post-test

content questions. Part 2 lasted 7-10 days.

Sessions 1 and 3 of the before-reading study (Part 1), group means decreased

between pre and post-tests. Musical treatment for Groups A and B was between these

tests, before the reading text set and answering post-test questions. In Session 2 (Part 1),

the jazz and classical groups showed small means increases of .11 and .12 while the

control group showed a negative .01. Before-reading music potentially had a negative

impact on post-reading comprehension scores in Sessions 1 and 3. For Sessions 4 to 6 of

the during-reading study (Part 2), the pre-test Group A and B means were higher than the

post-test means. Control Group C had the same decrease in means from pre to post-tests

in all sessions of Part 2. Since all three groups had similar negative post-test results,

during-reading music did not appear to positively impact post-reading comprehension

scores.

Research Questions 1 and 3 results showed that in Part 1 of the study, post-test 2

for Groups A, B, and C had a significance of .042, and pre-test 3 had a significance of

.035. Since both were less than .05, they were considered significant (see Table 9). In

Part 2 of the study for Groups A, B, and C, post-test 4 was .032 which showed

significance since it was also less than .05 (see Table 10).

Of the hypotheses, the following null was proven: there will be no significant

difference in the pre and post comprehension measures between independent variables:

classical, jazz, silence/none.

Pre-test questions for six published tests used from the QRI-5 were concept-based

while the post-test questions were content-based. Access to Internet search functions may
97
have potentially skewed pre-test results (e.g., vocabulary look-up). Internet lock-out

procedure was not in place although the directions asked participants not to use the

Internet for looking up answers. Chapter 5 will further explore potential relationships

between the data, literature review, and potential reasons.

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CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent an instructional design

strategy of listening to complex music before or during-reading effects reading

comprehension in high school students. Giardino-Cherico (1989) used parts of a pre-task

music design by Rauscher et. al., (1995) studying its effect on reading comprehension.

Giardino-Cherico combined pre-task music design with a more recent background

(during task) music design to comprise a study of instructional design strategies for

reading. Introduction of non-lyrical classical and jazz music in two different ways

provided a unique independent study in online reading comprehension. This updated

combination study included technology-integration at the high school level. Chapter 5

summarizes and discusses results of the study through the lens of literature, study design,

theory, limitations, and potential implications for instructional design.

Summary of the Results

Sessions 1 to 3 comprised the before-reading portion of research study also

known as Part 1. Data showed higher numbers on pre-tests than post-tests in Sessions 1

and 3 for Groups A and B, with an 11 to 12% means increase in Session 2 on post-test

means while the control group decreased 1%. In Part 1 of the study, post-test 2 for

Groups A, B, and C had a significance level of .042, and pre-test 3 had a significance

level of .035. Since both were less than .05, they were considered significant (see Table

9). Research questions 1, 3, and directional hypotheses 1 and 3 were based on Part 1 of

study.
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Research question 1: the effect size was calculated through Eta-squared measurement

from ANOVA divided between and within group data for Part 1. In terms of effect size,

differences ranged from 11% to 39%. Group’s effect sizes were calculated as follows:

 from 2% (Group C) to 13.6% (Group A) on Session 1, an 11.6% difference

 .06% (Group C) to 40% (Group A), a 39.04% difference

 .01% (Group C) to 12% (Group C), an 11.09% difference.

Examining question 3 and the third directional hypothesis, all groups in Session 1

had a negative means difference: 9% (A), 25% (B), 20% (C) between pre and post-tests.

Session 2 had positive means difference of 11% (A), and 12% (B) while C had a negative

1%. Session 3 had a negative means difference of 21% (A), 12% (B), while C had a non-

significant positive means difference of 1% (C). Control group C overall had negative

results followed by two non-significant differences whereas musical variable groups

overall had negative results. In Part 2 of the study for Groups A, B, and C, post-test 4 was

.032 which showed significance since it was less than .05 (see Table 11). Research

question 3 compared classical (A) and jazz (B) pre and post-test results which were

within the standard deviation for the tests, therefore, non-significant differences existed

between Groups A and B for Part 1. Third directional hypothesis of musical variables

positively impacting post-test results compared with silence was not supported by the

data because overall results showed a negative means difference for the musical variable

groups.

