Chemistry Full Notes-3 PDF

Table of Contents
FORM ONE NOTES............................................................................................................................ 2

Introduction to chemistry ............................................................................................................... 2
Laboratory Techniques and Safety .............................................................................................. 4
Heat sources and flame ............................................................................................................... 13
The scientific procedure ............................................................................................................... 15
Matter .............................................................................................................................................. 16
Elements, compound and mixtures ........................................................................................... 20
Air, combustion, firefighting and rusting .................................................................................... 27
FORM TWO NOTES ......................................................................................................................... 31
Oxygen ........................................................................................................................................... 31
Hydrogen ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Water ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Fuels and energy ........................................................................................................................... 41
Structure of the atom ................................................................................................................... 52
Periodic classifiCation ................................................................................................................... 56
Bonding, formula and nomenclature ........................................................................................ 59
FORM THREE NOTES ....................................................................................................................... 67
Chemical Equations ...................................................................................................................... 67
Hardness of Water ......................................................................................................................... 72
Acids, Bases and Salts................................................................................................................... 74
The Mole Concept and Related Calculations ......................................................................... 82
Volumetric Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 87
Ionic Theory and Electrolysis ........................................................................................................ 97
Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium ........................................................................................... 109
Extraction and Properties of Metals ......................................................................................... 115
Compounds of Metals ................................................................................................................ 126
FORM FOUR NOTES ...................................................................................................................... 144
Non-metals and their compounds ........................................................................................... 144
Introduction to Organic Chemistry ........................................................................................... 160
Soil Chemistry ............................................................................................................................... 177
Pollution ......................................................................................................................................... 192
Nanguruwe Secondary school i

Prepared by: Daudi katyoki Kapungu O’Level Chemistry Notes - 2017
FORM ONE NOTES Drugs, vaccines, food
Medicines
Introduction to chemistry supplements
By Defn: Chemistry is a science that deals Detergents, beauty
Home care
with the composition, structure and products, soaps, shoe
and cosmetics
properties of matter polish, toothpaste,
industry
disinfectants, insecticides
Where: Food and Soft drinks, common salt,
i. Matter is anything that has mass and beverage yeast, baking powder,
occupies space. It includes the materials industry canned food
or substances of nature which make up Paints, chemicals,
our environment Manufacturing
varnishes, cement
ii. The people who study Chemistry are industry
,plastics
called chemists. Those who studied Textile industry Closes, dyes
Chemistry in ancient times are known as Fuels, lubricants, oil,
alchemists transport
grease, coolants, tyres
iii. Science is the scientific study of nature.
For example how cooling effect occurs Importance of Chemistry
Chemistry is an important subject due to its
Scientific Subjects application in our daily life. The follows is
In order the subject to be a science subject important of chemistry in various aspect
it should involves experiments and practical i. Agriculture
work. Chemists have to acquire certain skills ii. Food and beverage industry
in order to be successful. These skills include: iii. Medicine
i. Careful and thorough observation iv. The manufacturing industry
ii. Accurate recording of what has been v. Transport
observed vi. Communication
iii. Organizing the observed and recorded vii. Home care products
information viii. Beauty products
iv. Repeating tests to make sure
observations are accurate Agriculture
v. Forming conclusions from observations In a process of growing crops and animal
vi. Predicting possible outcomes of similar keeping, farmers uses many products made
experiments by chemists to get better agricultural yields
includes
Application of Chemistry i. Fertilizers – used to improve the quality
Chemistry is an important subject that is and quantity of crops and yields
applied in different fields such as agriculture, respectively
medicine, manufacturing, education, food ii. Weed killers – are chemical substances
and beverage industry, home care and used to destroy unwanted plants which
cosmetics industry, among others. This means harm the crops
that Chemistry is applied in iii. Pesticides – are chemical substances
i. Factories sprayed or sprinkled on crops to destroy
ii. Homes pests that leads low or no yields. Also
iii. Hospitals introduces in animal dips to treat animals
iv. Laboratories from ticks etc
v. Research centres iv. Animal vaccines – chemical substance
vi. Universities used to protect animal from disease
v. Processed animal feeds – animal food
Products made by application of Chemistry which mixed with different nutrients
Field product component to improve animal health
Fertilizers, pesticides,
Agriculture weed killers, animal Food and beverage industry
vaccines
Nanguruwe Secondary school 2
i. Preservation of food especially those
canned or bottled example bear, canned
maize etc
ii. Preparation of certain foods such as
bread, cakes and sweet
Medicine
In medicine field Vaccines (prevent illnesses)
and medicines (treat diseases) are
Produced chemically
The manufacturing industry

In industry many material made chemically
used to make product. Examples of product
are cement, plastic container, textiles,
chemicals, rubber and paper
Transport
i. Fuels used on transport are produced
chemically
ii. The parts used on transport like car engine
and tyres are made chemically
Communication
i. Letters, newspaper and magazine are
manufactured chemically
ii. Telephones and computer rely heavily on
wires which made chemically
Home care products

Product used to make home and its
environment which used to clean (soap and
detergents), kill insect (disinfectants) and
decoration (air fresh and paints) are made
chemically
Beauty products
Product used to improve human physical
appearance like nail varnish, creams, lotions,
perfumes and deodorant are made
chemically
Chemistry for careers (professional

development)
The skills acquired in chemistry are very
valuable in different careers like
i. Doctor
ii. Pharmacist
iii. Chemical engineers
iv. Laboratory technician
v. Nurse
vi. Researcher

Laboratory Techniques and Safety vi. Use the fume chamber when carrying out
By defn: laboratory is a special room or experiments where harmful gases and
building that designed and used for scientific vapours are produced
experiments. Laboratories have special tools vii. Only perform the intended experiments.
and equipments called Apparatus Do not set up your own experiments or
interfere with someone’s experiment.
Feature of Laboratory viii. Do not spill liquids on the floor
The laboratory should have the following ix. Report any breakages or accidents to the
i. Water supply system teacher or laboratory assistant
ii. Drainage system immediately
iii. Electricity supply x. When heating substances, direct the
iv. Well illuminated mouth of the test tube away from you or
v. Well ventilated others. Do not point burners or hot
vi. Door open out ward substances towards yourself or other
vii. Gas supply people
xi. Use lighter or wooden splints to light
Laboratory Rules burners. Do not use papers. Always strike
By defn: laboratory rule is the set of the match before turning on the gas tap
regulation governing practical activities in xii. In case of a gas leak, turn off all the gas
the laboratory taps and open the windows. Leave the
room immediately
Parts of laboratory activities xiii. Do not touch any electrical equipment
Laboratories rules divided into three parts with wet hands
include xiv. Do not use dirty, cracked or broken
i. Before laboratory activities apparatus
ii. During laboratory activities xv. Turn off any gas or water taps that are not
iii. After laboratory activities in use
xvi. No chemical or equipment should be
Laboratory Rules Before laboratory activities removed from the laboratory
i. Do not enter the laboratory without the xvii. Replace covers and stoppers on the
permission or presence of the teacher or container after you are through with the
laboratory assistant chemicals
ii. Dress appropriately for the laboratory xviii. Keep inflammable substances away
activities. Do not wear loose or floppy from naked flames
clothing. Tie back long hair. Roll up long xix. Wash off any chemical spillage on your
sleeves. Do not wear shorts, or walk skin or clothes with plenty of clean water
barefoot or in sandals xx. Do not taste things during experiments
iii. Keep the windows open for proper
ventilation. Laboratory Rules After laboratory activities
iv. Master the location of all exits i. Appropriately dispose of any wastes Use
the litter bins, not the sink, to dispose of
Laboratory Rules During laboratory activities solid waste. Do not return unused
i. Read instructions carefully before you substances to their original containers
start any activity ii. Clean up the equipment and store it
ii. If you do not understand something, ask safely
your teacher before proceeding iii. Turn off gas and water taps.
iii. Read the labels on reagent bottles iv. Clean the working surfaces, benches and
carefully to make sure you have the right sinks
substance. Do not interchange labels v. Wash your hands with soap and running
iv. Do not eat, drink, smoke, play or run in water.
the laboratory
v. Do not taste or smell chemicals unless Laboratory Safety measure
advised on how it should be done
By Defn: laboratory safety is the condition in xvii. Equipment for monitoring contamination
which measures of risk avoided during should be installed to give alerts of any
laboratory activities possible dangers.
xviii. Chemicals that easily react with each
List of Laboratory Safety Measures other should never be stored together
The laboratory safety measures includes xix. Containers for chemicals should be
i. Laboratory should well ventilated and his checked regularly to ensure they do not
door should open outward leak. They should have stoppers or covers
ii. Fire extinguishers should be fitted in an which should be secured when the
accessible position with using instruction chemicals are not in use
iii. Laboratory floors should not polished to xx. Stored chemicals should be inspected
avoid slippery regularly to ensure they have not
iv. Cabinets and drawer must present for expired.
storing apparatus xxi. All apparatus should be checked
v. All apparatus should checked regularly regularly to ensure they are safe for use
to ensure they are safe to use xxii. All persons using the laboratory should
vi. Emergence exit should present and easy ensure they wear appropriate protective
to access and use clothing to minimize exposure to hazards
vii. The laboratory should be equipped with to access and use.
working fire extinguishers and other
working fire equipment with clear First Aid
instructions on how to use them in case By Defn: First aid is the help given to a
of a fire sick/injured person before getting
viii. Cupboards, storage cabinets and professional medical help
drawers should have locks
Reason: This is to ensure one does not Importance of First Aid
accidentally get into contact with i. It helps to preserve life
harmful substances or interfere with ii. It prevents the victim’s condition from
equipment becoming worse
ix. All chemicals should be well-labelled iii. It promotes recovery by bringing hope
Reason: prevent accidental use of the and encouragement to the victim
wrong substance iv. It helps to reduce pain and suffering
x. Emergency exits should be present and v. It prevents infection
easy
xi. There should be a manual or instruction First Aid Kit
guide on how to treat spills of different By Defn: first aid kit is the small box contains
chemical substances. items that are used to give help to a sick
xii. Any chemical spills should be cleaned person. Usual labelled as “FIRST AID” and
immediately stored in a safe and easily accessible place
xiii. The fume chamber should be labelled. It
should be kept in good working Items Found In First Aid Kit
condition to minimize unexpected gas Items Uses
leaks or emissions Contains guidelines
xiv. Gas cylinders should be labelled, stored on how to use the
First Aid Manual
well and supported. They should be in items in the first aid
good working condition at all times. kit
xv. laboratory should contain First Aid kits Cleaning wound to
xvi. Refrigerators and freezers used should be antiseptic
kill germs
labelled ‘For chemical use only’ washing hands,
Reason: avoid contamination of other Soap wounds and
substances. They should be clean and equipment
free of any spills Cleaning and
cotton wool
drying wounds
Preventing direct ix. Poisoning
Disposable sterile
contact with x. vomiting
gloves
victim’s body fluids
Reducing muscular Burns
Liniment
pain By defn: Burns is an injuries resulting contact
Painkillers Relieving pain with heat or harmful chemicals. Burns cause
Adhesive by liquids or vapour is called scalds
Covering minor
bandage
wounds Effect of burns
(plaster)
Keeping dressings in Burns cause blisters on skin and if severe the
place and skin becomes charred and peels off
Bandage
immobilizing injured
limbs Procedure to follow in giving first aid
Measure body i. Lay the victim down and protect the burnt
Thermometer area from coming contact with ground, if
temperature
Covering wounds to possible
Sterile gauze protect them from ii. Gently pour cold water on the burn for
dirty and germs about 10 minutes to cool it and reduce
Safety pins, clips Securing bandages pain
and tape. or dressing. Note: if the burn is severe, immediately call
Scissors and razor Cutting dressing for medical help
blades materials. iii. Check the breath and pulse and prepare
Smoothening and to resuscitate the victim, if necessary
Petroleum jelly iv. Gently remove any Jewellery, shoes or
soothing skin
Torch Source of light burnt clothing from the injured area
Note: loosen any tight clothing. Do not
Whistle Blow to call for help
remove any sticking clothing to the skin
For fungal infection
v. Cover the burn with sterile gauze and
of the skin and
wrap it loosely to avoid pressure on the
Gentian violet mouth. Also used for
skin
the treatment of
Note: do not use fluffy cotton. Bandage
serious heat burns
the wound reduce pain and infection
vi. Give the victim a pain reliever and treat
Causes of Laboratory Accident
them for shock
i. Slippery floor
vii. Seek medical help immediately
ii. Incorrect use and handling of apparatus
iii. Gas leakages from faulty gas taps
Caution!
iv. Fires
i. Do not ice as it further damages the skin
v. Failure to follow the right experimental
ii. Do not apply ointment or butter to the
procedures and laid down safety rules
burn since this prevents proper healing
iii. Do not break any blisters as this can cause
First Aid Procedure
infection
When accident occur we have to help the
iv. Burns to the face and in the mouth or
victim by following the follows procedures,
throat are serious as they cause rapid
consider the follows accidents
inflammation of air passage and may
i. Burns
cause suffocation. In such case seek
ii. Suffocation
medical help immediately
iii. Choking
iv. Bruises
Suffocation
v. Shock
When dealing with a victim of electric shock,
vi. Electrical shock
remember to take the following action
vii. Fainting
viii. Bleeding
Choking
By defn: Chocking is the blockage of the
upper part of the airway by blood or other Effect of shock
object i. If it develops the victim may experience
ii. Nausea and even vomiting
Sign of chocking iii. Become restless, anxious, aggressive and
Defaulting in speaking and breathing finally unconscious
Procedure to follow in giving first aid Procedure to follow in giving first aid
i. Encourage the victim to cough up the i. Control sources of shock
object ii. Lay the victim down in a shock position. If
ii. If the subject remain stuck, give firm but victim vomiting turn him/her to the side
gentle taps between the shoulder blade iii. Loose tight clothing, laces and belts
iii. If the object is still stuck, perform the iv. Maintain the victim body temperature
Heimlich manoeuvre (procedure). This the using a warm covering
procedure involve the following v. Prepare to resuscitate the victim if
a. Stand behind the victim necessary
b. Grasp fist placed near the top of the vi. Seek medical help immediately
victim’s stomach
c. Make quick upwards thrusts to dislodge Electric Shock
the object Electrical shock occur when a person comes
d. Repeat the thrusts until the object into contact with electricity
comes out
Procedure to follow in giving first aid
Bruises i. Put off the main switch
By defn: Bruise an injury appearing as an ii. Break contact between victim and
area of discoloured skin on the body. It electrical sources by using dry wooded
caused by a blow or impact break/bust stick or insulator material
underlying blood vessels iii. Check whether the victim is breathing. If
breathing stopped begin resuscitation
Procedure to follow in giving first aid iv. If the victim breathing but unconscious
i. Apply a cold compress on injure for (20 – put him or her in the recovery position
30) minutes to reduce swelling and speed v. Administer First Aid for burns, shock or
up recovery other injuries sustained by the victim
ii. If bruise is on leg/foot and covers large vi. Seek medical help
area, keep the leg elevated if possible for
first 24 hours Caution!
iii. After 48 hours , apply a warm wash cloth i. Do not touch the victim who still in
for 10 minutes, three times a day to contact with electric current
increase blood flow to the affected area ii. Do not go near the area if you suspect
and thus speed up healing that the area has high voltage electricity.
Instead call for professional help
Shock immediately
By defn: shock is a condition in which the
body system is unable to take enough blood Fainting
to the vital organs. Vital organs include By defn: Fainting is a sudden loss of
heart, lungs and brain consciousness cause by lack of sufficient
blood and oxygen to the brain. Victim feels
Symptoms of shock weak, sweats finally falls down
i. A victim has the follows symptoms
ii. Fast pulse rate Procedure to follow in giving first aid
iii. Pale skin, lips and fingernails i. Take the person to a cool place or under
iv. Skin becomes cool and moist a shade of plenty air
v. Limbs may tremble and become weak
ii. Loosen or remove any tight clothing from i. Lessen clothing around the neck and
the victim chest
iii. Let him/her lie on his back with his legs ii. Let the victim sit with the head tipped
raised higher than the head slightly forward
iv. Dip a clean handkerchief in water and iii. Have the victim pinch their nose and ask
press on his forehead. them to breathe through the mouth for a
v. Give him/her clean water to drink when few minutes
he regain consciousness iv. Place a wet piece of cloth at the back of
vi. If not, take the victim to the nearest the victim neck
hospital v. When bleed stop, gently clean the nostril
vi. If bleed continue, take the victim to
Bleeding hospital
By defn: Bleeding is the loss of blood and
usually occurs from a visible wound or Poisoning
internal organ By defn: Poison is any substance that can
harm the body if swallowed, inhaled or
Procedure to follow in giving first aid absorbed into the body. Poison includes
Procedure of bleeding may be laboratory chemical, drug, medicine etc.
i. Light bleeding (small cut or wound)
ii. Severe bleeding (large cut or wounds) Sign of poison
iii. Noise bleeding i. Nausea
ii. Vomiting
Light bleeding iii. Abnormal cramps
i. Place the victim in a comfortable resting iv. Pain
position v. Difficulty in breath
ii. Elevate the injured part vi. Diarrhoea
iii. Wash your hands using soap and vii. Abnormal skin colour
cleaning water.
iv. Put on your gloves Procedure to follow in giving first aid
v. Wash your wounds using salt water or i. Call for medical assistance immediately
antiseptic and clean cloth ii. Find out what cause the poison
vi. Cover the wounds or cut using sterile iii. If poison is in eye
gauze. Gently clean the surrounding skin a. Wash eye with a lot of clean water
and dry it using sterile dressing b. Ask victim to blink as much as possible
vii. Dress the wound and bandage it c. Do not rub the eye
viii. If bleeding continue, take the person to iv. If poison is in skin
hospital a. Remove any clothing from affected
part
Severe bleeding b. Wash affected area thoroughly with a
i. Let the victim lay under a shade or allow lot of clean water
her to sit comfortably c. Do not apply any ointment
ii. Wash your hands using soap and clean v. If poison swallowed
water a. Induce vomiting if the poison is non-
iii. Put on your gloves corrosive (medicine and soap) by
iv. Prevent further blood loss by applying putting your finger in victim’s throat
pressure over the wound using a folded b. Do not Induce vomiting if the poison is
but clean handkerchief or cloth corrosive (kerosene, bleach, detergent,
v. Use another cloth to secure the first one in laboratory acid, disinfectant etc)
place vi. If poison has been inhaled
vi. Take the injured person to hospital a. Move the person to plenty of fresh air
b. Make sure you protect from inhaled the
Noise bleeding poison

