Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 316–332

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Comprehensive overview of grid interfaced solar photovoltaic systems

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crossmark
Om Prakash Mahela , Abdul Gafoor Shaik
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur 342011, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are increasingly attracting the attention of industry and
DC-DC converter academia mainly motivated by potential to provide an alternative to the conventional fossil fuel generation. This
Grid integration helps to meet out the increasing energy demands and to limit the pollution of environment caused by fossil
Inverter emissions. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the grid-connected solar PV systems. The intention
Maximum power point tracking
of this review is to provide a wide spectrum on architecture of grid-connected solar PV system and its
PV array
Solar photovoltaic system
constituent components such as solar cell, PV array, maximum power point tracking, filters, DC-DC converters,
single-phase inverters, and three-phase inverters to the researchers, designers, and engineers working on solar
energy and its integration into the utility grid. Brief overview of control techniques for the single and three-
phase inverters has also been presented. More than 100 research publications on the topologies, configurations,
and control techniques of grid-connected solar PV systems and their major constituent components have been
thoroughly reviewed and classified for quick reference.

1. Introduction
Renewable energy (RE) sources are very good solution to provide
alternative energy to overcome the global energy problem. Further, the
development in grid integration technologies, for these resources
during the last decade, has increased the use of RE sources [1]. Solar
photovoltaic (PV) system has become a promising RE source due to its
capability of generating electricity in a very clean, quiet, and reliable
way. The PV systems are solar energy supply systems, which either
supply power directly to an electrical gazette in its stand alone mode or
feed energy into the utility electricity grid in its grid-connected mode
[2]. As the cost of PV panels production is continuously decreasing due
to advances in the material and PV array fabrication technology, it is
expected that the solar bulk power generation will be competitive with
other forms of RE sources [3]. However, solar power generation has the
problem of low conversion efficiency of the solar cells, and the output
power of PV array is dependent on irradiation and temperature.
Therefore, maximum power point tracking (MPPT) circuitry should
be used for utilization of the PV array at full efficiency [4].
The solar PV systems have relatively low voltage output character-
istics and demand high step-up voltage gain for grid integration. This is
achieved by the use of high efficiency DC-DC converters for such
practical applications [5]. These converters are able to interface
different level inputs and combine their advantages to feed the different
level of outputs for solar PV applications [6]. The inverter converts DC
power to AC power through a solid state switching action used to feed
energy generated by a PV generator into the utility grid. High efficiency
of these converters is a major requirement [7]. The solution to control
the power injected into the grid are essential for effectiveness of the
system. In the real and reactive power control system, the real power
output reference is a function of the incident solar irradiance and the
temperature of the pn diode junction. The reactive power output
reference is selected based on the system rating and adopted voltage
regulation scheme [8].
This paper aims at presenting a comprehensive overview on the
topic of grid-connected solar PV systems. Over 100 research publica-
tions [1–133] are critically reviewed and classified broadly into six
categories. The first category [1–8] is based on general concepts of
grid-connected solar PV systems. The second category [9–34] is on
architecture of grid-connected solar PV system, which is sub classified
into solar cell [11–17], PV array [18–23], MPPT [24–30], and filters
[31–34]. Third category [35–56] includes DC-DC converters which is
further sub classified into buck [41–43], boost [44–51], buck-boost
[52,53], and cuk [54–56] converters. Fourth category [57–116] is on
inverters used for grid integration of solar PV systems which is further
sub classified in to structure topologies [61–65], single-phase [66–102]
and three-phase [103–116] inverters. The fifth category [117–128]
includes the control techniques for the grid-connected PV inverters.
The sixth and final category [129–133] is related to the overall
performance and cost estimation of grid connected solar PV systems.
However, some publications include more than one category and have
been classified based on their dominant field.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: opmahela@gmail.com (O.P. Mahela), saadgafoor@iitj.ac.in (A.G. Shaik).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.096
Received 7 July 2015; Received in revised form 3 March 2016; Accepted 22 September 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
O.P. Mahela, A.G. Shaik
This paper is divided into seven sections. Starting with an intro-
duction in Sections 1, 2 covers the basic architecture of grid-connected
solar PV system, solar cell, PV array, MPPT, and filters. The DC-DC
converters such as buck, boost, buck-boost, and cuk used for the grid-
connected solar PV applications have been demonstrated under the
Section 3. The single and three-phase inverter topologies used for the
grid-connected solar PV applications are presented in Section 4.
Section 5 relates to the control techniques of single and three-phase
inverters. The overall performance of solar PV system, cost estimation
and future scope are detailed in the Section 6. Finally, the conclusions
are drawn in the Section 7.
2. Grid-connected photovoltaic system
Grid-connected solar PV (GCPV) systems include building inte-
grated PV (BIPV) systems and terrestrial PV (TPV) systems. TPV
systems include plants in desert, tide, and saline-alkali land [9]. The
major elements of a grid-connected solar PV system are shown in
Fig. 1. Analysis of optimal photovoltaic (PV) array and inverter sizes for
a grid-connected PV system in Saudi Arabia is presented in [10]. The
inverters and DC-DC converters are discussed in separate sections,
whereas all other components are detailed in the following subsec-
tions..
2.1. Solar cell
Solar cell consists of a p-n junction fabricated in a thin layer of
semiconductor like a p-n diode. Its operational characteristics are also
same as p-n diode and depend on the solar radiations as well as surface
temperature [11]. An electrical equivalent circuit of a solar cell can be
represented by a single or double diode model [12]. Although the
double-diode model is more accurate under certain operating condi-
tions, the single diode equivalent model has simplicity with sufficient
accuracy [13], and allows for the development of explicit models [14].
Single diode equivalent circuit with parallel and series resistances is
shown in Fig. 2..
The relationship between output voltage (V) and output current (I)
for the single-diode equivalent circuit of a solar cell can be described by
the following relation [15,16]
⎧ ⎡ q (V + IRs ) ⎤ ⎫ ⎛ V + IRs ⎞
I = Iph − I0 ⎨exp ⎢ ⎥ − 1⎬ − ⎜ ⎟