First directional hypothesis was for jazz Group (B) to significantly increase in

Part 1 sessions compared with lexile reading scores taken before study began. Although

the pre and post-test scores were negative overall, the advanced lexile jazz group (n = 9)
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did score at a higher level than lower level lexile groups by 10 to 12%, however, the post-

test scores were still negative means differences. Lexile levels were predictors of success

but not of a positive influence of musical variables.

Sessions 4 to 6 comprised Part 2, the during-reading musical variable section of

the study. Research question 2 and second directional hypothesis were based on Part 2.

Data collected was aggregated by group means, and three sessions showed negative

means difference between pre and post-reading tests for three groups. Differences were

within standard deviation, so question 2 was not proved by the data. Listening to music

while reading did not improve post-test scores for Groups A and B. Group C also showed

negative means difference on post-test scores. In Part 2 of the study for Groups A, B, and

C, post-test 4 was .032 which showed significance since it was less than .05 (see Table

11). Comparing Groups A and B results did not have any different results. Classical and

jazz during reading both produced negative post-test results in Part 2. Neither question 2

nor the second directional hypothesis was proved.

The null hypothesis reviewed Part 1 and Part 2 data means differences. The means

differences for both studies were within the QRI-5 standard error rates, so the null

hypothesis is supported by the data. . The one-way ANOVA run for Parts 1 and 2 for all

groups showed three significant differences out of twelve tests (see Tables 11 and 12).

Discussion of the Results

In this two part, six session study, findings included participation and feedback.

Recruiting went well for this research study with 102 students of 120 in the science club

sign up; but follow-through and dropouts altered the outcomes. Five from each group (n

= 15) failed to complete even the first session of the study resulting in Session 1
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participation of 28 (A), 28 (B), and 31 (C). Over the next two sessions, those numbers fell

to 17 (A), 21 (B), and 31 (C), so the control group was the only one to remain consistent

during Sessions 2 and 3 while the other groups decreased by 11, and 7 (n = 18). These

participation results were of note because the verbal feedback revolved around dislike of

the music selections (Groups A and B). Teenagers made it clear that the music chosen

was distracting. Fifteen dropped out immediately while 18 more did not participate over

seven to ten days’ time. The literature revealed that audio distractions can help or hinder

focus during reading and text complexity determines ability to comprehend (Beaman,

2005). Unanticipated results of a negative means difference from pre to post-test results

in both the before and during reading results point to the reason and purpose of the study,

teens enjoy listening to music while reading or doing homework, but does music help

focus against distractions? Study findings support music as a distraction to reading

comprehension. The high scores on pre-tests which were clear of any musical distraction

could mean several things: pre-concept knowledge of the text, or Internet look-up

features used. Lexile or reading score levels should be reviewed to see if connections

exist.

Group B lexile levels were analyzed in an independent sample t-test against the

pre and post-test results. Higher lexile scores correlated to higher pre-test results, but

failed to demonstrate higher post-test scores. In retrospect, analyzing lexile levels in all

three groups would be helpful in better understanding correlations if any in test results

because there may be a causal relationship. Advanced (1251+) level readers may be

better equipped to focus against audio distractions than Basic Level readers. True audio

distractions instead of music might provide a method to make this determination.