Vomiting Evaporating Heat and evaporate
By Defn: Vomiting is the removal of the dish liquid and solution
contents of the stomach through the mouth Used to heat small
Deflagrating
amount of substance
spoon
Result of vomiting inside gas jar
i. Food poisoning
ii. Drinking contaminated water Testing
iii. Inhaled poisonous fumes or over eating The following apparatus are used when
testing substance. Consider the table below
Procedure to follow in giving first aid Items Uses
i. Give the victim lots of clear fluid(oral container used for
rehydration drink) Beaker holding, heating and
ii. Get medical assistance if mixing liquids
a. Persistent vomiting Used for holding
b. Victim vomiting blood chemical for heating for
c. Victim has high fever short time
d. Victim is very dehydrated (observed Test tube
mouth and skin become very dry) Used to test some simple
chemical reaction
Laboratory Apparatus Used to add liquids drop
By Defn: laboratory apparatus is the special Dropper
by drop
equipment that used in the laboratory For holding liquids during
Flasks
experiment
Used of Laboratory Apparatus Used as
They are used for various purposes such as  Evaporate surface
i. Heating Watch glass
 Hold substance
ii. Testing  Cover for beaker
iii. Measure  Used to collect gas
iv. Filtering Gas jar  Used with deflagrating
v. Grinding spoon to burn
vi. Holding Used to add reagents
vii. Storage Thistle funnel
into flasks
viii. Scooping
ix. Safety Measure
The following apparatus are used when
Heating Measure substance. Consider the table
The following apparatus are used when below
heating substance. Consider the table
Items Uses
below
Measuring For measuring volume of
Items Uses
cylinder liquids
used for heating
Spirit lamp For measuring
substance
Thermometer temperature of
used for heating
Bunsen Burners substances
substance
Triple beam
Boiling tube Used to heat substance Measuring mass
balance
providing a platform for
Tripod stand  Suck in
heating for stability Measuring
 Measure specific
For providing equal syringe
volume of liquids/gas
Wire gauze distribution of heat while Transferring and
burning Pipette measure specific but
Container used to heat small volume of liquids
Crucible substance to very high Burette measuring volume of
temperature
liquid Safety
Electronic measuring mass in more The following apparatus are used for Safety
balance precise values during experiment. Consider the table below
Measure accurately Items Uses
Stop watch
time Protect eyes from
chemical spill, strong
Safety goggles
Filtering light and harmful
The following apparatus are used when vapour
filtering. Consider the table below
Items Uses Nb:
Used to separate solid After experiment apparatus should be
Filter funnel cleaned and return/stored to their position
from liquids
Placed in filter funnel to
Filter paper separate solid from Warning Signs
liquids Warning sign is the symbol established to
ensure safety in the laboratory and in other
Grinding field like goods or commodities. This signs
The following apparatus are used when should obeyed to avoid accidents, include
grinding substance. Consider the table the follows
below i. Toxic
Items Uses ii. Irritant/harmful
Mortar and Used for crush/grinding iii. Flammable
pestle things iv. Oxidizing agent
v. Corrosive
Holding vi. Radio active
The following apparatus are used when vii. Danger of electric shock
holding substance. Consider the table below viii. Fragile
Items Uses ix. Explosive
Test tube rack Placing test tubes x. Careful
Test tube Holding a test tube xi. Keep away from water
holder while heating
Toxic
Retort stand Hold apparatus e.g.
Toxic symbol means that a substance is
and clamp Burettes
dangerous and can cause death within a
Hold hot substance and
Tongs short time. Toxic substances containing
apparatus
poisonous ingredients, Example of toxic
substance is jik, mercury etc.
Storage
Diagram:
The following container are used when
storage substance. Consider the table below
Items Uses
Reagent Store different
bottles chemicals
Plastic wash
Store distilled water
bottle
Scooping
The following apparatus are used scooping Toxic Substance Enter the Body Through
substance. Consider the table below i. Ingestion (by eating and drink)
Items Uses ii. Inhalation (by breathing)
Scooping small quantity iii. By injection (by syringe, bite or insect)
Spatula iv. Contact (by touching)
of powder

Irritant/Harmful Corrosive
Harmful symbol means that a substance is Corrosive symbol means that the substance
dangerous and can affect our health for cause gradual change if contact with
long time. Example of harmful substance is various materials. For example concentrated
alcohol, paint, insecticide, tobacco, sulphuric acid, concentrated hydrochloric
ammonia etc, mercury etc acid, concentrated nitric acid,
Diagram of harmful concentrated sodium hydroxide,
concentrated ammonia etc
Diagram:
Diagram of Irritant
This substance can annoy parts of the body
Radio Active
Radioactive symbol means that the
substance emits harmful radiations that
penetrate human body and cause damage.
For example uranium, plutonium etc
Diagram;
Flammable
Flammable symbol means that the
substance can catch fire easily. For example
gasoil, kerosene, petrol, butane, methane,
spirit, nail polish remover, turpentine etc
Diagram:
Danger of Electric Shock
Danger of electric shock symbol means that
the substance has high voltage which should
not touch.
Diagram:
Oxidizing Agent
Oxidizing agent symbol means that the
substance can speed up the rate of burning.
For example oxygen gas, chlorine gas,
fluorine gas and hydrogen peroxide
Diagram: Fragile
Fragile symbol means that the substance
should handle with care to prevents them
from breaking. For example glass etc.
Diagram:

Explosive
Explosive symbol means that the substance
can erupt/explode easily. Always sore in a
special container
Diagram:
Nb:
Never store explosive material in glass
container because when explode pieces of
glass would fly all over and injure people
Careful
Careful symbol that is the caution advice
you to be carefully
Diagram:
Keep Away From Water

Keep away from water symbol that is the
caution advice you to keep item away from
the water. For example computer, mobile
phones, radio etc
Diagram:

Heat sources and flame ii. The colour and temperature of flame
In this topic we will study source of Heat and depend on the type of fuel burning and
flame the source of the flame
iii. In order flame to happens the component
Heat of fire triangle should be completed which
By Defn: Heat is the condition of being hot is fuel, oxygen and heat
Source of heat Types of flame

Heat can be obtained in two ways They are two main types of flame includes
i. Natural source of heat i. Luminous flame
ii. Artificial source of heat ii. Non luminous flame
Natural source of heat Luminous flame

By Defn: Natural source of heat is the kind of By Defn: Luminous flame is the flame with
heat in which cannot made by human. For yellow colour, produces soot and does not
example heat from the sun give more heat. It produced when the
oxygen supply is usually not enough to
Artificial source of heat complete burn up the fuel
By Defn: Artificial source of heat is the kind of Diagram:
heat in which made by human. For example
heat from the spirit lamp, Kerosene stove,
Bunsen burner and gas stove
Nb:
i. Heat is the energy
ii. All chemical processes (reaction) whether
combination or decomposition involves
heat energy
Heat sources in the laboratory

In the laboratories is the different source of
heat which can be used in the chemistry Parts of Luminous Flame
laboratory for various purposes. For example It consists four parts includes
i. spirit lamp i. Thin outer zone
ii. Kerosene stove ii. Luminous and yellow zone
iii. Bunsen burner iii. Zone of unburnt gas
iv. gas stove iv. Blue or green zone
Flame Why produce soot?

By Defn: flame is a zone of burning gases It produces soot because oxygen supplied is
that produces heat and light. It is the visible not enough to complete burn up the fuel
glowing part of a fire
Diagram: Why produce less heat?
It produces less heat because oxygen
supplied is not enough to complete burn up
the fuel
Non luminous flame

By Defn: Non Luminous flame is the flame
Nb: with blue colour does not produce soot and
i. Flame formed due to burning of fuel give more heat. It produced when the
oxygen supply is usually enough to complete
burn up the fuel
Diagram: iii. Collar - it turn around the barrel in order to
vary size of air hole
iv. Jet – gas pass through it to barrel
v. Gas – fuel which burnt to produce flame
vi. Base – give stability to Bunsen burner
How Bunsen produce luminous flame

It produce luminous flame when collar turn
to reduce size of air hole to results not
enough air (oxygen) to complete burn up
Parts of Non Luminous Flame the fuel
It consists three parts includes
i. Colourless inner zone How Bunsen Produce Non Luminous Flame
ii. Blue-green middle zone It produce luminous flame when collar turn
iii. Pale purple-blue zone to increase size of air hole to allow enough
air (oxygen) to complete burn up the fuel
Different between Luminous flame and Non
luminous flame Uses of Luminous flame
Luminous flame Non luminous flame i. It used for light
Yellow in colour Blue in colour
Does not Produces Uses of Non luminous flame
Produces soot
soot i. It used for heating purpose
ii. It used for Flame test of certain chemical
Produce less heat Produce more heat
substance
iii. It used for welding
Has a wavy flame Has a triangular flame
iv. It used for cooking
Burns with a roaring
Burns quietly
noise
Bunsen burner
By Defn: Bunsen burner is a laboratory heat
source consisting of a vertical metal tube
connected to a gas source
Diagram:
Parts of Bunsen burner

i. Barrel – round pipe whereby oxygen and
gas burn at its top
ii. Air hole – it allow air (oxygen) to support
burning of gas
The scientific procedure to obtain the results. For example
Scientific Investigation temperature
By defn: scientific method is a set of
techniques used by scientists to investigate a Controlled Variable
problem/answer question. Also called By defn: Controlled variable is the condition
scientific procedure or scientific investigation may changes (kept constant) to obtain the
or scientific methods results. For example amount of water
Steps of a Scientific Method Data Collection and Analysis

The following is the steps followed when It Concern recording what you have
carrying out a scientific investigation observed during experiment. Always kept in
i. Identify the Problem the table for example
ii. Formulation the hypothesis Temperature solubility
iii. Experiment and observe 10 200
iv. Data collection and analysis 20 400
v. Data interpretation 30 600
vi. Draw a conclusion from data 40 800
Identify Problem Data Interpretation

In this step the physicist makes a puzzling In this step we look trend or patterns and
observation. For example does temperature explain why they occur that way. For
affects the solubility of common salt in example from the table above when
water? temperature increase also solubility increase
Formulation of Hypothesis Draw a Conclusion

A hypothesis is an intelligent guess that tries In this step, it concerning about summary of
to explain an observation. Example does not the experiment. It includes a statement that
temperature affects the solubility of common either proves or disproves the hypothesis. For
salt in water? example in our experiment change in
temperature affects solubility of common salt
Experiment and observe
By defn: An experiment is the test under Application of Scientific Procedure
controlled conditions. The aim of experiment i. carrying out experiment: to study what
is to test whether hypothesis is true or false. It happens and gain new knowledge
based on variable to test hypothesis ii. project work: to find information on
By defn: variable is the condition in which subject/problem
changes to obtain set of values iii. Field study/work: to test hypothesis. A field
study also called field work
Types of Variable
There are three types include Significance of the Scientific Procedure
i. Dependent variable i. It helps us to solve scientific problems
ii. Independ variable ii. It helps us to gain new knowledge
iii. Controlled variable iii. It helps us to conduct project work
iv. It helps us to carry out field study
Dependent Variable v. It helps us to solve problems or answer
By defn: Dependent variable is the condition scientific questions
(depend other factor) to measure or
observed to obtain the results. For example
solubility
Independ Variable
By defn: Independ variable is the conditions
(does not depend other factor) manipulate
Matter v. Has high density due to small volume
By defn: matter is anything that has mass vi. Particle move very slow
and occupies space. Matter can be change
state with vary in temperature. Example of Liquid State
matter is stones, vegetation, air, food, water By defn: Liquid substance has fixed volume
and our bodies but variable in shapes. Particles in liquid are
slightly father apart. For example water,
State of Matter kerosene, milk etc
Matter exist in three physical states include Diagram
i. Solid state
ii. Liquid state
iii. Gas (vapour) state
Structure of matter
Matter is made up of tiny particles. The
particles are either atom or molecules Properties of Liquid Matter
i. Particles are slight father apart
Atom ii. Have definite volume
By defn: atom is the smallest part of an iii. Have not definite shape
element, which can take part in chemical iv. Has medium density due to medium
reaction. For Example Sodium atom (Na), volume
hydrogen atom (H) etc v. Has medium motion
vi. Inter-particle force is weak
Molecules
By defn: a molecule is a group of atoms. For Gas State
Example water molecule (H2O), hydrogen By defn: Gas has not definite shape or size.
molecules (H2) Particles are moving so fast and are so far
apart that they do not interact with each
Solid State other at all. For example oxygen gas,
By Defn: Solid substance has definite shape hydrogen gas, nitrogen gas etc
and definite volume. Particle in solid Diagram:
substance are closely packed together. For
Examples of solid substances are Ice,
firewood, metal, Wood, Stone, Books, Shoes,
Plastic etc
Diagram
Properties of Gas Matter

i. Has not definite shape
ii. Has not definite volume
iii. Has largest inter particle distance
iv. Has low density due to largest volume
v. Has weakest inter particle force
NB: vi. Particle move at high speed
i. The particles vibrate in fixed position
ii. The particle are not free to move because Change of State in Matter
they held by strong inter particle force Matter can change solid, liquid and gas and
vice versa. Consider the diagram below.
Properties of Solid Matter Diagram:
i. Particles are closely packed together
ii. Has definite shape and volume
iii. Has strongest inter-particle force
iv. Particles are not free to move