⎩ ⎣ AkT ⎦ ⎭ ⎝ Rsh ⎠ (1)
where Iph is the PV cell photo-current; I0 is the PV cell saturation
current; A is the curve fitting factor of a solar cell; Rsh is the PV cell
shunt resistance; Rs is the PV cell series resistance; q is the electron
charge (1.602×10−19 C); and k is the Boltzmann constant
(1.38×10−23 J/K). An explicit double-diode modelling method based
on Lambert W-function for solar cells and PV arrays with bypass diodes
is proposed by the authors in [12]. Psarros et al. [14], presented single-
diode model of solar PV cell with negative diode breakdown operation.
Detailed survey on the solar PV cell characteristics and mathematical
formulations is presented in [17].
Fig. 1. Grid-connected solar PV system.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 316–332
Fig. 2. Single-diode equivalent circuit of a solar cell.
2.2. PV array
The output power from a single PV cell is relatively small. The
required voltage and power is produced by grouping the PV cells in
series and parallel forming the modules. Modules are combined to form
PV panels. These panels are connected together to build up the entire
PV array and any desired current-voltage characteristics could be
generated [18,19]. Different connection topologies of solar PV array
are detailed in Fig. 3. These connection topologies of solar PV arrays
have been utilized in both grid-connected BIPV and TPV systems.
However, the PV inverter topologies may differ depending on the
rooftop area available for the installation of BIPV systems. The grid
connected large scale BIPV systems are gaining momentum due the
introduction of net-metering concept by the utilities for the electricity
users..
The value of Rsh can be assumed to be infinite at short circuit
conditions, where slope of the I-V characteristics is almost zero [15]. In
this case, Iph is equal to the short circuit current (Isc) and Eq. (1) for
solar cell reduces to the following relation [11]
⎧ ⎡ q (V + I . Rs ) ⎤ ⎫
I = Isc − I0 ⎨exp ⎢ ⎥ − 1⎬
⎩ ⎣ AkT ⎦ ⎭ (2)
For a PV array arranged in Np parallel and Ns series connected solar
cells, the Eq. (2) reduces to [17]
⎧ ⎡ q (V + I (Ns / Np ) Rs ) ⎤ ⎫
I = Np Isc − Np I0 ⎨exp ⎢ ⎥ − 1⎬
⎩ ⎣ Ns AkT ⎦ ⎭ (3)
An extended model of a PV module based on single exponential
representation of the PV cell taking into account the ground coupling
effect, leakage inductive and stray capacitive parameters is proposed in
[20]. All parameters of the proposed model are characterized on the
basis of experimental results obtained in real conditions. Castellano
et al. [21], proposed a shading model that optimizes the minimization
of distance between the rows of fixed photovoltaic panels. Proposed
method is based on the exact calculation of shadows of panels for
different positions of the sun. The shadow depends on the latitude of
facility, throughout course of the day and for all planned hours of the
solar gain. Effects of vortex shedding in arrays of long inclined flat
plates and ramifications for ground mounted photovoltaic arrays is
presented in [22]. Importance of cleaning concentrated photovoltaic
arrays, in a desert environment, is presented by the authors in [23].
2.3. Maximum power point tracking
The basic principle of maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
algorithm depends on the exploitation of voltage and current variations
caused due to pulsations of instantaneous power. Analysing these
variations allows us to obtain power gradient and evaluate, if the solar
PV system operates close to the maximum power point [24]. The
maximum power delivered by the solar PV array is given by the relation
Pmax = Vmpp Impp (4)
where Vmpp and Impp are respectively the optimal operating voltage
and current of PV array at the condition of maximum power output.
The solar cell exhibits non-linear V-I characteristics, therefore a MPPT
O.P. Mahela, A.G. Shaik
Fig. 3. Topologies of solar PV array (a) series (b) parallel (c) series-parallel (d) total-cross tied (e) bridge-link, and (f) honey-comb.
controller must track the maximum power and match the current
environmental changes [11]. The MPPT is achieved by using DC-DC
converter between PV array and inverter. From the measured voltage
and current, the MPPT algorithm generates the optimal duty ratio (D)
in order to maintain the electrical quantities at values corresponding to
the maximum power point [17]. The most widely used MPPT techni-
ques include perturbation and observation (P & O), incremental con-
ductance, open circuit voltage, short circuit current, Fuzzy logic, and
neural network based methods.
Lian et al. [25] proposed a hybrid MPPT method which combines
the P & O and particle swarm optimization (PSO) methods with
advantage that search space for the PSO is reduced, and hence, the
time required for convergence can be greatly improved. In [26],
authors proposed a single-stage three-phase PV system that features
an enhanced MPPT capability, and an improved energy yield under
partial shading conditions. A MPPT method based on controlling an
AC/DC converter connected at the PV array output, such that it
behaves as a constant input-power load is proposed in [18]. An one
dimensional Newton-Raphson method based calculation for evaluation
of MPP of PV array is proposed in [13]. Chaos search theory [27], self-
synchronization error dynamics formulation [11], and ripple correla-
tion control [24] based MPPT methods have been reported in
literature. A comparison of multiple MPPT techniques is presented
by authors in [28]. Performance comparison of various MPPT techni-
ques applied to a single-phase, single-stage, grid-connected photovol-
taic systems are presented in [29]. A comparative study of MPPT
techniques for PV systems available until January 2012, is presented by
authors in [30].
A comparative study of commonly used MPPT algorithms is carried
out based on critical reviews of publications [24–30] and all other
publications cited in this subsection. The comparison based on
different performance indices is provided in Table 1.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 316–332
2.4. Filter
A filter consisting of inductance and capacitance is used between
inverter and the grid. The filter is designed to reduce higher-order
harmonics introduced due to PWM modulation of the DC/AC converter
[31]. The LCL filter design has inverter side inductance (L i ), the grid
side inductance (Lg ) and capacitance (Cf ). The (Lg Cf ) is considered as
second order low pass filter. The ratio of grid side inductance and
converter side inductance depends upon the ripple current attenuation
[32]. The simplified design equations for LCL filter are given as follows
[33]
Vg
Li =
2 6 fs Iripple, peak (5)
0.05
Cf =
ωn Zbase (6)
2
VgLL
Zbase =
Pn (7)
where Vg is the grid r.m.s. phase voltage; fs is the inverter switching
frequency; Iripple, peak is the peak value of ripple current; Pn is the
inverter rated power; VgLL is the grid line voltage; ωn is the operating
frequency. A single-stage solar inverter using hybrid active filter with
power quality improvement is proposed in [34]. A control structure
based on proportional resonant (PR) controller for grid-connected PV
using LCL filter with zero steady-state error and selective harmonic
compensation is proposed by authors in [33].
3. DC-DC converter
A DC-DC converter is a power electronic circuit, which converts
direct current of source from one voltage level to the required voltage
O.P. Mahela, A.G. Shaik Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 316–332

Table 1
Comparison of MPPT techniques.