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 Discussion of the Results in Relation to the Literature

The literature (Giardino-Cherico, 1989; Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Rauscher

& Hinton, 2006; Rauscher et. al., 1995) indicated that successful focus and motivation

during tasks for learners may include listening to highly-structured non-repetitive music

to stimulate the brain’s short-term memory. Results for Groups A and B found that

reading comprehension was not improved by non-lyrical musical variables. Findings may

point towards personal choice, distraction (Pool et. al., 2000; Hallam, et. al., 2002), or

motivation (Dunn, 1987) as an overriding variable in teenage data results. Music proved

to be a real distraction and even an annoyance to students who dropped out. Their

feedback was vivid about the jazz, “I want to throw my computer against the wall to stop

that music. I can’t stand it.” From the research assistant’s memory, others complimented

the jazz selection as relaxing and kind of a cool rhythm, so those participants may have

been listening to the music instead of reading the text selections. Musical distraction may

have helped focus other participants against environmental issues (Pool et. al., 2000;

Hallam, et. al., 2002). A post-survey may have provided insight into perceptions of

participants who either enjoyed or disliked the experiences. It also may have provided

insights into like or dislike of classical and jazz music, a potential reason that post-test

scores decreased compared to pre-test scores.

Information from the literature review indicates that pre-task classical music

treatment does not improve spatial abilities (Dowd, 2007; McKelvie & Low, 2002;

Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Standing et. al., 2008; Thompson et. al., 2001; Wilson &

Brown, 1997). At least six sources documented replication attempts from studies

designed with a pre-task classical music element. Six studies with pre and post-tests did
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not show improvement based on spatial abilities. Reading is a different cognitive task

than spatial reasoning, but the outcomes were the same. Pre-task classical music did not

improve post-test reading comprehension.

Measuring participants’ reading levels through a standardized reading test

(Scholastic Reading Inventory) gave the study a framework to evaluate reading

comprehension and compare pre and post-test score results with participants’ individual

lexile levels (reading level). Although the lexiles scores were collected, only Group B in

Part 2 of the study was scrutinized, based on the first directional hypothesis. Reading is a

complex skill reliant on working memory (Burton & Daneman, 2007); it is common for

novice readers to overload working memory in the process of decoding words (Hall,

2007).

Relationship between Results and Theoretical Framework

Four concepts guided the study design. The first was a theoretical framework

based on structured non-repetitive music having an effect for a brief period of time (10 to

15 minutes). The original design predicted that because classical or jazz music increases

attention for a brief period of time, complex music (e.g., classical, jazz) would increase

reading comprehension (Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004; Rauscher et. al., 1995). Study results

disconfirm the assumptions of Rauscher’s et. al. (1995) original theoretical framework.

Research studies attempting to replicate the original Rauscher et. al. study had split

outcomes which can be interpreted in several ways, such as the following: the study

design was not closely followed as discussed in Chapter 2; musical selection used was

not non-lyrical classical of an upbeat tempo and tone; and participants may have reacted

to musical variables in slightly different ways causing a fifty-fifty split in study results. In
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the end, perhaps spatial reasoning tasks were too dissimilar from reading comprehension

tasks to predict success or failure. The theory was tested on reading because the design

had been tested with fifty-fifty results posing the opportunity to apply the framework to a

different comprehension task set.

The second concept for the study design was based on background music known

as during-task music. Background music creates a higher intrinsic cognitive load when

paired with difficult text (Clark et. al., 2006). In a different study, 10 to 11-year-olds had

increased math problem-solving speed because of the calming effects of background

music (Hallam et. al., 2002). While music perceived as arousing or aggressive had a

negative effect on 11 and 12-year olds’ math problem-solving speed and skills (Hallam

et. al., 2002). These studies involving Hallam et. al. indicated the type of music selected

may be a key to the outcome when using background music as an auditory element in the

learning environment. The background studies were many and varied with missing details

about exact musical selections, so it is challenging to determine if current the study had a

similar outcome. The current study had negative means differences between pre and post

comprehension tests which means findings would not support background music (during-

reading music) as a positive influence on comprehension.