Evaporation
By defn: Evaporation is the change of state
from liquid to gas (vapour)
Different Between Boiling and Evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a definite Occurs at any
Melting temperature which is temperature
By defn: Melting is the change of state from boiling point
solid to liquid Occurs within a liquid Occurs at the
with formation of surface of the liquid
Melting Point bubbles
By defn: Melting point is the definite Has no cooling effect Has cooling effect
temperature of a pure substance to melt Takes place rapidly Takes place slowly
Freezing Importance of Changes of States of Matter

By defn: Freezing is the change of state from Changes of states of matter it has a wide
liquid to solid important. Consider the follows important
i. Water cycle
Sublimation ii. Refrigeration/ Air Condition
By defn: Sublimation is the change of state iii. Refinery
from solid to gas iv. Metallurgy
v. Steam engines
Deposition vi. Drying of materials
By defn: Deposition is the change of state
from gas to solid Water cycle
Water change to vapour appear as clouds
Freezing point and finally rain
By defn: Freezing point is the Temperature at
which a liquid changes into a solid without a Refrigeration/ Air Condition
change in temperature Water change to vapour absorb energy
(heat) from the surround and final cause
Boiling cooling effect
By defn: Boiling state at which all liquid
change into gas Refinery
Refinery of petroleum and other liquids
Boiling Point refinery due to boiling point, if the mixture of
By defn: Boiling point is the temperature at high and low liquid, the liquid with higher
which all liquid change into gas boiling point start first to evaporate which
collected as vapour/gas and the one with
Boiling Point of Some Pure Substance lower boiling point remain at the mixture. The
Substance Boiling point (°C) simple distillation and fractional distillation is
Helium -269 employed in petroleum refineries
Hydrogen -253
Oxygen -183 Metallurgy
Ethyl alcohol 78.4 Metallurgy Involves in the following
Benzene 80.2 i. Purification of metals from their ores
Water 100 ii. Manufacture of alloys
Mercury 357
Aluminium 2 467 Purification of metals from their ores
Copper 2 567 Purification of metals from their ores made
Iron 2 750 due to its boiling point of combined
substance contains in the ores, if the ore “Matter is made up of tiny particle that are
contain substance of high and low liquid, the in a state of continuous random motion”
required metal of higher boiling point start
first to evaporate which collected as Kinetic Theory of Matter
vapour/gas cool to obtain solid metal and It describes the physical properties of matter
the one (impurity) of lower boiling point in terms of the behaviour of its component
remain as residue atom or molecules. It state that
“All matter is made up of very small particles
Manufacture of alloys that are in constant motion”
By defn: Alloy a metal made by combining
two or more metallic elements to give Nb:
greater strength or resistance to corrosion Motion of solid particles is in vibration
Motion of liquid and gas particles are in
How alloys made? random
The vapour/gas of two or more metals
cooled to make an alloy Properties of Gases, Liquids and Solids
properties Gas Liquid Solid
Steam engines Shaped
no definite Takes shape Fixed
shape of container shape
The liquid (fuel) of low pressure evaporate to Move/slide Rigid
make vapour/gas/steam of high pressure Movement Move past
past one (locked
of particle one another
used to push piston. The downward another into place)
Not easily
movement of the piston pushes a rod that Compressibili Not easily
Compressible Compressib
turns a crankshaft ty Compressible
le
Moderate
Space Large space No space
Drying of materials space
Flow Flow easily Flow easily Do not flow
Material dry when contaminated liquid Takes volume Has a Fixed Has a Fixed
Volume
evaporates, Example when wet clothes of container volume volume
exposed in a sun dry because water
contaminated change to vapour/gas Physical changes
By Defn: Physical changes are the changes
The Particulate Nature of Matter which do not change the identity of
Scientist called Robert brown used a matter/substance. It physical properties must
microscope and observed that pollen grains vary which may be size, state etc. For
suspended in water moved short distance in example tearing, crushing, melting,
an irregular zigzag manner. After that dissolving, freezing, evaporation,
observation Robert brown concluded by the condensation and sublimation
law called Brownian motion
Diagram: Changes undergoes Physical changes
i. Aluminium foil cuts into half
ii. Clay is moulded into a new shape
iii. Butter melts on warm toast
iv. Water evaporates from the surface of
ocean
v. The juice in a bottle freezes
vi. Drying of wet clothes
vii. Grinding a piece of chalk
viii. Burning of a candle
ix. Dissolving sugar in water
x. Crushing stone into fine powder
xi. Melting of ice
Brownian motion xii. Water vapour condenses on the outside
Brownian motion state that of your eyeglasses

Chemical changes
By Defn: Chemical changes are the changes
which change the identity of
matter/substance. It chemical properties
vary which may be smell, colour etc. For
example rusting, burning, decaying, rotting,
fermentation of fruit and souring of milk
Changes undergoes chemical changes

i. Milk turns sour
ii. Jewellery tarnishes (changes colour)
iii. Toasting bread
iv. Nails or iron sheets rust
v. Wood is burnt
vi. Food scraps are turned into compost in a
compost pit
vii. A match is lit
viii. An antacid settles your stomach upset
ix. Your body digests food
x. An egg is fried
xi. Food is cooked
Different between Physical Changes and

Chemical Changes
Physical Changes Chemical Changes
Change physical Change chemically
No new substance new substance
formed formed
No product given product given off
off
Changes is Changes is irreversible
reversible
Does not affect affect component of
component of substance
substance

Elements, compound and mixtures Element Symbol
Element Calcium Ca
By Defn: Element is a pure chemical Aluminium Al
substance which cannot be split into simple Chlorine Cl
substance by a simple chemical process. For Cobalt Co
example iron, silver, gold, copper, oxygen, Magnesium Mg
hydrogen etc Manganese Mn
Argon Ar
Names and chemical symbol of elements
All known element have name, usually the iii. Elements can be represented by a
names represents by letter (abbreviation or symbol delivered from their Latin names
short representation of the name) called Element Symbol
chemical symbol Sodium Na
Gold Au
Nb:
Potassium K
i. Most Chemical symbol often derived from
Copper Cu
Latin or Greek name of the element. For
Iron Fe
example of some elements
Element Latin name Symbol
Common elements
Sodium Natrium Na
There are twenty common elements which
Gold Aurum Au
we were using most in our o’level chemistry
Potassium Kalium K course. Consider the table below
Copper Cuprum Cu Element name Element symbol
Iron Ferrum Fe Hydrogen H
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg Helium He
Silver Argentum Ah Lithium Li
Tin Stannum Sn Beryllium Be
Lead Plumbum Pb Boron B
Carbon C
ii. Other Chemical symbol often derived
Nitrogen N
from English name of the element. For
Oxygen O
example of some elements
Fluorine F
Element English name Symbol
Neon Ne
Carbon Carbon C
Sodium Na
Iodine Iodine I
Magnesium Mg
Fluorine Fluorine F
Aluminium Al
Hydrogen Hydrogen H
Silicon Si
Calcium Calcium Ca
Phosphorus P
Aluminium Aluminium Al
Sulphur S
Argon Argon Ar
Chlorine Cl
Argon Ar
Criteria used to generate chemical symbol
Potassium K
i. Elements can be represented by a symbol
Calcium Ca
delivered from the first letter
Element Symbol
How to remember common 20 elements
Carbon C
You should sing a Swahili simple song In order
Iodine I
to remember common elements as
Fluorine F
Element Word to sing Stand for
Hydrogen Hallo H
ii. Elements can be represented by a
Helium Hemedi He
symbol delivered from the first and
Lithium Lile Li
second letter
Beryllium Beberu Be By defn: Mixture is a physical combination of
Boron Bora B two or more substances in any ratio.
Carbon Chinja C Example muddy water, mixture of sand and
Nitrogen Na N salt, mixture of oil and water, mixture of
Oxygen Ondoa O maize and sand etc
Fluorine Figo F
Neon Nene Ne Nb:
Sodium Na Na They separated physically
Magnesium Mgeni Mg
Aluminium Aliye Al Types of mixture
Silicon Simama Si They are two types include
i. Homogenous mixture
Phosphorus Pale P
ii. Heterogeneous mixture
Sulphur Serengeti S
Chlorine Club Cl
Homogenous mixture
Argon Arudishwe Ar
By defn: Homogenous mixture is the kind of
Potassium Kwao K
mixture in which has uniform composition,
Calcium Canada Ca
appearance and properties. Example
i. Mixture of salt and water
Significance of chemical symbol ii. Mixture of sugar and water
i. Help to understand quickly element
instead of memorize full names Heterogeneous mixture
ii. Possible to write chemical equation By defn: Heterogeneous mixture is the kind of
instead to write in full name mixture in which has difference composition,
iii. show clear quantity of element appearance and properties. Example
i. Mixture of water and sand
Compound ii. Mixture of ice and water
By defn: compound is a pure substance that
is made up of more than one element in a Properties of mixture
chemical combination. Example sugar, salt, i. mixture can be seen separated
water etc ii. Constituent elements can be separated
by physical means
Nb: iii. Constituent elements Have no definite
i. Combination is always in fixed ratio. For ratio
example iv. When formed involve physical change
a. carbon dioxide (CO2) is made up of two v. Its properties same from its Constituent
parts of oxygen for every one part of elements
carbon
b. water (H2O) is made up of two parts of Different between compound and mixture
hydrogen for every one part of oxygen
Compound Mixture
ii. they are separated chemically
Compound cannot mixture can be seen
be seen separated separated
Properties of compound
Constituent
i. Compound cannot be seen separated Constituent elements
elements can be
ii. Constituent elements can be separated can be separated by
separated by
by chemical means physical means
chemical means
iii. Constituent elements Have definite ratio
Constituent
iv. When formed involve chemical change Constituent elements
elements Have
v. Its properties differ from its Constituent Have no definite ratio
definite ratio
elements
When formed
When formed involve
involve chemical
Mixture physical change
change
Its properties differ Its properties same
from its Constituent from its Constituent Solution can be solid, liquid or gas. Even
elements elements solute and solvent can exist in three state of
matter. Consider the table follows
Solution Solutes
By defn: solution is a homogenous mixture of Solid Liquid Gas
two or more substances (solvent and solute) Naphthal water oxygen and
ene slowly vapour in air other gases
gas
Where sublimes in in air
i. By defn: solvent is a substance dissolves air to form
the other substance (solute) a solution
ii. By defn solute is a substance dissolved by sucrose ethanol carbon
other substance (solvent) (sugar) in (alcohol) in dioxide in
water and water and water(carbo
solvent
Example of solute and solvent
liquid
salt in various nated water
i. Mixture of sugar and water to form a water hydrocarbon
solution s in each
a. Sugar is a solute other
b. Water is a solvent (petroleum)
ii. Mixture of salt and water to form a steel and mercury in hydrogen in
solution other gold and metals
a. Salt is a solute solid
metal hexane in
b. Water is a solvent alloys paraffin wax
Types of solution
Their three types of solution, includes Uses of solvents
i. Unsaturated solution i. Varnish removal: solvent used to removal
ii. Saturated solution varnish
iii. Supersaturated solution ii. Degrease: solvent used to remove excess
grease or fat from. For example when we
Unsaturated Solution wash our hand if contaminated with oil
By defn: Unsaturated solution is the solution iii. Thinning paint: a volatile solvent used to
that can dissolve more solute at a given make paint or other solutions less viscous
temperature iv. Bleaching agent: it make white or much
lighter by a chemical process or by
Saturated Solution exposure to sunlight
By defn: Saturated solution is the solution that v. Stain removal: solvent used mark or
cannot dissolve more solute at a given discolour with something that is not easily
temperature removed
vi. Cleaning: solvent (soap) removal dirt
Supersaturated Solution (solute) by form solution
By defn: Supersaturated solution is the
solution that temporarily holds more solute Properties of solution
than the saturated solution at a given i. Homogenous mixture
temperature ii. transparent/clear
iii. Particles completely dissolved
Application of saturation iv. Components separate by Evaporation
It uses when
i. Separating certain mixtures in the Suspension
laboratory By defn: Suspension is heterogeneous mixture
ii. Extracting some minerals such as common of liquid and fine particles of a solid
salt (NaCL)
Nb:
Classification of solution into state of matter i. Suspended particles are slight visible

ii. Particles Settle at bottom if undisturbed vii. Solvent extraction
iii. Suspension formed either by liquid viii. Layer separation
droplets or fine particle float in a gas is ix. Magnetization
called Aerosols
iv. The blood in our body also is suspension Decantation
v. Suspension used at homes as insecticides, By defn: Decantation is the process of
body spray and medicine(syrup) always separating a heterogeneous mixture of a
labelled ‘’Shake well before use’’ liquid and solid by pouring out of the liquid
only and leaving the solid at the bottom of
Properties of suspension the container
i. Heterogeneous mixture
ii. Opaque (not clear) Nb:
iii. Particles separate without dissolving i. The process of some components of
iv. Components separate by filtration mixture settling at the bottom is called
Sedimentation
Different between solution and suspension
Solution Suspension Decantation can be used to separate
Homogenous mixture Heterogeneous i. Water from muddy water
mixture ii. Blood test: Clearer part of blood from
transparent/clear Opaque (not clear) mixture of clear blood and its solid
Particles completely Particles separate components
dissolved without dissolving
Components Components Separation Application of Decantation
separate by separate by i. Water treatment systems
Evaporation filtration ii. Separate of components of blood
Emulsion Magnetization
By defn: emulsion is a mixture of liquids that This process involve the separation of iron
do not completely mix. Example of emulsion (magnetic material) from a mixture where by
i. Milk, which is drops of butterfat in water magnetic material is attracted to magnet
ii. Emulsion paint, which is drops of coloured and leaves behind other components of
oils in water mixture
Nb: Evaporation
i. Liquids do not mix at is called immiscible By defn: Evaporation is the method in which
ii. Liquids mix is called miscible solvent converted from liquid to gas and
iii. Usually formed from two liquids (oil and solute remains as residue. Example Mixture
water) of water (solvent) and salt (solute), when
iv. When emulsion shakes form droplets (oil heated water evaporates and salt remains
and water) Diagram:
v. When emulsion harder shakes become
homogenous solution
Methods of separating mixture