MPPT technique Performance indices

PV array dependency Cost Convergence speed Implementation complexity Efficiency Sensed parameters Analog/ digital

Incremental conductance Independent Low Varies Medium Medium Voltage, current Digital
P&O Independent Low Varies Low Low Voltage, current Both
Fuzzy logic Dependent High Fast High High Varies Digital
Neural network Dependent High Fast High High Varies Digital
Short-circuit current Dependent Low Medium Medium Medium Current Both
Open-circuit voltage Dependent Low Medium Low Low Voltage Both
Current sweep Dependent High Slow High High Voltage, current Digital
DC-link capacitor droop control Independent Low Medium Low Medium Voltage Both

Fig. 4. Block diagram of grid-connected solar PV system. Fig. 5. Basic circuit diagram of buck-converter.

level. DC-DC converter is the heart of MPPT hardware for solar PV
applications [35]. The operation of DC-DC converter forms the basis
for the detection of MPP, according to the proposed global MPPT
control algorithm [18]. Practically, the output voltage of one PV string
is very low despite the use of MPPT. This requires the use of front end
DC-DC converter to be equipped with a step-up capability for grid
connection [36]. Arrangements of DC-DC and DC-AC converters in the
block scheme of grid connected PV system are shown in Fig. 4..
Many topologies have been reported in literature for DC-DC
converters, which can be classified into two categories: isolated and
non-isolated topologies. Non-isolated topologies do not have output
transformers and commonly used where the voltage step-up regulation
is low. In grid tied PV applications, isolated topologies are used where
electrical isolation is preferred for safety reasons [37]. The commonly
used topologies of DC-DC converters in solar PV systems are step-down
(buck converter), step-up (boost converter), and single unit of step-
down and step-up (buck-boost and cuk converters) [38]. The perfor-
mance of each topology can be described by the following parameters
[39]:
• Current gain (Ai )
• Voltage gain (Av )
• Input impedance (Ri )
• Minimum filter capacitance (Cmin )
• Boundary filter inductance (Lb )
The converters may operate in two distinct modes, continuous
conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM).
The CCM is preferred for solar PV applications [40]. The DC-DC
converter topologies used for solar PV applications are described in the
following subsections.
3.1. Buck converter
In buck converter, the output voltage magnitude is always lower
than the input voltage magnitude. Therefore, the buck converter is
widely used in PV applications, such as front end step-down applica-
tions, battery charging, and maximum power point tracker. Buck
converter has the disadvantage of generating a lot of electromagnetic
interference noise on account of pulsating source current waveform
[38]. The basic circuit diagram of buck converter is shown in Fig. 5..
Performance parameters of the buck converter are provided in
Table 2, from which it can be depicted that the value of D is in the
interval [0,1]. Therefore, a buck converter can not achieve the values
that are near the short circuit current (Isc ) and it operates only with
Rload > = Rmpp [41]. The I-V characteristic of solar PV with DC-DC buck
converter is provided in the Fig. 6, from which it is seen that buck
converter does not follow points near the short circuit current and the
MPP will be tracked as if it is restricted within operation region. An
efficient zero-voltage and current switching full bridge phase-shift
PWM buck converter for PV cell applications in telecommunication is
proposed by authors in [42]. Cascaded connection of buck converter for
grid integration of PV modules is proposed by the authors in [43]..
3.2. Boost converter
DC-DC boost converter is step-up converter and widely used for
integrating the low voltage PV modules to the utility grid. It also
performs the function of MPPT under the nominal utility conditions
[44]. In boost converter, the voltage is stepped up by increasing the
duty cycle. The boost converter has the disadvantage of high voltage
stress across the switching device, higher on state resistance leading to
more conduction losses in the switch, reverse recovery problem of
output diode, losses in the leakage inductance, and parasitic capaci-
tance [45]. The basic circuit diagram of boost converter is shown in
Fig. 7..
Performance parameters of the boost converter are tabulated in
Table 2. The boost converter operates only if Rload < = Rmpp . The
operational and non-operational regions of the boost converter on
the I-V characteristics of PV modules are shown in Fig. 8, from which it
is seen that boost converter does not follow the points near the open
circuit voltage. Balathandayuthapani et al. [46], presented an analysis
and control of a photovoltaic system interfaced with utility grid with
boost converter to a high-penetration case study. A feed-back feed-
forward loop based digital control to a PWM boost converter used for
solar PV systems is proposed in [47]. Dadouche et al. [48], proposed a
silicon thin-film technology based series and parallel combination of
boost converter to provide an economic alternative way to improve
photovoltaic system efficiencies for grid integration. Control and
configuration of a boost converter that allows for high voltage and

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large scale grid-integration of PV systems is proposed in [49]. Hu et al.

[36], proposed multi-stage hysteresis control of a boost converter in
both CCM and DCM modes for integrating PV systems into a single
phase power grid. In [50], authors proposed a series connection of a
module integrated boost converter output with a PV panel for high
conversion efficiency and low cost PV modules. A PV system using
multilevel boost converter and line commutated inverter, operating in
both grid-connected and stand-alone mode has been proposed by
authors in [51]. Cascaded connection of boost converter for direct
connection of PV systems to the utility grid is proposed by the authors
in [43]. In [39], authors investigated the effects of changing cell
temperature and solar irradiance on the choice and design of different
topologies of DC-DC converters used in PV systems in Egypt..
Fig. 6. Operational and non-operational regions of I-V curve of buck-converter.
3.3. Buck-boost converter

In buck-boost converter, the output voltage magnitude may be

lower or higher than the input voltage magnitude. Buck-boost topology
can be achieved through cascade connection of buck and boost
converters. In buck-boost converter the input current is always
discontinuous [40]. The main disadvantages of this topology are high
input-voltage ripple and high-electrical stresses to the switch [39]. The
basic circuit diagram of the buck-boost converter for solar PV applica-
tions is shown in Fig. 9..
Fig. 10 shows operational and non-operational regions of PV
Fig. 7. Basic circuit diagram of boost-converter.
module on I-V curve for buck-boost converter. The performance
parameters of the buck-boost converter are provided in Table 2, from
which it is depicted that increasing D, decreases the input impedance
thus the PV operating voltage moves to the left region of I-V curve and
that decreasing the D, increases the input impedance thus operating
voltage moves to the right of I-V curve. Buck-boost converter does not
have non-operational region. In [52], authors presented the use of high
efficiency structure of four switch buck-boost converter for PV applica-
tions with advantages that it has few electrical components, output
voltage can be higher or lower than input voltage, and presents non-
inverted output voltage. Dual-mode current-fed semi-quadratic buck-
boost converter for transformer less modular photovoltaic applications
is proposed in [53]. Cascaded connection of buck-boost converter for
grid integration of PV modules is proposed in [43]..

3.4. Cuck converter

Fig. 8. Operational and non-operational regions of I-V curve of boost-converter.

Cuk converter is capable of stepping up or down input voltage like

the Cuk converter are the same as the buck-boost converter shown in
buck-boost converter with reverse polarity through the common
Fig. 10. There is not any non-operational region, so changing the duty
terminal of input voltage. The main difference between Cuk converter
cycle enables to operate the converter through short-circuit current to
and buck-boost converter is the addition of a capacitor and an inductor
the open-circuit voltage of the PV modules. The performance para-
[39]. The basic circuit diagram of the Cuk converter is shown in Fig. 11.
meters of the Cuk converter are tabulated in the Table 2..
Inductor L1 filters the DC input and capacitor C1 is the energy transfer
Darwish et al. [54], proposed a three-phase inverter using Cuk
device. Operational and non-operational regions on the I-V curve for

Table 2
Performance parameters for DC-DC converters.