The third concept for consideration that aided in the study’s design was Clark and

Mayer’s (2008) cognitive load and coherence principle. Under the concept’s application,

Clark and Mayer (2008) made a case to exclude background music, sounds, graphics and

words considered extraneous information in classroom or online training programs. Pre-

task music would produce less strain on working memory and cognitive load than

listening to music during-reading (Clark et. al., 2006). This study’s data showed before-
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reading independent variables resulted in a positive gain in one of three sessions while

during-reading independent variables showed negative results. Clark and Mayer’s

coherence principle was tested with during-reading music which strained working

memory resulting in more consistent negative scores when music was played. Findings

were a bit ambiguous on the pre-task version where partial positive gains were indicated

in one of three sessions.

The fourth area studied was the delivery methodology of reading online text

which was addressed by Garland and Noyes (2004). Retrieval of knowledge varied

between paper and computerized text, and found that reading from a computer could

provide less accurate information and a slower reading rate than from a paper version.

One finding seemed to be that a computer (CRT) monitor interfered with mental

processes involved in reading (Garland & Noyes, 2004). Regardless of the potential

limitations with online text comprehension, computer-based testing was included to

modernize the study. Whether Garland and Noyes’ assumption that a slower reading rate

and interference with mental processes occurred based on testing results could not be

determined. Findings do not refute or support this assumption.

Relationship between Results and Literature Reviewed

The literature reviewed in Chapter 2 explored both sides of the pre-task study

design and background audio studies. Because positive and negative results were defined

within the literature reviews, findings were supported regardless of study results of before

and during musical variable concepts. Cognitive load theory and the coherence principle

were also well-defined scientifically. Concepts were not in doubt and well proven by the

current study. Instructional designers can overcome cognitive load issues by being aware
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of concepts and cognizant of cognitive load theory when designing (Mayer & Moreno,

2003). Before selecting new materials or devising new assessment techniques, awareness

of learner’s background knowledge gains importance in order to avoid cognitive

overload. Scaffolding information for learners was relevant for instructors and

instructional designers.

The fourth concept was about slower reading rates when reading online text. This

was not disputed in other literature; however, the study could neither prove nor disprove

the theory.

Pre-task music, background music, cognitive load theory, the coherence principle,

and slower reading rates caused by online text were concepts that guided development of

the current study. Working memory, long-term memory, and how the brain harnesses left

and right hemispheric functions underlies everything a person does when reading.

Proving or disproving scientific and psychology principles is not something this study

strived to reveal. Simply put, the study wanted to add music into an online reading

routine and gauge whether it had a positive or negative effect. Findings tied to these

framing concepts structured the study well. Although in Part 1 of the study two tests

showed significance, Part 2 only showed one. Negative means differences were the

results in both sections of the study which could mean interference took place. Sound

instructional design follows best practice which means that when instructional design

tests results show a negative impact on reading comprehension from listening to music

before or during-reading, best practice would dictate leaving music out of online design

for reading materials that require concentration. Reading rates have been shown to slow

with online text (Garland & Noyes, 2004). Study results here translated to most learners
107
being unable to concentrate or recall details from short-term memory after exposure to

musical variables especially when music was not personally chosen by the learner.

Allowing choice stimulated a positive emotional response resulting in a release of

dopamine; and learning activities linked to enjoyable experiences made students’ brains

seek out those activities (Willis, 2007). Choices were not given in this study except to opt

out.

Limitations

According to Gill (2008), the following three elements effect comprehension:

reader, text, and situation. For reading done outside of school, home distractions such as

television, children and household duties limited comprehension (Armstrong & Chung,

2000; Pool et. al., 2000; Poopola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). An independent study

worked well for anonymous participation in a small high school setting; however, a

proctored computer lab may have given the study a more reliable structure that could

have enabled better participation rather than having to replace participants because they

forgot to participate. The lock-out procedure for removing the temptation of looking up

vocabulary online was another limitation of the study that could be overcome in a more

controlled lab setting. Setting the study in a small school had situational limitations as

well because of the verbal factor with teenagers who compared the music listened to in

each group and discussed the study in the hallways. Anonymity means less when the

participants hold semi-public discussions. The researcher as a teacher in the small school

had negatives and positives because the participants could not ask questions to problem-

solve or clarify because of the required anonymity to ensure valid and reliable data

108
scoring. Had the study been conducted in another public school where the researcher was

known only as a researcher, the results may have been different.