Mixture can be separated according to
properties of substance (mixture). The follows
methods used to separate are follows
i. Decantation
ii. Evaporation
iii. Distillation Separation Application of Evaporation
iv. Sublimation i. In extraction of common salt
v. Filtration
vi. Chromatography Distillation
By defn: Distillation is the method of
separating mixture due to components
boiling point and finally obtains the wanted
substance. The wanted substance (low
boiling point) is cooled until back to liquid.
The cooled vapour is called Distillate
Types of Distillation
There are two types include
i. Simple Distillation
ii. Fraction Distillation
Simple Distillation
By defn: Simple Distillation is the method of
separating mixture of liquid contains
dissolved substance
Diagram:
Fraction Distillation can be used to separate
i. Distilling ethanol from mixture of ethanol
and water
ii. Distilling petrol from crude oil (petroleum)
Nb:
i. Fraction distillation can collect more than
one component at the same time at the
fraction distillation columns
ii. The liquids with lower boiling point first
collected as distillate
Simple Distillation can be used to separate iii. Each components collected is called
i. Distilling water from muddy water fraction
ii. Distilling water from salt water
Separation Application of Distillation
Nb: i. Purification of water
If Liebig condenser absent, the distillate can ii. Manufacture of alcohol
collect in a test tube that dipped in beaker
contain very cold water or ice Sublimation
By defn: Sublimation is the is the method of
Separation Application of distillation separate mixture whereby a solid (wanted
i. Purification of water substance) changes state directly to gas
ii. Manufacture of alcohol final form Solid that forms after the gas cools
Diagram:
Fraction Distillation
By defn: Fraction Distillation is the method of
separating mixture (homogeneous solution)
of two or more liquids due to its boiling point
by means of fraction columns
Diagram:
Nb:

i. Solid that forms after the vapour cools is i. Moved solvent is called mobile phase
called sublimate ii. Absorbed solvent is called stationary
ii. This method Used to separate mixture phase
where one component sublimes iii. Substance separated is called Analyte
iii. Iodine and ammonium chloride are few
compounds can sublimes Uses of chromatography
iv. The reverse process of change from Used in many different ways
vapour to solid on cooling is called i. Medicine
Deposition ii. Security
iii. Chemistry
Sublimation Can Be Used To Separate iv. Health
i. Separate iodine from mixture of sand and
iodine Medicine
ii. Separate ammonium chloride from Used as follows
mixture of salt and ammonium chloride i. Used to analyses blood and urine sample
ii. Study blood cells in blood
Separation Application of Sublimation iii. Detect types of drugs in blood
i. Purification of substance
Security
Filtration Used as follows
By defn: Filtration is the method of separate i. Used to analyses blood and urine sample
heterogeneous mixture of a solid and liquid ii. Detect different fibres
by using porous filter
Diagram: Chemistry
Used as follows
i. Test purity of organic substance
ii. Separates mixture
Health
Used as follows
i. Causes of pollution
ii. Test for blood contamination
Separation Application of Chromatography

i. In medical diagnosis and studies
Nb: ii. In security for crime detection
i. Solid remain is called residue iii. In chemical analysis and tests
ii. Liquid pass through filter is called filtrate
Solvent extraction
Fraction Distillation can be used to separate By defn: Solvent extraction is the method of
i. Water from muddy water separate mixture essential oil from plant
materials. This process referred as solid-solid
Separation Application of Filtration extraction
i. Purification of water
ii. Extraction of juice from fruit From the diagram above can be used to
iii. Extraction of cream from milk separate
i. Oil seeds from seed
Chromatography
By defn: Chromatography is the method of Mechanism how separated
separate mixture using moving solvent on Extract oil seed by using water to get mixture
material absorbs the solvent of oil and water then mixture separated by
distillation to get oil
Nb:
Separation Application of Solvent extraction
i. Extraction of certain edible oils from seeds
ii. Extraction of some metals from sludge
mixture
Layer separation
By defn: Layer separation is the method of
separating immiscible mixture by using
separating funnel if its components allowed
settling form distinct layers.
Diagram:
Nb:
i. Denser component(higher density) settles
at bottom
ii. Less Denser component(low density) stay
at top
Separation Application of Layer separation

i. Recovery of liquids from contaminations

Air, combustion, firefighting and rusting ii. enclosed space (closed system) in which
Air combustion takes place, especially in an
By defn: Air is colourless, homogenous engine or furnace is called combustion
mixture of gases in the atmosphere chamber
iii. different material are combustible but
Composition of air some burn up faster than others
Mixture of gases include the following
i. Nitrogen Application of combustion
ii. Oxygen It’s applied in many areas, includes
iii. Carbon dioxide Industries
iv. Noble gases (helium, krypton, argon, neon i. Engine or furnace
and xenon) ii. In large boilers
v. Water vapour iii. Incinerators for burning wasters
iv. welding and smelting (extract metal)
Nb:
The components of air in atmosphere have Domestic
definite proportions by volume which can be v. Cooking
approximate to percentage. Consider the vi. Heating homes
table below vii. Burning wastes
Gas Percentage
Nitrogen 78% Laboratory
Oxygen 21% viii. Sterilization
Carbon dioxide 0.03% ix. During experiments
Noble gas 0.94%
Water vapour 0% – 4% Fire Fighting
By defn: Fire Fighting is the process
Test for gases in air extinguishing harmful fires
Consider the table below which show how
gases tested Fire
By defn: fire is the state/process of
Tester reagent Product
Gas combustion result light, heat, smokes and
(colour) (colour)
flame
Copper Diagram:
Copper
Oxygen oxide
(brown)
(black)
Calcium
Carbon Lime water
carbonate
dioxide (colourless)
(milky)
Anhydrous Anhydrous
Water copper (II) copper (II)
vapour sulphate sulphate
Fire Triangle
(White) (blue)
By defn: fire triangle is the components
needed to start a fire
Combustion
Diagram:
By defn: combustion is the chemical
reaction involves the burning of a substance
in the presence of oxygen to releases energy
(heat and light)
Nb:
i. Material which catch fire and burn easily is
called combustible
Component of fir triangle
This include Suitable for: class B and A
i. Fuel
ii. Oxygen (DC) Dry chemical extinguisher
iii. Heat Component: Fine sodium bicarbonate
powder pressurize by nitrogen
Caused Of Laboratory Fire Suitable for: class A, B, C and E
i. Electrical faults Unsuitable for: class D, Aircraft and
ii. Smoking materials electronics
iii. Carelessness Reason for Unsuitable: it is corrosive
iv. Ignorance
v. negligence Carbon dioxide extinguisher
Component: carbon dioxide gas under
Basic Principles of Fire Prevention extreme pressure
i. No light of open fires near buildings Suitable for: class B, C and E
ii. No smoking in prohibited areas Unsuitable for: class A (material can reignite)
iii. No interference with electrical installations
iv. all electrical appliances must off after use Halons extinguisher
v. all sources of heat should not kept near Component: Bromochloro-Difluoro-Methane
the bench edge where they can easily be Suitable for: class A and E
knocked down Unsuitable for: class B and C (least suitable)
vi. all flammable substances should be
locked up in drawers or cabinets Foam extinguisher
Component: protein and fluoro-protein
Fire Extinguisher Suitable for: class A and B
Fire extinguisher is the one in which used to Unsuitable for: class E
fight/stop fire to continue
Wet chemical extinguisher
Types of Fire Extinguisher Component: potassium acetate
The follows is types of extinguisher include Suitable for: class F
i. water/APW extinguisher Unsuitable for: class E
ii. Sand extinguisher
iii. Fire Blanket extinguisher ABC extinguisher
iv. (DC) Dry chemical extinguisher Component: mono-ammonium phosphate
v. Carbon dioxide extinguisher with a nitrogen carrier
vi. Halons extinguisher Suitable for: class A, B and C
vii. Foam extinguisher Unsuitable for: electronic equipment
viii. Wet chemical extinguisher
ix. ABC extinguisher Mechanism of Fighting For Fire
Fire extinguisher stop fire by prevent one
Water/APW Extinguisher among of the fire components/fire triangle
Component: Air pressurize water
Suitable for: class A Class of Fire
Unsuitable for: class B, C and D Fire classified according to materials burnt;
Reason for Unsuitable: the flame will spread therefore we have six class of five namely
i. Class A
Sand extinguisher ii. Class B
It used to extinguishes small fire iii. Class C
Component: sand collected on basket iv. Class D
Suitable for: class B and A v. Class E
vi. Class F
Blanket extinguisher
It used to extinguishes small fire Class A
Component: sand collected on basket
The burning materials is organic/ordinary NB: first switch off power from the mains
solid combustible materials such as paper, switch
wood, plastic, wool, clothing etc
Class F
Suitable Fire Extinguisher The burning cooking appliances with oils and
Use any type of Fire extinguisher except fats at high temperature
carbon dioxide. But water is suitable
Suitable Fire Extinguisher
Question: Why carbon dioxide not suitable? Use wet chemical extinguishers
Answer: when molecules of carbon dioxide
reach fire gain heat and result lowered its Steps to use portable fire extinguisher
density then escape away for fire and the There are four procedure in easy to
fire continue remember just remember acronym ‘PASS’
which stand for Pull, Aim, Squeeze and
Class B Sweep as follows
The burning materials is flammable liquids i procedure: Pull: Pull the pin to make the
such as petrol, paraffin, alcohol, kerosene extinguisher ready for use
etc

i. Use fire blanket or sand extinguisher if fire
is a small
ii. Use dry powder, foam or carbon dioxide
extinguisher if fire is large ii procedure: Squeeze: Squeeze the top
NB: water extinguisher is not suitable lever to release extinguishing
agent
Question: Why water not suitable?
Answer: water is denser than flammable
liquid so flammable liquids will float over
water results the fire continues
iii procedure: Aim: Aim at the base not at
Class C the fire, otherwise the fire
The burning materials is flammable gas such only spreads
as methane, butane, propane etc

Use dry powder and carbon dioxide
extinguisher
iv procedure: Sweep: Sweep from side to
Class D side until the fire is out
The burning combustible metals such as
magnesium, sodium, lithium etc

Use dry powder, foam or foam extinguisher
Precaution when using fire extinguisher
Class E The following precaution should take when
The burning electrical equipment such as using fire extinguisher
damaged electrical cables, switchboards i. Keep reasonable distance (such as 3
etc metres) from the fire as it may suddenly
change direction
Suitable Fire Extinguisher ii. Never use a portable extinguisher on
Use carbon dioxide extinguisher people instead us a fire blanket
iii. Do not test a portable extinguisher to see Iron is joined to reactive metals (e.g.
if works Magnesium) by wire. Examples
Why: it may leak and afterwards fail to i. Bridges are anodized to protect it from
work during and emergence/accident rusting
iv. Do not retain a used portable extinguisher ii. pipelines are anodized to protect it from
to the wall rusting
v. When a fire gets out of control, abandon it
and notify the nearest fire fighting squared Tin plating
(fire brigade) By defn: plating is the coating of iron/steel
with tin (metal) that does not rusting. When
Rusting iron/steel mix with metal that does not rusting
By defn: Rusting is the reddish brown occurs tend to prevent an iron/steel from rusting.
in iron/steel in presence of air and water. The Example
reddish brown coat occurs in metals (iron or i. Iron/steel Can is coated inside to prevent
steel) is called Rust rusting so as suitable for canning a foods
Condition for rusting Use of silica gel

There are two condition includes By defn: silica gel is a substance in the form
i. Air (oxygen) of grains and absorbs moisture. Silica gel
ii. water prevent presents of water so that prevent
iron/steel from rusting. Example
Methods used to prevents rusting i. silica gel bags put inside cameral parts
To prevent rusting should prevent which made from iron/steel to prevent
contamination of water and air in iron and rusting
steel and to avoid using material made from
iron or steel. The follows is the methods which Use of plastic
we can use Uses of plastics tend to avoid cost of
i. Painting damage parts or instruments and household
ii. Oiling made from rusting
iii. Galvanization
iv. Anodizing
v. Tin plating
vi. Use of silica gel
vii. Use of plastic
Painting
Paint when introduce on iron/steel prevent
iron/steel to contact with water and oil
Oiling
Oil when introduce on iron/steel prevent
iron/steel to contact with water and oil
Galvanization
By defn: Galvanization is the process of mix
iron/steel with metal that does not rusting.
When iron/steel mix with metal that does not
rusting tend to prevent an iron/steel from
rusting. Example
i. Iron sheets are galvanized with zinc
Anodizing

FORM TWO NOTES Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
Oxygen Hydrogen peroxide decompose on heat to
By defn: Oxygen is a gas that forms about give oxygen gas and water in the presence
21% by volume of the air. Also present as of catalyst (manganese (IV) oxide
compound like water, carbon dioxide etc Diagram:
Term used
i. Decomposition: Decomposition is the
breakdown of a chemical compound into
elements or smaller compound
ii. Catalyst: Catalyst is the substance speed

up the rate of chemical but remain Equation:
unchanged at the end of chemical 𝑀𝑛𝑂2
reaction Hydrogen peroxide → water + oxygen
𝑀𝑛𝑂2
H2O2 (aq) → H2O (l) + O2(g)
iii. Reduction: Reduction is the remove of
oxygen from substance Question: Why oxygen gas collected
Or downward displacement of water
By defn: Reduction is the addition of Answer: oxygen is less dense than air
hydrogen to a substance
Decomposition of potassium chlorate
iv. Reducing agent : Reducing agent is the Potassium chlorate decomposed on heating
substance which removes of oxygen from by using manganese (IV) oxide to produce
that substance potassium chloride and oxygen gas
Or Diagram
By defn: Reducing agent is the substance
which transfers of hydrogen to another
substance
v. Oxidation: Oxidation is the addition of

oxygen from substance
Or
By defn: Oxidation is the remove of
hydrogen to a substance Reaction
Decomposed on heating by using
vi. Oxidizing agent: Oxidizing agent is the manganese (IV) oxide to produce potassium
substance which removes of hydrogen chloride and oxygen gas
𝑀𝑛𝑂2
from that substance Potassium chlorate → potassium chloride +
Or oxygen
By defn: Oxidizing agent is the substance 𝑀𝑛𝑂2
KClO3 (s) → KCl (s) + O2(g)
which transfers of oxygen to another
substance
Test for oxygen gas
Oxygen on gas jar tested by introduce a
Laboratory preparation of oxygen
glowing wooden splint if oxygen present
Common method Oxygen separated is;
lights up
i. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
ii. Decomposition of potassium chlorate in
Physical properties of oxygen
the presence of catalyst (manganese (IV)
i. It is colourless, tasteless and odourless
oxide)
ii. It is slightly soluble in water
iii. Heating compound rich in oxygen
iii. Its 1.1 denser than air
iv. Electrolysis of water
iv. It Boil at -183℃

v. It Freezes at ℃ a) carbon burns slowly with a yellow-white
flame to produce carbon dioxide
∆
Chemical properties of oxygen Carbon → carbon dioxide
i. It support combustion (Black solid) (Colourless gas)
ii. It is a very strong oxidizing agent b) phosphorus burns brightly to produce
iii. React with metal to form basic oxides clouds of white smokes of phosphorus (v)
iv. React with non-metal to form acidic oxide
oxides ∆
Phosphorus → phosphorus (v) oxide
Reaction of some metals and oxygen (Yellow solid) (White solid)
Oxygen reacts with metal to produce basic c) sulphur melts and burns slowly with a blue
oxide flame to produce sulphur dioxide
∆
a) Potassium melts easily and burns with a Sulphur → sulphur dioxide
lilac flame to produce potassium oxide (Yellow solid) (Misty (white gas))
∆
Potassium → potassium oxide
(Silvery-white) (White powder) Nb
b) sodium burns vigorous with a yellow flame This compound they said acidic because
to produce sodium oxide when react with water form acidic solution
∆
Sodium → sodium oxide Industrial manufacture of oxygen
(Yellow) (Pale yellow solid) In industry oxygen produced in large scale
c) calcium doesn’t melts, burns with brick by using Fractional Distillation of Liquefied Air
red flame to produce calcium oxide
∆
Calcium → calcium oxide Fractional Distillation of Liquefied Air
(Silver) (White solid) Consider the follows steps which used to
d) Magnesium melts before it burns with obtain the oxygen
bright white flame to produce Magnesium i. filter air to remove dust
oxide ii. Air is liquefied (air changed to liquid) by
∆
Magnesium → Magnesium oxide lower temperature to -200℃
(Grey) (White powder) a) Water vapour condensed and
e) zinc burns slowly with a dull red flame to removed by using special filters
produce zinc oxide b) Carbon dioxide freezes at -79℃ and
∆ removed
Zinc → zinc oxide c) Oxygen liquefied at -183 ℃
(Bluish white) (Yellow/green flakes) d) nitrogen liquefied at -196 ℃
(White flakes if cool) iii. The remains mixture (nitrogen and water)
f) iron glows red to produce iron three oxide is separated by using fractional distillation.
∆
Iron → iron (III) oxide Consider the diagram below
(Greyish silver) (Black solid) Diagram:
g) copper turn orange then the surface of
the product (copper two oxide) turns
black solid
∆
Copper → copper (II) oxide
(Bronze) (Black solid)
Nb
This compound they said basic because
when react with water form base solution Nb:
i. Nitrogen collected at the top and
Reaction of some non-metals and oxygen piped off and stored
Oxygen reacts with non-metal to produce ii. Oxygen collected at the bottom and
basic oxide piped off and stored