Converter Performance parameter

Ai =
I0
Av =
V0
Ri =
Vs Lb Cmin
Is Vs Is

Buck 1 D RL (1 − D )
RL
(1 − D )
V0
D D2 2f 8Vr Lf 2

Boost 1−D 1 (1 − D )2RL (1 − D )2 D

V
1−D DRL Vr RL f 0
2f

Buck-boost 1−D 1 (1 − D )2 (1 − D )2 D
V
D 1−D RL RL Vr RL f 0
D2 2f
Cuk 1−D D (1 − D )2 L1 =
(1 − D )
RL ; L2 =
(1 − D )
RL Cmin =
(1 − D )
V0 ; C1 =
D
V
D 1−D RL 2Df 2f 8Vr L2 f 2 Vr RL f 0
D2

Ri: converter input impedance; D: duty cycle; f: switching frequency; RL: load impedance; V0: output voltage; Vr: peak to peak output ripple voltage

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Table 3
Comparison of DC-DC converters.

Attribute DC-DC Converter

Buck Boost Buck-Boost Cuk

Cost Low Low Medium Medium

Efficiency High Low Low Medium
Input current Non- Non- Pulsating Non-
pulsating pulsating pulsating
Output voltage Non-invert Non-invert Invert Invert
polarity
Switch drive Floated Floated Floated Floated
Fig. 9. Basic circuit diagram of buck-boost converter.

power to AC utility system with reasonable cost. To meet these

requirements, power electronics devices using high frequency switch-
ing with PWM are used [59]. The IEEE 1547 requirements for grid
integration of solar PV inverters is tabulated in Table 5. The grid-
connected PV inverters can be classified based on the type of ac supply,
structure topologies, bridge topologies, multilevel topologies, type of
DC-DC converter etc.

4.1. Structure topologies of grid-connected PV inverters

Grid-connected PV systems have four possible structure topologies

Fig. 10. Operational and non-operational regions of I-V curve of buck-boost and cuk
converter.
of the inverters: (a) module, (b) string, (c) multi-string, and (d) central
inverter [58]. Structure topologies with the type of supply system are
shown in Fig. 12. The brief description of each topology is outlined in
the following subsections..

4.1.1. Central inverter

A centralized inverter topology shown in Fig. 12 (a) is based on a
central inverter that interfaced a large PV array to the utility grid. The
array consists of PV modules divided into series connections known as
strings to generate high voltage. These strings are connected in parallel,
through string diodes, to generate high powers of 10–250 kW [61]. In
[62], authors proposed the cascaded H-bridge inverter topology as PV
power conversion solution for large-scale PV power plants of central
inverter topology.

Fig. 11. Basic circuit diagram of cuck converter.
converter with main feature that the energy storage elements such as
inductors and capacitors, can be reduced in order to improve the
reliability, reduce size and total cost. A technique based on Cuk
converter for efficiently extracting the maximum output power from
a solar panel under varying meteorological conditions is presented in
[55]. The modelling and control of PV plant based on Cuk converter is
presented in [56].
A comparative study of DC-DC converters used for solar PV
applications is carried out based on critical reviews of publications
[35–56]. The mathematical formulation of performance parameters
are provided in Table 2, and the comparative study is provided in
Table 3. Typical values of inductance and capacitances used in the
design of DC-DC converters are provided in Table 4.
4. Inverter
An inverter converts the DC power from solar PV array output into
50 or 60 Hz AC power. Inverters can be transformer based or high
frequency switching types. Inverters can be the utility connected, stand
alone or a combination of both [57]. The Grid-connected PV config-
urations are gaining interest due to consistent growth in the solar
market by 20–25% per annum over the last 20 years [58]. Inverter
technology is the key to have reliable and safety grid interconnection
operation of PV systems. It is also required to generate high quality
4.1.2. String inverter
Fig. 12 (b) describes the string inverter system, where a single PV
string is coupled to an inverter. The input voltage may be high enough
to avoid voltage amplification. This topology has the minimum losses
due to which it has the advantage of increased energy yield and
enhance the supply reliability [60].
4.1.3. Multi-string inverter
The multi-string inverter shown in Fig. 12 (c) is the further
development of the string inverter. In this type of topology, several
strings are interfaced with their own DC-DC converter to a common
DC-AC inverter. Every string can be controlled individually. The
application area of the multi-string inverter covers PV plants of 3–
10 kW [63].
4.1.4. Module inverter
The module integrated inverter system is shown in Fig. 12 (d),
where an AC module consisting of single solar PV panel and its own
inverter is connected to the utility grid. It removes the mismatch losses
between PV modules, as well as supports optimal adjustment between
the PV module and the inverter. The present topologies use self
commutated DC-AC converters [64]. A control design for the module
integrated PV and converter units under partial shading conditions is
proposed in [65].
A comparative study of structure topologies of grid-connected solar
PV inverters is carried out based on critical reviews of publications

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Table 4
Typical values of inductance and capacitance.

Attribute DC-DC Converter

Buck Boost Buck-Boost Cuk

Inductor (s) 100 μH 200 μH 2 ∥ 100 μH 2100 μH

Input capacitance 2 ∥ 2200 μF 220 μF 2 ∥ 2200 μF 220 μF

Output capacitance 220 μF 2 ∥ 2200 μF 2 ∥ 2200 μF 220 μF

Transfer capacitance – – – 4 ∥ 2200 μF
Fig. 13. Half H-bridge topology.

Table 5 [61–65]. Advantages and disadvantages of each topology are provided

IEEE 1547 requirements for grid connection of PV inverters [60]. in Table 6.

Parameter IEEE 1547 requirement 4.2. Single-phase transformerless inverter topologies

Nominal power 30 kW
Harmonic currents h2-h10: 4.0%; h11-h16: 2.0%; h17-h22: 1.5%; Here, only the transformer less single-phase inverter topologies are
h23-h34: 0.6%; > h35: 0.3% discussed. The important widely used topologies are described in the
Maximum current THD 5.0% following subsections.
DC current injection <0.5% of rated output current
Voltage range for normal 88–110%
operation 4.2.1. Half H-bridge topology
Frequency range for normal 59.3–60.5 Hz Half H-bridge topology of the PV inverter is formed by using two
operation switches and a capacitive divider as shown in the Fig. 13. The middle
point of the capacitive divider is grounded to ensure an almost constant
common mode voltage and prevents leakage current through parasitic
capacitance of the PV modules [66]. This topology has the advantage of
low cost and disadvantage of only two levels in output voltage wave-
form, switches has to support high voltage, the output current is highly
distorted and causes high electromagnetic inference emission [67].
Calais et al. [68], proposed the multilevel half H-bridge inverter
topologies for single-phase grid-connected PV systems and investigated
the issues such as component count and stress, system power rating,
and the influence of the PV array earth resistance. Cascaded five level
half H-bridge topology implemented for grid-connected PV systems
has been proposed in [69]..