Negative means differences from pre to post-tests may have been a reaction to the

distraction of music, the possibility that students enjoyed listening to the music, or it may

have been the independent nature of the study (e.g. other distractions at home). Stress

may have played a factor since most reading assignments were not timed except on

standardized assessments, and they were timed for this study. The content of the Social

Studies texts could be an issue at the heart of the results as well. “World War I” may not

have sparked enthusiasm in all readers for Part 1 of the study. “Characteristics of

Viruses” may have been dry text; however, the science club was the participant pool, so it

seemed an appropriate choice. Revisiting an expert’s opinion about reading reminded one

that, “Comprehension can be affected by the reader’s interest in and background

knowledge of the topic, strategies the reader knows how to use, and even the reader’s

physical and emotional state and self-image” (Gill, 2008, p. 107). End results of the study

and what has been witnessed in many K-12 classrooms is that without self-motivation or

interest in the reading materials, learners may choose to skim read which translates to

missing many details. In a classroom situation, readers read questions and return to the

text to divine the answer. Online text is different from a textbook and requires learner

practice to get used to formatting being compressed from normal field of vision to online

text (Moreno & Mayer, 1999). Paper text may have produced different results.

Another limitation was the lack of below level readers included in the study.

Participants were not recruited based on lexile levels, but by membership in the school’s

science club. The researcher did not have any presupposition of reading levels based on
109
club membership. An interesting fact is that very few basic readers were enrolled in the

study. Potential participants with basic reading levels may have avoided enrolling in a

reading study because it would be uncomfortable; or below level readers may not be

members of the science club. The below level readers comprised only 15% of the

participant pool.

Implication of the Results for Practice

Implications in high school classrooms for instructional designers would be to

proceed cautiously when including musical variables especially when designing online

content. One of the concerns about music integration in learning or homework was

potential for distraction which has been studied often with mixed results (Armstrong &

Chung, 2000; Pool et. al., 2000; Poopola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). The findings

of this study did not support background music as conducive to positive reading

comprehension; therefore, design decisions to include or exclude music, mp3s or other

handheld devices for quizzes or tests should be carefully questioned based on study

findings. Types of text and the purpose for reading definitely have an impact and should

be carefully weighed in design considerations. For example, reading for enjoyment and

listening to music involve different concentration issues but use the same side of the brain

(right) (Ornstein, 1997; Sprenger, 1999; Williams, 1983). Quite simply put, music can

disrupt concentration (Hallam et. al., 2002). The program popular in the 1990s called

Accelerated Learning integrated music and relaxation into instructional training design.

Sessions set opening training exercises to background music selected by “what went over

best with the majority of the employees,” (Pattison, 2001, p. 117) to aid relaxation

through visualization techniques. Even allowing the employees’ choice of music led to a
110
participant falling asleep, rudeness, rowdiness, and non-participation resulting in future

changes in training design.

Reading online text has been another conundrum for instructional designers

including the rise of handhelds (Song, 2007), the influx of Nook, Kindle, and tablets, and

the common knowledge that electronic books and alternatives to print have been on the

rise (Franklin & Ferguson 2005; Larson, 2009) with classical texts available digitally.

Translated to the design for classroom, experts indicated that learners must adjust fields

of vision and may read at slower rates using online texts (Garland & Noyes, 2004).

Weighing the effectiveness of electronic text and measuring comprehension or learning

outcomes are parts of the designer’s responsibility in selecting the best possible delivery

method for today’s learners. Online text has been available through varied delivery

methods. Deciding when to use e-text becomes another instructional designer decision

with a limited number of research studies completed to guide the way.