Uses of oxygen
i. Oxygen for living organisms
Transport
ii. Oxidizer for rocket fuel
iii. Respiration in spacecraft and submarine
Medical/hospitals
iv. Aids in breathing
v. Anaesthesia
vi. Incubator for premature babies
Manufacturing
vii. Steel from iron
viii. Metal cutting
ix. Welding
x. Glass making
xi. Pulp and Paper making
Environment
xii. Treatment of sewage plants
Chemical process
xiii. Manufacturing of chemicals e.g. acid
and oxides
xiv. Combustion/incineration
xv. Oxidation to remove impurities
xvi. To speed up rate of reaction
xvii. Manufacture of synthesis fuels

Hydrogen iii. High flammable and burns with blue
By defn: hydrogen is the lightest and most flame
abundant element in the universe iv. Mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
explodes when lit
Laboratory preparation of Hydrogen v. It React with oxides of metal to produce
Common method hydrogen prepared is; metal
i. Reaction of dilute acid with some metals vi. It React with chlorides of metal to
ii. Reaction of water with certain metals produce metal
iii. Reaction of water with hot carbon vii. React slowly with oxygen to produce
iv. Electrolysis of water water
Reaction of dilute acid with some metals React of hydrogen with oxides
Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc metal to When hydrogen react with oxide of metal
produce zinc chloride and hydrogen gas produce metal and water
Diagram: a. Cooper (II) oxide reacts with hydrogen to
form copper and water
Cooper (II) oxide + hydrogen → copper +
Water
b. lead (II) oxide reacts with hydrogen to
form lead and water
Lead (II) oxide + hydrogen → lead +
Water
Equation: c. iron (II) oxide reacts with hydrogen to
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + form iron and water
Iron (II) oxide + hydrogen → iron + water
Hydrogen
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) d. calcium oxide reacts with hydrogen to
form calcium and water
Calcium oxide + hydrogen → calcium +
Question: Why hydrogen gas collected
downward displacement of water Water
Answer: hydrogen is less denser that air
React of hydrogen with chlorides
Test for hydrogen When hydrogen react with chloride of metal
Hydrogen on gas jar tested by introduce a produce metal and hydrogen chloride
glowing wooden splint if hydrogen present it a. Cooper (II) oxide reacts with hydrogen to
explode with a pop sound form copper and hydrogen chloride
Cooper (II) oxide + hydrogen → copper +
Properties of Hydrogen hydrogen chloride
Consider the physical and chemical b. lead (II) oxide reacts with hydrogen to
properties of hydrogen as follows form lead and hydrogen chloride
Lead (II) oxide + hydrogen → lead +
Physical properties of Hydrogen hydrogen chloride
i. It is tasteless, colourless and odourless c. iron (II) oxide reacts with hydrogen to
ii. It is lighter(less denser) than air form iron and hydrogen chloride
Iron (II) oxide + hydrogen → iron +
iii. It is only slight soluble in water
iv. Does not support combustion hydrogen chloride
v. It neutral to litmus d. calcium oxide reacts with hydrogen to
form calcium and hydrogen chloride
Chemical properties of Hydrogen Calcium oxide + hydrogen → calcium +
i. Combine easily with other chemical hydrogen chloride
substance at high temperature
ii. Usual does not react with other element Industrial manufacture of Hydrogen
at room temperature Hydrogen in industrially manufactured by
i. Electrolysis of water
ii. Steam reforming of natural gas
Uses of ammonia
Electrolysis of water i. Production of nitric acid
By defn: Electrolysis is the process whereby ii. Production of Fertilizers
water decomposes into hydrogen and iii. Synthetic fabrics such as polyester fabrics
hydrogen due to electricity. Consider the and polyamide fabrics
diagram below
Diagram: Manufacture of margarine
Hydrogen is bubbled through liquid oil with
nickel catalyst to harden the liquid oil, which
then is processed to form margarine. This
process is called Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation
By defn: Hydrogenation is the process
whereby hydrogen reacts with other
chemical substance
Manufacture of Oxy-hydrogen flame

Mechanism Hydrogen is manufacture oxy-hydrogen
When electricity switch on water flame which is very hot up to 3000℃
decomposes and hydrogen collected at
cathode (negative terminal) and oxygen Uses of Oxy-hydrogen flame
collected at anode (positive terminal) i. Used for welding
ii. Used for cutting metals
Steam reforming of natural gas
This method is used to produce or Manufacture of hydrochloric acid
manufacture hydrogen. Also called stream Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to yield
methane reforming (SMR) hydrogen chloride gas, which dissolved in
water to form hydrochloric acid
Mechanism
When stream at (700 – 1100)℃ reacts with Prepare water gas (Fuel)
methane (natural gas) produce carbon Water gas prepared by using hydrogen used
monoxide and hydrogen as fuel which used by rocket
Stream + methane → carbon monoxide +
hydrogen Filling Weather balloons
Nb: Since hydrogen is less dense than air it used
This reaction takes in the presence of metal- to fill balloons
base catalyst
Relation uses of hydrogen and its properties
Uses of Hydrogen Use Property
The following are main uses of hydrogen Manufacture of Readily combines with
i. Manufacture of ammonia ammonia elements e.g. nitrogen
ii. Manufacture of margarine Manufacture of Reducing agent
iii. Manufacture of Oxy-hydrogen flame margarine
iv. Manufacture of hydrochloric acid Manufacture of Highly flammable
v. Prepare water gas (Fuel) Oxy-hydrogen
vi. Filling Weather balloons flame
Manufacture of Readily reacts with
Manufacture of ammonia hydrochloric acid other chemical
Hydrogen reacts with nitrogen under iron substance
catalyst to yield ammonia on a large scale Prepare water gas Highly flammable
called Haber process (Fuel)
Filling Weather Less dense than air
balloons

Water ii. Liquid state e.g. dew, rain
By defn: Water is the compound formed iii. Vapour state e.g. mist, steam, clouds
between hydrogen gas and water
Distribution of earth’s water
Term used There two kind of water include
i. Evaporation: Evaporation is the process i. Salt water – 97% of earth’s water
whereby water changes to vapour/gas ii. Fresh water - 3% of earth’s water
or steam
ii. Transpiration: Transpiration is the process Distribution of Fresh’s water
whereby plant loses water by Fresh water distributed as follows
evaporation i. Ice caps and glaciers – 68.7% of fresh’s
iii. Condensation: Condensation is the water
process whereby water vapour change ii. Ground water– 30.1% of fresh’s water
back to liquid to form clouds iii. Surface water– 0.3% of fresh’s water
iv. Precipitation: Precipitation is the situation iv. Other water– 0.9% of fresh’s water
whereby rain, snow and sleet (rain with
ice) that falls to ground Water Cycle
v. Collection: Collection is the situation By defn: water cycle is the system whereby
whereby rain accumulated at earth water being recycled. Also is called
ground Hydrological Cycle
vi. Water body: water body is the natural Diagram:
place where can be a source of water.
E.g. wells, rivers, lakes, stream, sea,
ponds, springs etc
vii. environmental conservation:
environmental conservation is the
process of preservation or restoration of
the natural environment and wildlife
viii. fog: fog is a thick cloud of tiny water
droplets suspended in the atmosphere at Water Cycle Parts
or near the earth's surface which make Water cycle is made up to four main parts,
visibility difficult includes
ix. Universal Solvent: universal solvent is a i. Evaporation (include transpiration)
solvent dissolves more substance than ii. Condensation
any solid iii. Precipitation
x. Specific Heat Index: specific heat index is iv. Collection
ability of a substance to absorbs heat
before being hot Evaporation (include transpiration)
xi. Surface Tension: surface tension is Water from rivers, lakes, stream, sea, ponds
properties of liquid to behave like an etc evaporate to air. Plants lose water by
elastic skin transpiration while animal and human being
xii. Solubility: Solubility is the process of lose water through perspiration and
dissolving a solute in solvent sweating
xiii. Water treatment: Water treatment is the
process of making water usable Condensation
xiv. Water purification: Water purification is Water vapour obtained by evaporation,
the process of removal contaminants transpiration, perspiration and sweating in
from treated water the air gets cold and changes back into
liquid to form clouds
Occurrence of water
The water on the earth occurs in three main Precipitation
states includes Rain start when air fails to hold condensed
i. Solid state e.g. snow, hail water and final results rain
vi. It has high surface tension
Collection vii. It has high specific heat index
Takes place when rain water back to the viii. It expand when freeze thus why ice float
ground which may run over the soil and over water
collected in the rivers, lakes, stream, sea, ix. It’s miscible with many liquids
ponds where cycle stars all over again
Chemical properties of water
Water cycle and environmental i. Pure water is neutral (neither acidic nor
conservation basic)
In order to preservation or restoration of ii. Cold water react with some metals to
water to be clean, the following should be form hydroxide and liberate hydrogen gas
done in various aspect includes iii. Some metals react with steam to give
i. Water bodies respective metal oxide and hydrogen gas
ii. Water vapour
iii. Acidic rain Uses of water
Used of water based in different activities
Water bodies includes
Water bodies should not pollute in order to
preservation or restoration of water to be Domestic use (daily use)
clean In domestic activities water used for
i. Drinking
How water body polluted ii. Cooking food
i. Environment degradation destroy the iii. Cleaning our surrounding
quality of water in water bodies iv. Washing our bodies
ii. People damp waste materials into water v. Washing our clothes
bodies
Transportation use
Water vapour In transport activities water used for
Gases (sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and i. Boats and ships used to transport people
carbon dioxide) form industrial combine with ii. Boats and ships used to transport goods
water vapour to form fog
Recreation use
Acidic rain In recreation activities water used for
Acidic gases when combine with water i. Used for swimming
vapour to form acidic rain ii. Used Sporting fishing
iii. Ocean water used for scuba-diving
Effect of acidic rain
i. Acidic rain kills plants Economic use
ii. Acidic rain kills life in water bodies In economic activities water used in
iii. Acidic rain accelerates the decay of i. Manufacture
building materials like iron sheet and ii. Agriculture
paints iii. Mining
iv. Energy
Properties of water v. Construction
Consider the physical and chemical vi. Fishing
properties of water as follows
Manufacture
Physical properties of water i. Manufacture of chemicals
i. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless ii. Manufacture of Food
ii. Occurs natural in all state of mater iii. Manufacture of Beverages
iii. It is universal solvent
iv. Freezing point is 0 ℃ Agriculture
v. Its boiling point is 100 ℃ i. Used in Irrigation
ii. Used in Animal dips and left to settle for twenty minutes before it
iii. Used in Watering animal can be safe for drinking
Mining Use of commercial filters

i. Used to carry away impurities Commercial filter is a filter system which
ii. Used as solvent to extract mineral Contains two or more filter element/media
through which the water passes to be
Energy cleaned
i. Moving water used to generate electricity Diagram:
(HEP)
Construction
i. Contraction of buildings used to mix sand
and cement
ii. Contraction of road it used to compress
the sand
Fishing
i. It used for fishing
ii. Used for artificial fish pond
Unban water treatment
Solubility of different substances in water Tap water used in urban is usual obtained
i. Water as universe solvent dissolves many from sources such as rivers, stream and lakes
substance (solute) like common salts, which are not treated. Processes for treat
liquid soap, Sodium carbonate etc urban water are follows
ii. All substance which does not dissolve in i. Screening
water they dissolve in organic substance. ii. Reservoirs
Example iii. Primary filtration
a. Propane used to dissolve cooking oil iv. Secondary filtration
b. Ethanol used to dissolve glue and v. Disinfection/chlorination
printing ink vi. Storage
Water treatment and purification Screening

Water should be treated and purified before This process involves the removing of floats
it can be clean and safe for use substance
Domestic water purification Reservoirs

The follows methods used to treat water as This process involves the storing of water at
i. Boiling high up so it flows through gravitation
ii. Use of purifiers (atmospheric pressure)
iii. Use of commercial filters
Primary filtration
Boiling This process involves
Untreated water boiled for 5 minutes to kill i. Filtered water comes from reservoir
bacteria and the filtered by using clean through coarse sand (filter medium) to
cloth remove particles
ii. Addition of aluminium sulphate to water
Use of purifiers comes from reservoir to remove smaller
Recommended amount of Chemical particles which was not filtered at coarse
purifiers (AQUAGUARD and WATERGUARD) in sand
liquid or tablet form putted in a specific
amount of water then shaken or stirred well Secondary filtration

This process involves Filtered water comes
from primary filtration through finer sand
(filter medium) to remove smallest particles
Disinfection/chlorination
This process involves put Disinfection to water
comes from secondary filtration to kill
harmful bacteria
Storage
This process involves to store soft water
(comes from Disinfection/chlorination) ready
for use
Importance of water treatment

i. To kill harmful micro-organism such as
bacterial, algae, fungi
ii. To get accurate results from experiment
and effect treatment In laboratories and
medical facilities
iii. To ensure the manufacture products are
safe for consumption in factories
iv. To use small of certain substance to
make solution with water
v. To remove human made chemical
pollutant
vi. To make water safe and clean etc
vii. To removal mineral such as iron, sulphur
etc
viii. To remove the particles such as dust,
sand, leaves etc
Nb:
Disease like amoebic dysentery, cholera,
typhoid and other diarrhoea related diseases
are caused by using contaminated water

Fuels and energy Characteristics of a good fuel
In this topic will deals with fuels and energy, A good fuel should have the following
let us start with fuel characteristics
i. High energy value
Fuel ii. High rate of combustion
By defn: Fuel is combustible substance iii. Have Average ignition point
burning in air to produce energy (heat) iv. Low Non-combustible material content
.Since combustion is chemical process so v. Not produce poisonous gas
fuel is also called chemical fuel vi. Highest pyrometric burning effect
vii. Readily available
Categories of fuels viii. Affordable
Fuel classifies according to; ix. Ease to transport and store
i. Occurrence (preparation) x. Have no effect on environment
ii. Physical state
High energy value
Occurrence (preparation) A good fuel should have a high energy
According to occurrence fuel classified into value. Energy value is determined by the
two fuels includes amount of energy produced per unit mass of
i. Natural/primary fuel the fuel. This is called heat value
ii. Artificial/secondary fuel
High rate of combustion
Natural fuel A good fuel should have high rate of burns
By defn: Natural fuel is the fuel occurs and moderate rate for a continuous supply
natural. Example wood, coal, peat, of heat
petroleum and natural gas
Have Average ignition point
Artificial fuel By defn: ignition point is the temperature
By defn: Artificial fuel is the fuel manufacture needed to burn fuel. A good fuel should
in industries or fining from natural fuel. have average ignition point
Example coke, kerosene, petrol, coal gas
and producer gas Nb:
i. Low ignition is risk due to fire hazard
Physical state ii. High ignition point makes difficult to start a
According to physical state fuel classified fire
into three fuels include iii. Fuel with high ignition point is safe to
i. Solid fuel transport and store
ii. Liquid fuel
iii. Gaseous fuel Low Non-combustible material content
A good fuel should have low or no contents
Table show classification of fuels of non-combustible material. For example
Physical ashes
Natural fuel Artificial fuel
state
Wood, Nb:
Solid Charcoal, coke
coal i. Non-combustible materials lower the heat
Petrol, diesel, value of the fuel
Crude ii. Non-combustible materials left in form of
Liquid kerosene,
petroleum ash
biodiesel
Liquefied
petroleum gas Not produce poisonous gas
Gaseous Natural gas (LPG), coal gas, A good fuel should not give off poisonous
water gas, gases and also it should give off very little or
hydrogen no smoke