4.2.2. Full H-bridge topology

The full H-bridge inverter topology for single-phase grid tied PV
system uses four switches as shown in Fig. 14. Low pass LC filter, dc-
link capacitor, common mode inductor (LCM ), differential mode in-
ductor (LDM ), common mode capacitor (CCM ), and differential mode
inductor (CDM ) are also shown in the figure. Unipolar PWM modulation
is widely used for PV applications and in this technique a high
frequency common mode voltage of Vdc /2 is applied to the PV panels.
However, this technique has the disadvantage of appearance of non-
Fig. 12. Types of grid-tied PV inverters (a) central, (b) string, (c) multi-string, and (d)
negligible leakage current because of the PV panel parasitic capacitance
module inverter.
[70]. To solve the problem of leakage current, the bipolar PWM
modulation has been used [71]..

Table 6
Advantages and disadvantages of structure based topologies of grid-connected solar PV inverters.

Structure topology Advantages Disadvantages

of inverter

Central inverter Use of high voltage and high power applications
String inverter No string diode losses, low cost as compared to central inverter topology,
overall higher efficiency, individual MPPTs can be applied for every string
Multi-string inverter Every string can be controlled separately, allows the integration of strings of
different technologies and of various orientations, small DC-link capacitor,
high energy reveal due to local MPPT and optimum monitoring of the PV
system
Module inverter Low manufacturing and retail costs, minimum power loss, maximum power
extraction from the PV module, easy expanding of the system due to the
modular structure
Use of high voltage DC cables, high power losses due to common MPPTs,
module mismatch, non flexible design, losses in the string diodes,
expensive, failure of central inverter leads to shut down of whole PV plant
The necessary high voltage-amplification may reduce the overall efficiency
and increase the cost per kW of power produced
The use of both DC-DC and DC-AC converters increases the cost per kW of
this inverter
Reduced overall efficiency, higher amplification, higher installation cost,
main challenge for the designers is to develop an inverter that can amplify
the very small voltage

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Fig. 14. Full H-bridge topology.
Fig. 15. HERIC topology.
4.2.3. HERIC topology
HERIC stands for Highly Efficient and Reliable Inverter Concept
topology. This topology consists of a full-bridge inverter along with AC
bypass (FB-ACBP) topology as shown in Fig. 15, and reported in [72].
In HERIC topology a couple of branches are connected in parallel with
the output filter and have the advantages of reduced leakage current, a
high efficiency and three-level output voltage by employing unipolar
PWM with low-ripple across the output filter [73]. Parallel operation of
HERIC topology based single-phase transformer less grid-tied PV
inverter with common DC bus and AC bus in order to enhance the
efficiency and reliability of DC module type PV generation systems has
been reported in [74]. Low-voltage ride-through capability of HERIC
topology based PV inverter under grid faults and grid support services
of PV systems has been investigated in [75]..
4.2.4. H5 topology
This topology uses one additional DC-bypass switch compared to
the full-bridge topology as shown in Fig. 16, and reported in [74]. The
switches S1 and S2 are operated at grid-frequency, whereas switches
S3, S4 and S5 are operated at high frequency. During current free-
wheeling period, switch S5 is open disconnecting the PV panels from
inverter full H-bridge [70]. The H5 topology is patented by SMA, which
is one of the world-wide leading manufactures of PV inverters. It has
the advantages of almost constant common mode voltage, high
efficiency particularly at partial load, and low conduction losses.
However, the conduction losses may increase if the semiconductor
choice is not optimum [76]. In [77], authors presented a design
technique for optimizing the switching frequency and structure of the
output filter in H5 topology of PV inverter, which employ SiC-type
power devices. The design results demonstrate the superiority of
optimized SiC-based H5 topology, in terms of energy production,
compared to their non-optimized and silicon (Si)-based counterparts..
4.2.5. H6 topology
H6 topology of PV inverter is derived from H5 topology by adding
an additional switch (S6) as shown in Fig. 17, and reported in [78]. The
clamping branch constitutes a capacitive divider and two diodes that
can clamp the common mode voltage to half of the DC input voltage.
Depending on the state of grid voltage in the positive and negative half
cycle periods, the switches S1 and S4 are commutated with line
frequency and in anti-parallel to the switches S2 and S3. Diodes D1
and D2 can conduct during the free-wheeling period based on the
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 316–332
magnitude of free-wheeling path potential above or below the DC link
voltage. The removal of leakage current depends on the turn on speed
of clamping diodes [79]. The unipolar PWM and double frequency
PWM modulation techniques are used in this topology. The main
disadvantage of this topology is high conduction losses due to the
inductor current flowing through four active switches [80]. H6 topology
using MOSFET in place of low effective IGBTs is proposed by the
authors in [81]..
4.2.6. NPC topology
The neutral point clamped (NPC) topology is the single-phase
application of multi-level topology used in the high power motor
drives. The NPC half bridge topology of three-level voltage source
inverter is shown in Fig. 18, and has been reported in [82]. It has one
leg consisting of four switches S1–S4 and two diodes D1–D2 used to
clamp the voltage of middle point. These diodes are known as clamping
diodes used to provide the free-wheeling path to the output current in
the free-wheeling period and results in zero output voltage state [83].
This topology has the advantages of high efficiency, low ripple current,
and minimum leakage current. However, this topology has the
disadvantages of necessity of higher input voltage compared with the
FB topology and requirement of capacitor bank of high capacity [84].