Recommendations for Further Research

A strong benefit of conducting this research was identifying ideas for future

research, and a number of ideas emerged based on the implementation of this study. One

possibility was to consider a proctored computer designed test in a lab setting with

instructions read aloud to ensure that participants followed the instructions and remove

forgetful and disruptive factors from independent testing. A proctored environment in

lieu of independent study method could provide structure that the inactive participants

needed to be successful because 15 participants of 102 signed up failed to complete even

the initial session, and an additional 18 did not complete all three sessions of Part 1 of the

study.
111
 Altering the study design to a combination of before-during-after reading using

musical variables throughout the process of pre-test, reading, and post-test would be more

realistic for participants who listen to music or television throughout the entire reading

comprehension process at home (Hallam, et. al. 2002). Instructions would be easier to

follow and results might be more uniform. If students use distractions to help them focus

their learning activities, a true experiment would be full immersion, and results should be

realistic.

Another delivery method would be entire language arts classes completing online

study simultaneously (e.g. early morning class, after lunch class, and late afternoon

class). These different times of day and physical conditions would be beneficial in

consideration of potential impacts related to physical condition. Perhaps conducting a

study in the fall would have been a better idea than in December, but excited students

were enrolled and agreed to participate.

Selective perception was defined as, “Our goals, expectations, and current

understandings color our perceptions. They serve as filters to the world and shape our

cognitive structures and responses. This selective nature of perception has implications

for instructional sequencing, motivation, and metacognitive training” (Wilson & Myers,

2000, p. 64). A sense of control over which musical variable was played during reading

fits in the definition of selective perception. The before-reading study had positive gains

for both musical variables in one of three sessions. What could be called an anomaly was

a takeaway from the data based on one of three sessions in the before-reading study

Gains of 11 to 12% in means occurred with musical variable groups while the control

group remained the same. The small improvement is inconclusive and was not replicated
112
within the study. Whatever made that session different is worth pursuing. Future research

could offer choices from the three types of audio (non-lyrical classical, non-lyrical jazz,

or silence), and three subgroups could be formed based on participants’ choice of non-

lyrical classical, non-lyrical jazz, or silence. A (possibly) more correct fit and a sense of

control over the audio may provide better post-test results. Testing non-lyrical versus

lyrical music is another study idea that delves further into right hemisphere functions.

The instructional design concern about using audio and text simultaneously might

provide another venue for study. Evaluating tablets with digital (e-books) texts designed

for read-alouds while learners can visually read the text would fall under the redundancy

principle, or it could be a breakthrough for students unable to comprehend higher level

lexile texts. It may give insight on how the brain processes audio and text rather than

music and text.

Conclusion

A study based on high school students can be risky because given the choice to

participate or not, teenagers change their minds…often. The researcher gave daily details

about incomplete tests to the research assistant who was constantly reminding inactive

participants, and recruiting replacements throughout the first and second weeks of the

study. Of 102 enrolled, 69 completed the before-reading study, and 75 finished the

during-reading music variable study. Based on efforts put into independent participation,

reminders, and additional recruitment data results should have been 30 per group as

required for a proper ANOVA statistical analysis. Participants may have enjoyed

listening to the music (environmental stimuli) which distracted from production of

113
accurate work (Beaman, 2005), or participants may have hated the music which

destroyed concentration or focus.