Highest pyrometric burning effect i. By defn Fossil energy is the energy formed
By defn: Pyrometric burning effect is the by anaerobic (without oxygen) decay of
highest temperature reached by burning plants that lived millions of years ago
fuel. A good fuel should have highest ii. Energy remain in the coal is Solar energy
Pyrometric burning effect stored in plants
Nb: Composition of coal

i. Gaseous fuels have Pyrometric burning Coal is composed by four components
effect includes
i. Moisture
Readily available ii. Volatile matter
A good fuel should be readily available in iii. Ash
large quantities iv. Coke
Affordable Nb:
A good fuel should be affordable to most i. When coal heated at 950℃ volatile
people matter is driven off in absence of air
ii. Volatile matter consists gases and low
Ease to transport and store boiling point organic compound that
A good fuel should be easy and safe to condense into oil when cooled and tar
transport and store iii. Ash is the non-combustible residue
material left coal burnt
Have no effect on environment iv. Coke is the material left after the volatile
A good fuel should not have harmful effect matter driven off
on the environment. Example Fossil fuels
which produce carbon monoxide on Types of coal
burning are major contributor to global There are different types of coal vary in
warming composition and properties. The most
important types of coal are
Destruction distillation i. Peat coal
By defn: Destruction distillation is the process ii. Lignite coal
whereby organic fuel decomposed by iii. Bituminous (soft) coal
heating in the absence of air (oxygen) to iv. Anthracite (hard) coal
obtain useful product
Destruction distillation of coal
Nb: By defn: Destruction distillation of coal is the
i. Organic fuel is wood, coal and oil shale process whereby coal decomposed by
ii. Useful product is coke, charcoal, oil and heating in the absence of air (oxygen) to
gases obtain coke, gases and volatile matter
Solid fuels Nb:

This is the kind of fuel which exist as solid, i. Coal contains a large amount of volatile
solid fuels include matter burns with smoky flame and has
i. Coal low energy value
ii. Charcoal ii. Coke is most used most coal product
iii. Some gases produced can be refined to
Coal form ammonia, coal tar and light oil
By defn: Coal is the fossil energy formed by iv. Destruction distillation of coal takes place
anaerobic (without oxygen) decay of plants in kilns
that lived millions of years ago
Coal Kilns
Nb: By defn: Coal Kiln is a furnace or oven for
burning coal in absence of air
Types of coal kilns

There two types, include
i. Otto Hoffman kiln
ii. Beehive kiln
Beehive kiln
It is a dome-shaped structure made up of
bricks. This is earliest and cheapest process
of distilling coal
Diagram:
Structure of Otto Hoffman kiln

i. It consists of a number of narrow silica
chambers separated by spaces for
burning gas
ii. Each chamber has charging hole at the
top
iii. A gas outlet and doors at each end for
How coke distilled discharging coke
The following process used to distilling coal
1st. Coal is spread over the base through How coke distilled
charging door 1st. Coal added into chambers then
2nd. Air is supplied through the side door to chamber closed
ignite coal 2nd. Coal heated to drive out liquid or
3rd. Volatile matter escapes and burns inside gaseous components. this is called dry
the side door distillation
4th. Distillation take (3 – 4)days to complete
5th. Hot coke is cooled with water and taken Nb:
out through the side door Heating done externally by a part of
coal gas produced during the process or
Nb: by producer gas or by blast furnace gas
i. This process yield about 60% coke by 3rd. Heating continues until evolution of
mass volatile matter stop, this evolution takes
ii. Beehive kiln cannot producing ammonia, 24 hours
coal gas, benzol oil and tar 4th. Coke obtained pushed out and
(quenched) cooled
Otto Hoffman kiln
It advanced one which can produce extra Nb:
materials like ammonia, coal gas, benzol oil a. When quenched by water spray. This
and tar is called wet quenched
Diagram: b. When red hot coke is quenched an
inert gas like nitrogen. This is called dry
quenched
c. Dry quenched produce strong,
denser, clean and non-reactive coke
Nb:
i. This process yield about 75% coke by
mass
ii. It can producing ammonia, coal gas,
benzol oil and tar

substances in an atmosphere of air and
Charcoal steam
Charcoal is made from dry distillation of
wood at 94000 – 4500)℃ in an earth-pit kiln or Nb:
earth-mound kiln. Charcoal burns with non i. By defn: a carbonaceous substance is the
luminous flame and is easily ignited fuel contains a high proportion of carbon
ii. Example of carbonaceous substance is
Earth-pit kiln coal
Consider the process takes in earth-pit kiln iii. Flammable gases includes carbon
1st. The wood is heaped in hemispherical monoxide and hydrogen
pile in a central pit iv. non-flammable gases includes nitrogen
2nd. Then it covered by with earth and sod, and carbon dioxide
leaving small air holes near the bottom
3rd. Wood is lit at the center and allowed to Composition of producer gas
burn until the whole pile is on fire Producer gas composed with the follows
Nb: Percentage
Gas
a. Smouldering combustion takes place, composition
utilizing oxygen and hydrogen Nitrogen (52 – 55) %
components of the wood fibre Carbon monoxide (22 – 30) %
b. The product of Smouldering Hydrogen (8 – 12) %
combustion is water, carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide 3%
and volatile organic compound Methane Trace amounts
4th. Small hole closed until the fire goes off
and charcoal cool Production of Producer gas
Nb: This process yield about 20% charcoal by It produced in producer furnace
weight and 75% by volume Diagram:
Earth-mound kiln
It works as earth-pit kiln but earth-mound kiln
has not a pit but the wood is heaped in a
pile above the ground surface
Nb:
i. Earth-mound kiln is Preferred if the soil
occupied by rocky (stones)
ii. Earth-mound kiln is Preferred if the soil
water table is close to the surface
Mechanism
Characteristics of good charcoal i. When air mixed with stream, is passed
i. Should be porous through the inlet, the carbon (coal)
ii. Should be Brittle combines with oxygen (air) to form
iii. Should be Retains in the form of the wood carbon dioxide at lower part
ii. Carbon dioxide formed is rise up to hot
Gaseous fuels coal and reduced to carbon monoxide
This is the kind of fuel which exists as gas, Nb: Nitrogen from air not affected at all
include the follows process
i. Producer gas iii. The mixture of carbon monoxide and
ii. Water gas nitrogen, with traces of carbon dioxide
and some organic compound collected
Producer gas at outlet as producer gas
Producer gas is a mixture of flammable
gases and non-flammable gases made by Properties of producer gas
the combustion of carbonaceous i. It is poisonous gas
ii. Insoluble in water c. Steam (hot blow) is passed for (1 – 2)
iii. Denser than air minutes
d. Air (cold blow) is passed for 4 minutes
Uses of producer gas to make coke to be red hot again at
i. Used as fuel to heating open-hearth 1000 ℃
furnace in steel and glass manufacturing e. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and
ii. Used as fuel to heating muffle furnace nitrogen produced during air blow are
and retorts in production of coke and coal escapes into atmosphere
gas ii. When coke become red hot again at
iii. Used to reducing atmosphere in certain 1000 ℃, the steam is allowed to react with
metal extraction operations red hot coke in order to produce water
gas
Water gas iii. The water gas collected at water gas
Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide outlet
and hydrogen gas with a small amount of
carbon dioxide. It buns with a non-luminous Properties of water gas
blue flame therefore is called blue water gas i. It buns with a non-luminous blue flame
ii. It has energy value about 13628kJ/m3
Composition of water gas iii. It burns with high temperature about
Water gas composed with the follows 1200℃
Gas Percentage
hydrogen 48 % Uses of blue water gas
Carbon monoxide 44 % i. Used as an industrial fuel especially in
Carbon dioxide 4.2 % making steel
nitrogen 3% ii. Used in preparation of hydrogen
Methane 0.8 %
Energy value of a fuel
Production of water gas By defn: Energy value of a fuel is the total
It produced in a water gas generator amount of heat liberated by the complete
Diagram: combustion of unit mass of the fuel in
oxygen. SI unit of energy value is J/g or KJ/Kg
Mathematically:
H
E=m---------1
Where
E = energy value of a fuel
H = heat energy liberated
M = mass of the fuel used
Consider the diagram below

Diagram:
Mechanism
i. When steam at 1000 ℃ react with red hot
coke produce water gas (carbon
monoxide and hydrogen gas)
Nb:
a. Reaction above is endothermic
(absorb) heat from red hot coke which
cause red hot coke to cool
b. Cold coke react with stream to form
carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas
instead of water gas
i. Wood, coal and charcoal used for
When water heated by methanol, it means cooking, boiling and ironing
water deliver heat from methanol so ii. Petrol, diesel and liquefied petroleum
From: conservation of energy gases used for running industrial plants,
Then: H = He = Hw = mc∆θ cars, planes, ship etc
Finally: H = mc∆θ - - - - - - 2 iii. Kerosene used for cooking and a source
Where: of light
H = Heat energy liberated iv. Coal is used to generate electricity in
He = Heat energy liberated by ethanol power plant
Hw = Heat energy absorbed by water v. Coal is used to in industry to make dye,
∆θ =(θ2 -θ1) = change in temperature insecticides and fertilizers
θ1=Initial temperature of water
θ2 = Final temperature of water Environmental effects on using charcoal and
m = mass of water firewood
c = specific heat of water Uses of charcoal and firewood cause
Insert eqn 2 into eqn 1 i. Deforestation (cutting down tree)
mc∆θ
Therefore: E = ii. Drought
M
iii. Floods
𝒎𝒄∆𝜽 iv. Disease
E= 𝑴
Nb: Deforestation
i. Calorimeter is used to control the loss of Cutting down tree cause land unprotected
heat energy when determining energy from soil erosion
value of fuel
ii. In calculation you should convert Drought
temperature to Kelvin unit (K) Deforestation result disturb water cycle
which can cause drought and final famine
Example
The following results were obtained n an Floods
experiment to measure the heat value of Increase in carbon dioxide tend to increase
biodiesel global warming which results high
Initial temperature of water, θ1 = 24.7℃ temperature than normal which can cause
Final temperature of water, θ2 = 68.5 ℃ rains or melts ice in ice lands and final floods
Mass of biodiesel burnt, M = 56g
Volume of water used, v = 12 litres Disease
Determine heat value of the biodiesel. Flood always water may contaminate and
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 KJ Kg when people uses can affected and final
-1K-1, density of water = 1000 kg m -3) cause disease
Data given
θ1 = 24.7℃ = 24.7 + 273 = 297.7 k
θ2 = 68.5 ℃ = 68.5 + 273 =341.5 k
M = 56g 0.056 kg
v = 12 litres = 0.12 m3
m = density x volume = 1000 x 0.12 = 120 kg
Heat value of biodiesel, E = ?
Solution
mc(θ2 −θ1)
From: E = M
120 x 4.18 x (341.5 −297.7)
E= = 392.32
0.056
E = 392.32 kJ / Kg
Uses of fuel
Fuel used according to its efficiency
Energy iv.A microphone convert electrical energy
By defn: Energy is the capacity or ability of a to sound energy
body to do work. SI Unit of energy is Joule (J) v. Solar panel convert solar energy to
electrical energy
Forms of Energy vi.Solar cooker convert solar energy to heat
Energy they can be in motion or in position. energy
So we have about two main forms vii. Heater convert electrical energy to heat
i. Kinetic energy energy
ii. Potential energy
Alternative sources of energy
Kinetic Energy Source of energy can be divided into two
By defn: kinetic energy is the energy due to types
motion possessed by a body. The motion may be
of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules or object Types of Sources of Energy
itself. For example of kinetic energy is
There are two types of sources of energy
i. Electric energy
namely:
ii. Radiant energy
iii. Thermal energy i. Non- renewable sources
iv. Sound energy ii. Renewable sources
v. Wind energy
vi. Water moving Non- Renewable Sources
vii. Ocean Waves These are the energy sources, which cannot
viii. Ocean Tides be turned into use again. For Examples: oil,
ix. Moving machines natural gas and charcoal
x. Falling bodies
Renewable Sources
Potential Energy These are the energy sources, which can be
By Defn: potential energy is the energy due to
turned into use again after being used.
position possessed by a body. For example of
Example sun, water, wind, fossils etc,
potential energy
i. (Chemical energy) Energy stored in food consider the follows
ii. Gravitational energy etc i. Solar energy
iii. Elastic energy ii. Biomass
iv. Nuclear energy iii. Biogas
iv. Wind energy
Nb: v. Water power
By defn: Mechanical energy is the sum of
kinetic energy and potential energy Solar energy
By Defn: Solar energy is the radiant energy
Principle of Conservation of Energy emitted by the sun
The law of conversation of energy states that
“Energy can neither be created nor Ways used to tap/harvest solar energy
destroyed but can be transferred from one i. Generating electricity using photovoltaic
form to another” or photoelectric solar cells
ii. Generating electricity using concentrated
Transformation of Energy solar power
Energy can be changes from one form to iii. Heating and cooking using parabolic
another consider the follows examples mirror that focus the suns to a central
i. Battery convert chemical energy to position
electrical energy iv. Heating and cooling using solar chimney
ii. Generator convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy NB:
iii. A motor convert electrical energy to The energy from the sun is the sources of all
mechanical energy energy on the earth

Biomass
Organic matter used as a fuel, especially in Characteristics of Wind Energy
the generation of electricity. Biomass is used i. is not reliable
to produce liquid biofuel ii. is harnessed using noisy turbines
iii. Requires large wind sites to put up the
Advantage of biomass turbines.
i. A way to Disposing a waste material
ii. Minimize agent of global warming Advantage of Using Wind Energy
i. Wind energy is used in moving ships,
Biogas boats, pumping water and grinding corn.
By defn: Biogas is gaseous fuel, especially ii. It can also be used to drive generators to
methane, produced by the fermentation of produce electricity
organic matter iii. It is used to cool land
iv.It used to cool sea
Production of Biogas v. It is used by mechanical to remove dust
Consider the diagram below in car parties
Diagram:
Water power
Water power includes the follows
i. Hydroelectric energy
ii. Sea wave energy
iii. Ocean Geothermal energy
iv. Tidal stream energy
Hydroelectric energy
Hydroelectric energy is the generation of
electricity using flowing water to drive a
turbine which powers a generator. Also is
The waste matter is put together and called water energy
allowed to ferment naturally and finally we
get biogas How Generated Water Energy
Consider the diagram below;
Nb:
The remains matter used as fertilizer
Wind energy
Wind energy can be converted into
electricity by building a tall tower with a
large propeller on top called windmill.
When the water comes from dam which

constructed to hold water at a higher
ground used to drive the turbine in order to
generate electricity
Characteristics of Water Energy

i. reliable
ii. readily available in many places
iii. environmental friendly
iv. Can be constantly generated
Country like Denmark, Spain and German
use wind energy to produce electricity Advantage of Using Water Energy
i. A industrial work
ii. lighting
iii. heating and cooking
iv. Running hospital equipment
Sea Wave Energy

Sea water is the form of energy in which
caused by disturbing water particles resulting
progress propagation from one to another
point
Causes of Sea Wave Energy