Bharatiraja et al. [85], presented the field programmable gate array
based capacitor balancing control scheme of NPC multi-level inverter
for PV system using space vector PWM scheme..
4.2.7. Active NPC topology
NPC topology of the inverter is modified by replacing the clamping
diodes with power switches to obtain active neutral point clamped
(ANPC) topology as shown in Fig. 19 [86]. The additional switches S5
and S6 provide the several different ways to clamp the mid-point
voltage. The upper clamping path is established by turning on the
switches S2 and S5, whereas lower clamping path is established by
turning on the switches S3 and S6 [87]. This topology has the
advantages of low power loss and high efficiency of converter [88].
An ANPC topology having inner voltage boosting capability for solar PV
applications has been proposed by the authors in [89]..
4.2.8. Flying capacitor topology
The clamping diodes in NPC topology have been replaced with a
capacitor to obtain the flying capacitor topology as shown in Fig. 20.
The capacitor floats with respect to the dc source reference and helps to
achieve additional levels and voltage clamping [90]. The features of this
topology are similar to the diode clamped topology and it provides
redundant switch states that can be used to control the capacitor
charge even under loads with DC level [68]. This topology has the
disadvantages of high voltage due to imbalance may destroy inverter,
requirement of special circuit for pre-charging of flying capacitor
increases the complexity of control circuit, and requirement of high
number of capacitors for higher levels of topology [64]. However, this
topology has capability of fault tolerant operation with higher number
of levels. This operation allows the inverter to continue working even if
a transistor or a floating capacitor is damaged [91]. Analysis and
implementation of an inverter with flying capacitor for photovoltaic ac
module applications have been reported in [92]..
4.2.9. Coenergy NPC topology
The coenergy topology is an alternative of the NPC topology
obtained by using two bidirectional switches S3 and S4 as shown in
Fig. 21. This topology is patented by co-energy [63]. The AC switches
used in this topology are obtained by back to back connecting two
power devices. In this topology the output voltage clamped to the
neutral point using bi-directional switches S3 and S4 to achieve the
zero voltage state [93]. This topology has the advantages such a
configuration relies on lower power losses, as only one power device
is turned on at a time during active states [89]. The comparative study
O.P. Mahela, A.G. Shaik
Fig. 16. H5 topology.
Fig. 17. H6 inverter topology.
Fig. 18. NPC topology.
Fig. 19. Active NPC topology.
Fig. 20. Flying capacitor topology.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 316–332
Fig. 21. Conergy NPC topology.
of co-energy NPC topology and one switch reduced NPC topology has
been reported in [94]..
4.3. Miscellaneous topologies
The advanced versions of basic topologies presented in Sections
4.2.1–4.2.9 have played a significant role in the grid-connected solar
PV applications. Rampinelli et al. [95], presented the mathematical
models that characterize the inverters used in the grid-connected solar
PV systems and their applications in the experimental tests as well as
computer simulations software. A grid-connected micro-inverter with
phase-shift power modulation, a reduced number of power conversion
stages, and fewer passive components is proposed in [96]. In [97],
authors proposed a design of multilevel H-bridge inverter topology
with increased DC to AC conversion efficiency and battery energy
storage to enable 24/7 operations. A 9 level grid connected inverter
topology to generate high voltage AC using low voltage PV modules has
been proposed in [98]. In [99], authors proposed a 27-level inverter
topology for implementing the static var compensator (SVC) and active
power filters with power injection capability for solar PV applications.
Barbosa et al. [100], proposed a boost current multilevel inverter for
single-phase grid connected solar PV systems. The inverter topologies
such as NPC half-bridge with a capacitor divider, half H-bridge with
generation control circuit, H6-type MOSFET inverter topology, im-
proved H6 topology, high reliable and efficient (HRE) topology, H-
bridge zero voltage rectifier (HB-ZVR) topology, optimized H5 (oH5)
topology, virtual DC bus topology, multifunctional grid connected
inverter topologies, buck converter, boost converter and buck-boost
converter based topologies for grid connected solar PV applications
have been reported in literature [101,102].
A comparative study of single-phase transformer less inverter
topologies used for the grid integration of solar photovoltaic systems
is carried out based on critical reviews of publications [66–102] and all
other articles cited in the Section 4.2. The comparison of these
topologies is provided in the Table 7. A brief comparison between
NPC, flying capacitor, and cascaded H-bridge single-phase multilevel
inverter (MLI) topologies to investigate the derivation of higher level
topologies from basic inverter topologies is provided in Table 8, .
4.4. Three-phase inverter topologies
For solar parks, where higher electric power capacity of grid-
connected solar PV systems is installed, three-phase supply systems
are always desired. To integrate such plants with the grid, the three-
phase inverters are preferred due to good performance, suitability for
grid-connection, low harmonics level, and high efficiency [103]. The
three-phase inverter topologies are derived from the single-phase
inverter topologies by using the similar structure in all the three-
phases. To limit the length of paper, only the NPC topology is discussed
in detail. Transformerless three-phase 3-level NPC inverter system for
solar PV applications is shown in Fig. 22. It consists of a PV array, DC/
DC converter, 3-level NPC inverter, LC filter, and utility grid. Each of
the three legs of the inverter consists of four power switches, four free-
wheeling diodes and two clamping diodes. The 3-level NPC topology
O.P. Mahela, A.G. Shaik Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 316–332