During-reading musical variables resulted in lower post-test scores which

provided data related to the question of whether music served as a distraction to reading

comprehension during reading. Recommending online text and tests becomes more

complex because of Internet options available to participants during this independent

study. As the data suggests, music before-reading and during-reading did not positively

impact results in this case for the majority of the sessions. Silence before-reading did not

fare much better as it remained negative throughout data collection as did the during-

reading silence with only one session showing an insignificant 1% positive means

difference. The lack of positive results for three audio conditions in two different study

designs points to focus, comprehension, and motivation as potential issues. Teenagers

were complex as were the issues the study attempted to address. Study results showed

that one of three sessions showed positive reading comprehension results using musical

variables. The control group sat for five minutes of silence which served to clear minds

before reading, and results proved fewer comprehension deviations, (20% decrease in

scores, and plus or minus 1% on the next two) a fairly consistent result. Silence inside

headphones may actually provide an answer to environmental distractions which has

become one of today’s learning deterrents.

In a final reflection of the results and implications as a whole, the role of

instructional designers and the relevancy filter applied to recent trends seen by

instructors’ desire for class engagement is an immense and serious responsibility. E-

books and handheld devices are becoming preferred delivery mechanisms for future
114
education, yet fundamental design holds the key to learning without distraction, cognitive

overload, or redundancy. Weighing the positive potential of music on individual

motivation cannot be overlooked so quickly, even with unanticipated results; one study

does not signal stopping the ongoing search for best practices or new designs to foster

learning. Continuing to consider individualized education solutions for effective learning

might be a step towards meeting learners’ needs in the ever-evolving world of education

and training. The question still remains related to instructional design implications about

comprehension of listening to music before and during-reading.

115
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 APPENDIX A. HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL TEXT LIST

1. World War I Part 1 (1,180 Lexile)

2. World War I Part 2 (950 Lexile)

3. World War I Part 3 (1,020 Lexile)

4. Characteristics of Viruses--Part 1 (960 Lexile)

5. Characteristics of Viruses--Part 2 (920 Lexile)

6. Characteristics of Viruses--Part 3 (950 Lexile)

(Leslie & Caldwell, 2011)

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 APPENDIX B. SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Note: From Qualitative Reading Inventory-5 (p. 425, 427-8). By L. Leslie and J.S. Caldwell.
2011. Boston: Pearson. Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Pre-Test 1 Social Studies Concept Questions (World War I Part 1)

1. What are some causes of wars?

2. What were the causes of World War I?

3. What does “interception” mean?

4. What does “unrestricted” mean?

Post-Test 1 Questions for World War I—Part 1

1. What is this passage mostly about?

2. What two types of factors caused the war?

3. How did the rise of new powers cause the War?

4. Name one set of countries in Europe and the surrounding regions that grouped

together for security reasons in 1914.

5. What event finally triggered the war?

6. Why do you think that Germany wanted to avoid fighting a war on two fronts?

7. How did the defeat of Russia on the eastern front help Germany?

8. Why did Germany attack U.S. ships?

9. What final event caused the United States to join the Allies?

10. Why might Mexico have wanted to join Germany?

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 APPENDIX C. SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONS

Week One (Session 1: Sunday through Tuesday)

Thank you for participating in this research study!

Please follow the instructions posted each time you enter the Moodle course room. Week
One: access to first assignment is open from Sunday through Tuesday (midnight).

The assignment should take about 15 minutes to complete, so plan enough time to
complete at one computer sitting (e.g., during study hall, free time, at home on Internet-
accessible computer, cafeteria computer before, during or after school).

Please do not break the session apart into different section at different times. This is
extremely important for the research study.

Four easy steps:

1. Click on Quizzes section: Select and open World War —Part 1 Pre-test; take
this four question pre-reading concepts test.

2. Under week one, click on MP3 file titled Group A. Use headphones or ear buds,
and listen to this 5 minute audio selection before proceeding to the next step.

3. Open text file titled World War I—Part 1 found under Week One. It is a
clickable, downloadable PDF file. Download and open it using Acrobat Reader.
Read the text before going to step 4.

4. Open Quizzes section: select and open World War I—Part 1 Post-test; take this
twelve question post-reading test.

Thanks again for taking the time to do this study assignment. The next assignment will be
available Thursday through Saturday (midnight), Session 2, Week One.

130