Sea wave energy is as a result of wind
blowing across the sea
Harvest of Sea Wave Energy

It can harvested by the following methods,
Mechanism
includes
This consists of multiple floating segments
i. Point absorber buoys
connected to one another and is oriented
ii. Surface attenuators
perpendicular to incoming waves. A flexing
iii. Overtopping devices
motion is created by swells that drive
hydraulic pumps to generate electricity
Point Absorber Buoys
Point absorber buoys is the device which
Overtopping Devices
floats on sea water
Overtopping devices is the device which
Diagram:
floats on sea water
Diagram:
Mechanism
During waves the sea water overtopping on
reservoir which drop down through turbine
outlet results rotation of turbine which
generates electricity
Mechanism
Challenge of Harvesting Sea Wave Energy
A buoy is a device that floats on the surface
i. It is very expensive
of water. Buoys use the rise and fall of swells
ii. Device can wear due to rusting
(waves) to drive hydraulic pumps and
iii. Device can damage due to storm
generate electricity
created by waves or tides
Surface Attenuators
Tides
Surface attenuators is the device which
By Defn: Tides energy is the rising and falling
floats on sea water
of the ocean level
Diagram:
Causes of Tides
It causes by the gravitational pull of the
moon and to some extent the sun

Tides Energy
By Defn: Tides energy is the energy results
from the rising and falling of the ocean level.
The change of water levels that the tides
produce can be used as an energy source.
Harvest of Tides Energy

It can harvested by the following methods,
Mechanism
includes
i. During the high tide, the sea water is
i. Oscillating water columns
allowed to pass through the dam walls by
ii. Bay dam (tidal stream energy)
opening the gates, therefore the sea
water moves from the sea to the dam
Oscillating Water Columns
through turbine which rotates the turbine
The tidal power plants are constructed along
in which generates electricity
a costal where rise and fall of water can
ii. When the level of water tends to fall
enter and leave a column
during low tide by opening the gates,
Diagram:
therefore the sea water moves from the
dam to the sea through turbine which
rotates the turbine in which generates
electricity
Challenge of Harvesting Tides Energy

i. It is very expensive
ii. Device can wear due to rusting
iii. Device can damage due to storm
created by tides
Mechanism
i. During high tides water compress/push air Ocean Geothermal energy
molecules in the column which creates Geothermal comes from two words
high pressure than atmosphere pressure i. Geo means earth
results air particles blowing away from the ii. Thermal means Heat
column therefore rotates generator in By Defn: geothermal energy is the energy
which generates electricity generated by the flow of heat from the
ii. During low tides water pull air molecules earth core
in the column which creates low pressure
than atmosphere pressure results air Harvest of Geothermal Energy
particles blowing inside the column The heat energy from the earth can be
therefore rotates generator in which converted to electrical. Consider the
generates electricity diagram that follows
Diagram:
Bay Dam
The tidal power plants are constructed near
the narrow bays, where the water level rises
up and then falls down appreciably during
the tides
Diagram:

Mechanism
By pumping water to the hotter rocks, steam
drawn back to generate electricity by
rotates a turbine which rotates a turbine
which rotates a generator to produce
electricity
NB:
The turbine and propeller where are inform
of mechanical energy rotate dynamo or
generator which produce electricity

Structure of the atom
Atom
By defn: Atom is the smallest particle of an
element that has all the chemical properties
of that element. For example helium (H),
hydrogen (He), iron (Fe) etc
Molecules
By defn: molecule a group of atoms bonded
Rutherford’s planetary model of atom
together, representing the smallest fundamental Ernest Rutherford, he carried experiment to
unit of a compound that can take part in a prove if Thomson’s model was correct, and
chemical reaction. For Example water molecule final describe his finding
(H2O), hydrogen molecules (H2) i. The positively charged particles of an
atom located in the nucleus is called
Dalton’s Atomic theory protons
John Dalton developed his theory about the ii. Most of the mass of the atom located in
atom with five main points as follows the nucleus
i. Matter is made up of tiny particles called iii. Nucleus has a relative smaller volume
atom compared to whole atom
ii. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed iv. Negative charged particle moves around
iii. Atom of any one element are identical the nucleus in orbit is called electrons
and have the same chemical properties v. Electrons have very small mass compared
and the same mass to the protons
iv. Atom of a given element are different Diagram:
from those of any other element
v. Atoms of one element can combine in
simple ratio with the atom of another
element to form a compound atoms or
molecules
Modification from Dalton’s Atomic theory

i. Atom is made by sub atomic particle such
Simplified model of atom
as electrons, protons and neutrons
Chadwick established that there was
ii. Atoms can be created or destroyed
neutron in nucleus which had the same mass
iii. Atom of any one element can differ
as protons but no charge
example isotopes
Diagram:
iv. Atoms of one element can combine in
any ratio with the atom of another
element
Sub atomic particles

We have three model which describe Sub
atomic particles as follows
i. Thomson’s ‘Plum pudding’ model of atom Where:
ii. Rutherford’s planetary model of atom p = protons
iii. Simplified model of atom n = neutrons
e = electrons
Thomson’s ‘Plum pudding’ model of atom
Sir JJ Thomson carried experiment and Therefore Atoms are made up by three sub
describe atom as sphere of positive change atomic of particles namely
with negative particles called electrons i. Protons
Diagram: ii. Neutrons
iii. Electrons

Protons v. Electron are arranged so that the lowest
By defn: Protons is the positive charged shell filled first
particle located at nucleus. It denoted by
small letter p. its charge and his mass is +1.6 x Electronic configuration
10−19C and 1.6726 x 10−27kg respectively By defn: Electronic configuration is the
arrangement of electrons in different shells
Neutrons
By defn: Neutrons is the neutral charged Electronic configuration of 20 elements
particle located at nucleus. It denoted by Element Electronic
Element symbol
small letter n. its charge and his mass is 0C number configuration
and 1.6749 x 10−27 kg respectively Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Electrons Lithium Li 3 2:1
By defn: Electrons is the negative charged Beryllium Be 4 2:2
particle revolves around the nucleus. It Boron B 5 2:3
denoted by small letter e. its charge and his Carbon C 6 2:4
mass is -1.6 x 10−19C and 9.1094 x 10−31kg Nitrogen N 7 2:5
respectively Oxygen O 8 2:6
Fluorine F 9 2:7
Properties of Subatomic Particles Neon Ne 10 2:8
Particle Symbol Charge (C) Mass (Kg) Sodium Na 11 2:8:1
Proton p +1.6 x 10−19 1.6726 x 10−27 Magnesium Mg 12 2:8:2
Neutron n 0 1.6749 x 10−27 Aluminium Al 13 2:8:3
Electron e -1.6 x 10−19 9.1094 x 10−31 Silicon Si 14 2:8:4
Phosphorus P 15 2:8:5
Electron arrangement Sulphur S 16 2:8:6
Electron is orbit the nucleus in a special Chlorine Cl 17 2:8:7
regional called shells (energy levels) are Argon Ar 18 2:8:8
fixed distance from nucleus. Each shell can Potassium K 19 2:8:8:1
hold a maximum number of electrons given Calcium Ca 20 2:8:8:2
by formula (2n2)
Atomic Number
Me = (2n2) By defn: Atomic number is the number of
proton particle in nucleus of a particular
element. It denoted by capital letter Z
Where: Mathematically: Z = p
Me = maximum number of electron
n = position of shell from nucleus Mass Number
By defn: Mass number is the sum of protons
Nb: and neutrons particles. Also is called atomic
i. Electron must occupy the lowest available mass/weight. It denoted by capital letter A
shell (energy level) nearest to the nucleus Mathematically: A = Z + n
ii. Shell (energy level) can represent with
letter as K, L, M, N, O ….. and 1,2,3,4,5 … Nb:
respectively i. Magnitude of protons and electrons
iii. Table show total electron in shells particles is equal
Shells Letter Formula Total electrons ii. Mass/weight of atom located at nucleus
1 K 2 x 12 2
2 L 2 x 22 8 Example:
3 M 2x3 2 18 Atom Q has a mass number of 49 and
4 N 2x4 2 32 atomic number of 24
iv. Shell contains maximum number of (a) What is its neutrons number
electrons is called filled shell
(b) what is the number of electrons By defn: Isotopes is atoms with the same
Data given atomic number but differ in atomic mass
A = 49
Z = 24 Isotopy
n=? By defn: Isotopy is the existences of atoms
e=? with the same atomic number but differ in
Solution atomic mass. Elements which can form
(a) n = ? Isotopy is called isotopic elements
From: A = Z + n
n = A – Z = 49 – 24 = 25 Isotopic Elements and Their Isotopes
n = 25 Elements Z Isotopes A
Hydrogen - 1 1
(b) since: Z = p = e = 24 Hydrogen 1 deuterium 2
e = 24 tritium 3
Carbon - 12 12
Nuclide notation Carbon 6 Carbon - 13 13
Carbon - 14 14
Given atoms/elements (X) of a mass number
Oxygen - 16 16
(A) located as superscript while atomic
Oxygen 8 Oxygen - 17 17
number (Z) located as subscript. i.e. A
ZX Oxygen - 18 18
Example: Chlorine - 35 35
1 Chlorine 17
Hydrogen 1H Chlorine - 37 37
11 Uranium - 234 234
Boron 5B
14 Uranium 92 Uranium - 235 235
Nitrogen 7N Uranium - 238 238
16
Oxygen 8O lead - 202 202
lead - 206 206
lead 82
Example lead - 207 207
The following information is about a lead - 208 208
potassium atom
Number of electrons 19 Nb:
Mass number 39 i. The different isotopes always differ by one
(a) work out atomic number and neutron neutron (1 10n)
number Isotopes of particular element/atom; the
(b) give the nuclide notation largest the mass number (A) the heaviest of
(c) show the nucleus representation element and vice versa
(d) draw electronic configuration of atom
Solution Example
(a) atomic number = electron = 19 State the following number of protons,
Neutrons = 39 – 19 = 20 neutrons and electrons in the following
(b) 39
19K isotopes
i. 126C
(c) 19
p
ii. 146C
20 n iii. 31H
(d)
iv. 8738Sr
v. 23892U
Solution
i. Mass number = 12
Protons = atomic number = 6
Electrons = Protons = 6
Neutrons = 12 – 6 = 6
ii. Mass number = 14
Isotopes Protons = atomic number = 6

Electrons = Protons = 6 Beryllium 4 9
Neutrons = 14 – 6 = 8 Boron 5 10
iii. Mass number = 3 Carbon 6 12
Protons = atomic number = 1 Nitrogen 7 14
Electrons = Protons = 1 Oxygen 8 16
Neutrons = 3 – 1 = 2 Fluorine 9 19
iv. Mass number = 87 Neon 10 20.2
Protons = atomic number = 38 Sodium 11 23
Electrons = Protons = 38 Magnesium 12 24.3
Neutrons = 87 – 38 = 49 Aluminium 13 27
v. Mass number = 238 Silicon 14 28.1
Protons = atomic number = 92 Phosphorus 15 31
Electrons = Protons = 92
Sulphur 16 32
Neutrons = 238 – 92 = 146
Chlorine 17 35.5
Argon 18 39.9
Example
Potassium 19 39.1
An isotope of carbon has a mass number of
Calcium 20 40.1
13 and an atomic number of 6
i. Write its nuclide notation
ii. How many neutrons does it have Example
iii. How many electrons does it have Calculate relative atomic mass of chlorine
which two isotopes 35 37
17Cl (75%) and 17Cl (25%)
Solution
Solution
i. 136C (35𝑥75)+(37𝑥25)
ii. Neutrons = 13 – 6 = 7 RAM = 100
3550
iii. Electrons = Protons = atomic number = 6 RAM = = 35.5
100
RAM = 35.5
Relative Atomic Mass
By defn: Relative atomic mass of the Example
element is the average mass of the element Calculate relative atomic mass of neon
1
relative to 12th the mass of one carbon-12 which three isotopes 20 21
10Ne (90.5%), 10Ne (0.3%)
22
atom and 10Ne (9.2%)
Mathematically Solution
(20𝑥90.5)+(21𝑥0.3)+(22𝑥9.2)
𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 RAM =
RAM = 𝟏
100
1810+6.3+202.4
𝐭𝐡 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐧−𝟏𝟐 RAM =
𝟏𝟐 100
2018.7
RAM = = 20.187
100
Nb: RAM = 20.187
i. Average because other elements have
isotope
ii. Relative atomic mass is the mass of atom
by compare by carbon-12 (arbitrarily
chosen as 12 units which is not actual
value)
iii. Carbon was chosen as standard
atom/reference
Atomic numbers and relative atomic masses

of first 20 elements of the periodic table
Element Atomic RAM
number
Hydrogen 1 1
Helium 2 4
Lithium 3 6.9
Periodic classifiCation iii. He not include noble gas had not been
Periodic Table discovered
By Defn: Periodic table is the method of iv. He was left gaps in his table predicting
display chemical elements in a table format that there were existing element yet to
been discovered at the time
ModifiCation of Periodic table
It was developed after several Modern periodic table
modifiCations, consider the follows Be defn: Modern periodic table Is a table of
i. Contribution of John Newlands elements arranged systematically according
ii. Contribution of Dimitri Mendeleev to their increasing atomic number
Groups I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Contribution of John Newlands 1 1
1H
4
2He
In 1866, a British chemist John Newlands he
Periods
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
2 3Li 4Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 10Ne
arrange elements in order of their increasing
23 24 27 28 31 32 36
3 11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si 15P 16S 18Ar
35.5
atomic masses in columns according to 17Cl
39 40
Octaves Law. He notice that an element 4 19K 20Ca
tended to display characteristics similar to
the 8th in front of it Modern periodic law
H Li Be B C N O It law states that
F Na Mg Al Si P S “The properties of elements are a periodic
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe function of their atomic numbers”
Nb: Nb:
i. During this time noble gas had not been The periodic recurrence of similar properties
discovered when elements are arranged according to
ii. He grouped certain elements of different their atomic numbers is called periodicity
characteristics example oxygen and iron
iii. Grouping certain elements of different Groups
characteristics cause his ideas to rejected By defn: Group is the Vertical column with
the same outer most shell
Contribution of Dimitri Mendeleev
In 1869, a Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev Metals Non Metals
he arrange elements in order of their
increasing atomic masses and same I II III IV V VI VII VIII
properties in columns according to Periodic
Nobel Gases
Alkali metals
Law
Alkali Earth
Transitional
Halogen
metals
Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Elements
period
1 H
2 Li Be B C N O F
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
4 K Ca - - - - -
Ti, V, Cr,M,
Fe,Co,Ni Where:
5 Cu Zn - -
A
Se Br
= metalloids
s
Alkali metals
Periodic Law By defn: Alkali metal is the group one metals
It states that react with water to form alkaline (base)
“The properties of elements are a periodic solution
function of their relative atomic masses”
Nb:
Nb: Hydrogen is placed in group one but is a not
i. Vertical column is called Group a alkali metal
ii. horizontal column is called Period
Alkali earth metals v. Ionization Energy: Ionization Energy is the
By defn: Alkali earth metal is the group one energy required to remove electrons
metals but is less reactive and most found at from an atom or ion
the earth vi. Atomic Radius: Atomic Radius distance
between the nucleus of an atom and
Transition metals the outermost stable shell
By defn: Transition metals is metals between vii. Reactivity: Reactivity is refers to how an
group two and three with high density and atom of a given elements reacts with
melting point, often act as catalyst and most other substance. Reaction can be likely
of them form coloured compound or vigorously
Metalloids Trends across periods from left to right