Table 7
Comparison of single-phase transformerless inverter topologies.

Inverter topology Performance indices Cost

Input Switches Diodes Output voltage Number of Leakage Maximum Transistor Input
capacitors levels MPPTs current efficiency (%) voltage (V) capacitance

Half H-bridge 2 2 0 2 1 Very low – 800 High Low

topology
Full H-bridge 1 4 0 3 1 High – 400 Low Medium
topology
HERIC topology 1 6 2 3 1 Very low – 400 Low High
H5 topology 1 5 0 3 1 Very low 98.5 400 Low High
H6 topology 2 6 2 3 1 Very low 97.4 600 High High
NPC topology 2 4 2 3 1 Very low 98.16 400 High Medium
Active NPC 2 6 0 3 1 Very low 97.34 400 High High
topology
Flying capacitor 3 4 0 3 1 Very low – 400 High Medium
topology
Conergy NPC 2 4 0 3 1 Very low 97.67 400 High Medium
topology

can produce five voltage levels on the utility grid: Vdc, +Vdc /2 , 0, −Vdc /2 ,
and −Vdc depending on the switching frequency [104]..
The synchronized pulse width modulation (PWM) for control of
dual NPC has 27 different switching states for the switching of 12
switches of the inverter [85]. The switching states correspond to
nineteen vectors shown by the large and small arrows shown in
Fig. 23. Each of the two hexagons represent six switching states, and
six small vectors have position in the middle of the corresponding large
vectors. Three different switching states can be defined by the ternary
switching variables (+,0,−) for the switches of each of the three phase
as given below [105]: .
+ if S1, S2 are ON and S3, S4 are OFF
0 if S2, S3 are ON and S1, S4 are OFF
− if S3, S4 are ON and S1, S2 are OFF
. applications is presented in [114]. A three-phase modular cascaded
The use of only seven vectors V1-V7, can provide the elimination of
common mode voltages. Switching state sequences for these vectors
can be given as: V1 (+0 − ); V2 (0 + −); V3 (−+0); V4 (−0 + );
V5 (0 − +); V6 (+−0); V7 (000) . A space vector PWM technique for
the control of three-phase grid connected inverter based radial basis
function (RBF) neural network is presented by the authors in [106].
This technique uses eight switching states. Deadbeat decoupling
control strategy according to the characteristics of three-phase photo-
voltaic grid-connected inverters is proposed by the authors in [107].
The three-level-stacked NPC structure having the advantages such
as a double switching frequency, and parallel load paths with the
analysis of power loss distribution is proposed by the authors in [87].
Chen et al. [108], presented the one cycle control method and PWM
method for a three-phase boost-type grid-connected inverter. Analysis
of the monopolar three-phase grid-connected current source inverter
has been reported in [109]. In [110], authors presented the study on
current sharing and circulating current among paralleled inverter
modules and proposed a parallel operation method based on one cycle
control with combined vector and bipolar operation. Ghoddami et al.
[26], proposed a single-stage three-phase PV system using voltage
source converter that features enhanced MPPT capability, and an
improved energy yield under partial shading conditions. A design of
three-phase transformerless grid connected Quasi Z-source inverter
with minimal leakage current for solar PV applications is reported in
[111]. Chen et al. [112], proposed a high efficiency three-phase grid-
connected module integrated converter with two-stage zero-voltage
switching and verified through experimental results. Generating me-
chanism of circulating currents for each phase and each converter is
proposed by the authors in [113]. Darwish et al. [54], proposed a three-
phase inverter based on Cuk converter for solar PV applications. This
topology has the reduced number of the energy storage elements, such
as inductors and capacitors in order to improve the reliability, reduced
size and total cost. A comparative study of the FC, NPC, and cascaded
H-bridge multi-level three-phase inverter topologies for solar PV
H-bridge multilevel inverter for grid-connected solar PV system with
improved efficiency and current balanced has been proposed by the
authors in [115]. In [116], authors investigated the comparison of
efficiency, leakage current, and mechanical volume for the voltage
source inverter, three-level NPC inverter, and the Z-source inverter
topologies of three-phase grid-connected solar PV systems. A control
scheme of the three-phase modular cascaded H-bridge multilevel
inverter for a grid-connected PV systems has been presented in
[115]. The topologies and control strategies of multi-functional grid-
connected inverters have been reported in [101].
5. Control techniques for grid-connected solar PV inverters
The control of a grid-connected photovoltaic system can be divided
into two important parts: (1) MPPT controller to extract the maximum
power from the PV modules, and (2) Inverter controller, which ensures
the control of active and reactive powers injected into the utility grid
and the control of DC-link voltage. The MPPT control has been

Table 8
Comparison between single-phase MLI topologies.

Type of topology Switches Diodes Capacitor Source Balancing capacitors Voltage unbalancing Cost Applications

Diode clamped 2(n − 1) (n2 − 1) (n − 1) 1 0 Average Low Motor drive system, STATCOM, PV
2 2
Flying capacitor 2(n − 1) 2(n − 1) (n − 1)2 1 (n − 1)(n − 2) High High Motor drive system, STATCOM, PV
4 2
Cascaded H-bridge 2(n − 1) 2(n − 1) (n − 1) (n − 1) 0 Very small Highest Motor drive system, PV, fuel cell, battery system
2 2

n: number of levels in the MLI

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O.P. Mahela, A.G. Shaik
Fig. 22. Transformerless three-phase 3-level NPC inverter system.
Fig. 23. Switching state vectors of three-phase grid-connected 3-level NPC inverter.
discussed in the Section 2. The inverter control for both the single-
phase and three-phase grid-connected inverters has been described in
this section.
5.1. Three-phase inverters
PWM strategy based on two cascaded control loops is employed for
the control of three-phase grid connected PV systems. The outer
voltage control loop is used to settle the PV array at the MPP [112].
The inner current control loop is used to establish the duty ratio for the
generation of a sinusoidal output current, which is in phase with the
grid voltage. The controllers such as proportional-integral (PI), hyster-
esis, proportional-resonant (PR), deadbeat are commonly used, which
provide satisfactory operation near the equilibrium point [110,117].
The commonly used control techniques for grid-tied three-phase
inverters are briefly detailed in the following subsections.
5.1.1. abc-control
In the abc control of the grid-tied PV inverter, an individual
controller for each grid current is used as shown in Fig. 24. In the
structure of abc controller non-linear controllers like hysteresis and
deadbeat controllers are preferred due to their high dynamics [106].
Fig. 24. Block diagram of abc control strategy.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 316–332
The abc control structure with PI controller [118], dead-beat controller
[107], proportional resonant controller [119], and hysteresis controller
(HC) [120] have been reported in literature..
5.1.2. αβ -control
In this control technique, the grid currents are transformed into a
stationary reference frame using abc to αβ transformation as shown in
Fig. 25. This controller has the advantages of very high current gain
around the resonant frequency, high dynamic characteristics, and
minimum steady-state error between the controlled signal and its
reference [121]. High dynamic characteristics of the proportional
resonant controller have been reported in different works [120].
5.1.3. dq-control
The grid voltage and currents are transformed into a rotating
reference system with the grid voltage, using the abc − dq transforma-
tion in the synchronous reference frame. This transformation is used to
decouple the ac current into active (Id) and reactive (Iq) power
components. These current components are regulated to minimize
the error between the reference and measured values of active and
reactive powers [122]. The structure of this control strategy is shown in
the Fig. 26. The d − q control technique for three-phase grid-connected
PV inverters employed using synchronous PI controller [123], and
combination of Fuzzy logic with PID controller [124] have been
reported in literature..
A comparative study of control techniques for three-phase grid-tied
solar PV inverters has been carried out based on critical reviews of
publications [117–124] and all other publications cited in this sub-
section. The advantages and disadvantages of each of the investigated
control strategy are tabulated in Table 9.
5.2. Single-phase inverters
The control structures for single-phase grid-connected inverters are
mainly categorized into three categories: (1) control structure for
single-phase inverter with DC-DC converter, (2) control structure for
single-phase inverter without DC-DC converter, and (3) control
structure based on power control shifting phase (PCSP) [59].
Hassaine et al. [125], proposed a digital control strategy based on
phase shifting of the inverter output voltage with respect to the grid
O.P. Mahela, A.G. Shaik Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 316–332

Fig. 25. Block diagram of αβ -Control strategy.

Fig. 26. Block diagram of dq control strategy.

Table 9
Advantages and disadvantages of control techniques for three-phase grid-connected solar PV inverters.

Control technique Type of controller Advantages Disadvantages

abc-Control PI Simple in design and easy in implementation Transfer function is complex

PR Transfer function is simple More complex than dead-beat and hysteresis
Hysteresis Rapid development, high dynamic More complex than dead-beat and hysteresis
Dead-beat Rapid development, high dynamic, simple control for current Implementation in high frequency micro-controller
regulation

αβ -Control PR The steady-state error is eliminated, high dynamic, very high gain Complex hardware circuit, no full control of power factor
is achieved around the resonant frequency
dq0-Control PI Simplicity, controlling and filtering can be easily achieved The steady-state error is not eliminated, very poor compensation
capability of the low-order harmonics

voltage, in order to control the power factor for a wide range of the
inverter output current. In [126], authors proposed an input output
feedback linearisation control technique for control structure of single-
phase inverter without DC-DC converter. A digital control strategy
based on the phase shift between the inverter output voltage and the
grid voltage, and the digital sinusoidal pulse width modulation
(DSPWM) has been proposed by the authors in [127]. Hysteresis
PWM based control technique for the control of single-phase inverter
without DC-DC converter has been proposed by the authors in [128].
A comparative study of control techniques for single-phase grid-tied
solar PV inverters has been carried out based on critical reviews of
publications [125–128] and [59]. The advantages and disadvantages of
each of the investigated control strategy are tabulated in Table 10.
6. Performance of grid-connected solar PV system and future
scope
be evaluated in terms of three parameters such as final PV system yield,
reference yield, and performance ratio [129]. The final PV system yield
Yf has been widely used for the evaluation of PV system performance. It
is defined as the net energy output E divided by the rated d.c. output
power P0 of the installed PV array. It represents the number of hours
that the PV array would need to operate at its rated power to provide
the same energy. The mathematical relation for the same is given by the
relation in terms of kW h/kW.
E
Yf =
P0 (8)
Performance of grid connected PV systems operated by the Arizona
Public Service Company has been detailed in the Table 11 in terms of
Yf values for a 12-month period. Moore et al. [130] presented the study
of performance of grid connected solar PV systems for a period of 5
years. A comparative study on different photovoltaic array topologies
under partial shading conditions has been reported in [131].

This section details the overall performance of grid-connected solar

PV system, approximate cost estimation upto the year 2050 and future
scope of research in the field of grid connected solar PV systems.
6.1. Performance of grid-connected solar PV system
As per IEC standard 61724 the overall PV system performance may
6.2. Future cost estimation of PV system
The price of PV modules has decreased substantially over the past
30 years. The price of PV inverters has also followed a similar price
trend as that of PV modules. Installation costs have decreased at
different rates depending on the maturity of the market and type of
application. However, the prices for some of the elements of PV

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Table 10
Advantages and disadvantages of control techniques for grid-connected single-phase
solar PV inverters.

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Topology with Fast dynamic response, Complex hardware circuit,

DC/DC instantaneous current control partial control of power
converter factor
Topology without Fast dynamic response, Complex hardware circuit,
DC/DC instantaneous current control, partial control of power
converter simple conversion system factor
Topology with Simple digital circuit, less Partial control of current,
PCSP circuit requirement, fast slow dynamic response
reactive power control

Table 11
Performance of arizona public service PV systems.

System name Type of system Location Rated DC power Yf

(P0) kW

Embry riddle Single-axis Prescott 228.50 1906

tracking
Gilbert Nature Single-axis Tempe 144.00 1682
tracking
Ocotillo 1 Single-axis Tempe 94.47 1806 Fig. 27. Evolution of prices of large PV systems (€/kW ).
tracking
Airport MTA7 Single-axis Prescott 151.20 1882
tracking
Water Tanks- Single-axis Scottsdale 153.60 1986
East tracking the topic of grid-connected PV system used to integrate the solar
Yucca Pwr. Plant Single-axis Yuma 121.00 2147 energy into the utility grid. The detailed study on the components of
tracking solar PV system such as solar cell, PV array, MPPT and filters is
Star Parking Non-tracking Tempe 5.04 1345
presented. Different types of DC-DC converters used to increase the
Challenger Non-tracking Peoria 2.28 1593
Desert Non-tracking Lake pleasant 2.28 1461 output voltage characteristics of the solar PV are analysed critically and
their comparative study is presented. Topologies of single-phase grid-
connected inverters have also been analysed critically and comparative
systems have not decreased with the same pace. Performance and study of these topologies is presented. The three-phase grid-connected
economic analysis of power electronic devices used in the solar PV inverters have also been outlined. The control techniques for the single
systems have been reported in [132]. A detailed study to provide a and three-phase grid-connected inverters are critically reviewed and
description of the current status of developing solar PV power presented. Finally, at the end of paper overall performance of PV
generation worldwide, and also of its untapped potentials and growth systems, cost estimation and future scope for further research in the
prospects in the coming years has been provided in [133]. An field of grid-integration of solar energy have been presented.
approximate estimation of the overall cost of the solar PV systems in According to the developed review, it can be concluded that grid-
terms of per kW power generation has been provided in the Fig. 27. connected solar PV system has been used to convert the sunlight into
The x-axis represent the years and y-axis represent the cost of solar PV electricity and integrate the same to the utility grid. The major
systems in €/ kW . The accelerated scenario estimates the costs slightly components of the system are solar cell, PV array, MPPT, filters, DC-
higher than the paradigm shift scenario. It is estimated that the cost of DC converter, inverter, control techniques for the DC-DC converters
solar PV systems would decrease approximately by 75% in the year and inverters. Perturbation and observation (P & O), incremental
2050. conductance, open circuit voltage, short circuit current, Fuzzy logic,
and neural network based methods are the most widely used MPPT
6.3. Future scope of research techniques. The commonly used DC-DC converters for the grid-
connected solar PV system are buck, boost, buck-boost, and cuk. The
The present thrust is to increase penetration level of RE sources boost converter has wide application, as the PV has low output voltage
into the utility grid to meet the future energy demand. The uncertain characteristics and the grid voltage are generally high. The most
nature of these sources are emerging as the main headache for the commonly used topologies of single-phase grid-connected inverters
utility in terms of reliability, system stability and system security. are half H-bridge, full H-bridge, HERIC, H5, H6, NPC, active NPC,
Therefore, there is need to investigate into the power electronics flying capacitor, and conergy NPC. The commonly used control
converters for integration of solar energy into the utility grid, with techniques for single-phase inverters are the techniques for topology
minimum harmonic injection and to meet out the requirement of grid with DC/DC converter, without DC/DC converter topology, and with
codes specified by the utility operators. Presently the efficiency of the PCSP. The control techniques used for the control of three-phase
solar PV array is also low, therefore it is also needed to investigate into inverters are abc-Control, αβ -Control, and dq0-Control. A comparative
the material for fabrication of the PV panels which has maximum study presented will help the users in selecting the particular topology
energy conversion efficiency. and control techniques of the constituent components of the grid-
connected PV system that suit for the plant according to the capacity,
7. Conclusion location and requirement for grid connection. The overall performance
of the grid-connected solar PV system will increase in the near future
A comprehensive literature review of the grid-connected photo- and cost will be reduced. It is hoped that this review will be beneficial to
voltaic systems is carried out. This paper presents a detailed survey on the users, designers, manufacturers, researchers, and engineers work-

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O.P. Mahela, A.G. Shaik
ing in the field of solar energy for increasing the harnessing of solar
energy and its grid integration.
References
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