By defn: Metalloids is the elements with i. Atomic radii of elements is decrease from
characteristics of metal and non-metal left to right
ii. Elements of Left side of periodic table
Nb: show metallic properties while right show
i. Metals are more ductile (drawn out into a non-metallic properties
thin wire and deformed without losing iii. Electronegativity increases from left to
toughness) than non-metals right
ii. Non-metals are more brittle (hard but iv. Number electrons and protons increase
liable to break easily) than metals from left to right
v. Boiling point decrease from left to right
Halogens
By defn: Halogens is the group seven General group trends down the group
elements which react with water to form i. Atomic radii increase (Reason: increase
salts number of shell)
ii. Metallic properties decrease
Nobel gases iii. Density increase
By defn: Nobel gas is the group eight iv. Melting point decrease (Reason: Metallic
elements whereby all their shells are properties decrease)
completely filled up. Also called inert gases v. Electronegativity decrease
because they do not react to form vi. ionization energy decrease (Reason:
compound atomic radii increase
Periods Specific trends in the group I

By defn: Periods is the horizontal column with Alkali metal consist five metals, namely
the same number of shells. Periods are lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
numbered from I to VII rubidium (Rb) and caesium (Cs)
General Periodic Trends Group I: Alkali Metal

Trends observation include variation in
Electroneg
Ionization
i. Melting Point: Melting Point is

(G/Cm3)
Melting
Atomic
Density
Energy
Radius
Name
ativity
temperature at which solid melts to form

Point
liquid
ii. Boiling Point: Boiling Point is temperature Lithium 152 526 180 0.54 1.0
at which liquid boil to form gas Sodium 186 504 98 0.97 0.9
iii. Density: Density is the degree of Potassium 231 425 64 0.86 0.8
compactness(mass per unit volume) of a Rubidium 244 410 39 1.5 0.8
substance Caesium 262 380 29 1.9 0.7
iv. Electronegativity: Electronegativity is the
ability of an atom to attract an electron Nb:
i. Francium (Fr) is also alkali metal but not
usual included in group

ii. Lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (K)
all react very readily with water or air Why placed in group II
always Stored under water Because these elements have two electrons
each in their outer most shell
Why placed in group I
Because these elements have one electron Physical Properties of Alkali Earth Metal
each in their outer most shell i. They are good conductors of heat and
electricity
Properties of Lithium, sodium and potassium ii. They are harder metals than those in
Consider the physical and chemical Group I
properties iii. They are silvery grey in colour when pure
and clean
Physical Properties of group I iv. They are tarnish in colour when left in air
i. They are good conductors of heat and due the formation of respective metal
electricity oxide
ii. They are soft metals
iii. They have low density Chemical Properties of Alkali Earth Metal
iv. They have shiny surface when fresh cut i. They burn in oxygen or air to form white
solid oxides
Chemical Properties of group I Metal + oxygen → metal oxide
i. They burn in oxygen or air to form white ii. They react less vigorously with water to
solid oxides give the alkaline solution and hydrogen
Metal + oxygen → metal oxide gas
These oxides dissolve in water to form Metal + water → metal hydroxide +
alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide hydrogen
Metal oxide + water → metal hydroxide iii. The alkali earth metals become more
reactive down the group
ii. they react vigorously with water to give
the alkaline solution and hydrogen gas
Metal + water → metal hydroxide +
hydrogen
Specific trends in the group II

Alkali earth metal consist six metals, namely
Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium
(Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba) and Radium
((Ra)
Group II: Alkali Earth Metal

Electroneg
Ionization
(G/Cm3)
Melting
Atomic
symbol
Density
Energy
Radius
ativity
Point
Be 112 899 14,849 1280 1.5

Mg 160 738 7730 651 1.2
Ca 197 590 4741 851 1.0
Sr 215 549 4207 800 1.0
Ba 217 503 3420 850 0.9
Ra
Nb:
Magnesium and calcium are usually
available in school laboratories

Bonding, formula and nomenclature Sodium ion and chlorine ion form sodium
Chemical Bonding (Bonding) chloride crystal
By defn: Bonding is a method whereby Diagram:
atoms become more stable by donating,
gaining or sharing electrons
Or
By defn: Bonding is a force of attraction that
holds atoms together
Nb:
i. Atom become stable either by loose
electrons, gain electrons or by sharing
electrons Nb:
ii. Atom which loose electrons called Molecules of electrovalent compounds are
Cation Not Discrete (electrons are not
iii. Cation is denoted by positive charge localized/attached to particular ions
iv. Atom which gain electrons called anion Cation). Group of Cation surround an anion
v. Anion is denoted by negative charge and Group of anion surround an Cation this
vi. Metal always form Cation cause ions to move free around each other
vii. Non Metal always form anion when in molten or solution thus why ionic
viii. Any charged atom (Cation and anion) is conduct electricity
called Ion
ix. Ion stable atom either by loose Formation of magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
electrons, gain electrons or by sharing On forming magnesium chloride,
electrons magnesium lose two electrons to form
Cation (magnesium ion) and chlorine gain
Types of bonding one electron each electron to form two
i. Ionic or electrovalent bond anion (chlorine ion)
ii. Covalent bond Diagram:
Ionic or electrovalent bond

By defn: Ionic or electrovalent bond is the
body formed by transfer of electrons from
one atom to another
Or
By defn: Ionic or electrovalent bond is
chemical bond between Cation and anion
Formation of sodium chloride (NaCL) crystal

On forming sodium chloride, sodium lose
electrons to form Cation (sodium ion) and
chlorine gain electron to form anion
(chlorine ion)
Diagram: Magnesium ion and chlorine ion form
magnesium chloride crystal
Diagram:
Properties of electrovalent bond

i. Soluble in water
ii. Conduct electricity when in solution or
molten
iii. Usually crystalline solid at room
temperature
iv. Have high boiling point
v. Insoluble in organic (non-polar) solvent
like ethanol, either, benzene, kerosene
etc
They share to form molecule of hydrogen
Covalent bond chloride gas
By defn: Covalent bond is a bond formed Diagram:
by sharing electrons between atoms
Example of covalent bond compound

i. Formation of oxygen gas from oxygen
atoms (O2)
ii. Hydrogen and chlorine to form
hydrogen chloride molecule (HCl)
iii. Hydrogen and hydrogen to form
hydrogen gas (H2)
iv. Formation of chlorine gas (Cl2) Hydrogen and hydrogen to form hydrogen
v. Formation of methane (CH4) gas (H2)
vi. Formation of Ammonia (NH3) Consider the two Hydrogen atoms, each
vii. Formation of Carbon dioxide (CO2) need one electron to be stable
Diagram:
Formation of oxygen gas (O2)
Consider the two Oxygen atoms, each
need two electron to be stable
Diagram:
They share to form molecule of Hydrogen

gas
Diagram:
They share to form molecule of oxygen gas
Diagram:
Formation of chlorine gas (Cl2)

Consider the two chlorine atoms, each
Hydrogen and chlorine to form hydrogen need one electron to be stable
chloride molecule (HCl) Diagram:
Consider the hydrogen and chloride atoms,
each need two electron to be stable
Diagram:

They share to form molecule of chlorine gas

Diagram:
Formation of methane (CH4) Formation of Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Consider the carbon and hydrogen atoms, Consider the carbon and oxygen atoms,
each need one electron to be stable each need one electron to be stable
Diagram: Diagram:
They share to form molecule of carbon

They share to form molecule of methane dioxide gas
gas Diagram:
Diagram:
Nb:
i. Covalent bond usually formed between
non metals
ii. Molecules of covalent compound are
discrete or distinct (their electrons remain
bound together in molecules and their
Formation of Ammonia (NH3) electron are not free to form bond with
The hydrogen atom need 0ne electron to other atoms)
be stable and nitrogen atom three electrons
to be stable Properties of covalent bond
Diagram: i. Its melting point and boiling point are low
ii. Usually exist as liquid or gas at room
temperature
iii. Do not conduct electricity
iv. Soluble in organic solvent
v. Insoluble in water
They share to form molecule of ammonia Valency

Diagram: By defn: Valency is the electron number of
atom which donates, share or receive in
formation of chemical bond
Or

By defn: Valency is the combining capacity ii. Oxidation number Ions consist of only one
of an element atom is equal to the charge of ions.
Example
Table shows Valency of atoms Ions Symbol Oxidation number
Oxidation Sodium Na+ +1
Atoms Z Valency
state Aluminum Al 3+ +3
Hydrogen 1 +1 1 Iron (II) Fe 2+ +2
Helium 2 0 0 Iron (III) Fe3+ +3
Lithium 3 +1 1 Oxide O 2- -2
Beryllium 4 +2 2
Boron 5 +3 3 iii. Hydrogen has oxidation number of +1 in
Carbon 6 4 4 most compound but in compound of
Nitrogen 7 -1 1 most reactive metal is -1
Oxygen 8 -2 2 iv. Oxidation number of oxygen is -2 in most
Fluorine 9 -1 1 compound except
Neon 10 0 0 a. In peroxide e.g. H2O2, its oxidation
Sodium 11 +1 1 number is -1
Magnesium 12 +2 2 b. If bonded with fluorine form F2O, its
Aluminium 13 +3 3 oxidation number is +2 and fluorine is -1
Silicon 14 +4 4 v. Oxidation number should be consistent
Phosphorus 15 -3 3 with the conservation of charge
Sulphur 16 -2 2 Sum of left side sum of right-
=
Chlorine 17 -1 1 charge side charge
Argon 18 0 0
Example
Potassium 19 +1 1
Find oxidation number of chlorine in the
Calcium 20 +2 2
compound KClO3
Data
Nb:
Oxidation number of KClO3 = 0
i. Atoms with positive valency is metals
Oxidation number of K = +1
ii. Atoms with negative valency is metals
Oxidation number of 0 = -2
iii. Atoms with 0 valency is noble gas
Oxidation number of Cl = n
iv. Atom with neutral valency is metalloid
Solution
v. Outmost shell is called valency shell
Charge of K + n + (3 x O) = Charge of KCO3
vi. Some element have more than one
1 + n + (3 x -2) = 0
valency example iron have +2 and +3
1 + n + -6 = 0
valency, lead have +2 and +3 valency,
n + 1+ -6 = 0
copper have +1 and +2 valency etc
n-5=0
n = +5
Oxidation state
By defn: Oxidation state is the number of
Radicals
electrons a particular element has lost
By defn: Radical is a group of atoms with
shared or gained on forming compound
unpaired electrons
Or
Rules to assign oxidation number
By defn: Radical is a group of elements
i. Free element has zero oxidation number.
which act like a single atom in forming
Example
compound
Element Symbol Oxidation number
Nitrogen N2 0
Table shows radical and its valency
Hydrogen H2 0
Radical Symbol Oxidation
Sodium Na 0
valency
state
Oxygen O2 0
Potassium K 0

Nitrate NO3- 1 -1 Step 3: Interchange the valencies of W and
Nitrite NO2- 1 -1 X and write them as subscripts
Sulphate SO4 2- 2 -2 Ca 2+ Cl 1-
Hydrogen- HSO4 1- 1 -1
Sulphate Ca 1 Cl 2
Carbonate CO32- 2 -2 The formula of calcium chloride is CaCl2
Hydrogen HCO3 -1 1 -1
Carbonate Example
Hydroxide OH1- 1 -1 Give the formula for aluminium sulphate
Phosphate PO4 3- 3 -3 Step 1: Al SO4
Thiosulphate S2O3 2- 2 -2 Step 2: Al 3 SO42
Cyanide CN - 1 -1 Step 3: Al3 SO42
Permanganate MnO 4- 4 -4
2 3
Dichromate Cr2O72- 2 -2
Al2(SO4)3
Ammium NH4 + 1 +1
The chemical formula is Al2(SO4)3
Chemical formulae
Types of chemical formulae
By defn: Chemical formula is presentation of
There are three types includes
proportion of the elements present in a
i. Empirical Formula
chemical compound by symbol
ii. Molecular Formula
iii. Structural Formula
Nb:
i. Cation should written before anions
Empirical Formula
ii. Radical must be treated as a unit
By den: Empirical Formula Is the formula
iii. Radical is in brackets
which represents the simplest ratio of the
iv. Valency 1 does not written in the formula
atoms or ions in a compound
v. If valency are equal there no need for the
Or
exchange and therefore not written
By den: Empirical Formula Is the simplest
formula which expresses its composition by
Steps To Write Chemical Formulae
mass
There are three main steps, includes
For Example
Step 1: Write the symbols of the elements
i. CH2 is contains two atom of hydrogen
and radicals
and one atom of carbon
W X
ii. H2O is contains two atom of hydrogen
Step 2: Write down the ions used with their
and one atom of oxygen
valences as superscripts
Wm Xn
Calculations involves Empirical Formula
Step 3: Interchange the valences of W and
From composition by mass empirical formula
X and write them as subscripts
can be calculated as follows steps
Wm Xn
Step 1: Write symbol of each element
Step 2: Obtain the mass/percentage
Wn Xm
Step 3: Divide the mass/percentage by its
The formula is WnXm
RAM
Step 4: Divide each of the values obtained
Example
in step 3 by lowest value among
Give the formula of calcium chloride
them to get smallest value
Step 1: Write the symbols of the elements
Step 5: the values obtained in step 4
and radicals
Ca Cl
Nb:
Step 2: Write down the ions used with their
i. Total Percentage composition of atoms in
valences as superscripts
a molecule of the compound should be
Ca2+ Cl1-
100%

ii. Total mass composition of atoms in a
molecule (relative Molecular mass 1 1
(RMM)) should be equal to sum of RAM of Approximate to
5 1 1
all atoms in a molecule of the compound whole number
iii. Hydrocarbon is the compound formed Empirical Formula Is MgO
by carbons and hydrogen
Molecular Formula
Example By defn: Molecular Formula Is the formula
Hydrocarbon contains 20% by mass of which shows actual number of each
hydrogen and has a molar mass of 30g. different atom in a molecule
Calculate the empirical formula of the Or
compound By defn: Molecular Formula Is the multiple
Data of Empirical Formula
RAM of H = 1 Mathematically
RAM of C = 12 Molecular multiple of Empirical
Percentage of H = 20% =
formula Formula
Percentage of C = 100% - 20% = 80%
RMM of hydrocarbon = 30g Molecular = n(Empirical Formula)
Solution formula
Steps
1 Element C H Nb:
2 Percentage 20 80 i. n is whole number
Divide percentage 20 80 ii. if n = 1, molecular formula is equal to
by RAM 12 1 empirical formula
3
For Example
6.7 20 CH2 = 1(CH2) = empirical formula
Divide by smallest 6.7 20 C2H4 = 2(CH2) = molecular formula
value 6.7 6.7 C3H6 = 3(CH2) = molecular formula
4
iii. RMM = n(sum of RAM of all atoms)
1 3.125
Approximate to Example
5 1 3
whole number Hydrocarbon contains 20% by mass of
Empirical Formula Is CH3 hydrogen and has a molar mass of 30g.
Calculate the empirical formula of the
Example compound
What is the empirical formula for a Data
compound of mass 8.1g if contains 4.9g of RAM of H = 1
magnesium and 3.2g of oxygen RAM of C = 12
Data Percentage of H = 20%
RAM of Mg = 24 Percentage of C = 100% - 20% = 80%
RAM of O = 16 RMM of hydrocarbon = 30g
Mass of Mg = 4.9g Solution
Mass of O = 3.2g Steps
Mass of compound = 8.1g 1 Element C H
Solution 2 Percentage 20 80
Steps Divide percentage 20 80
1 Element Mg O by RAM 12 1
2 Percentage 4.9 3.2 3
Divide percentage 4.9 3.2 6.7 20
by RAM 24 16 Divide by smallest 6.7 20
3
value 6.7 6.7
0.2 0.2 4
Divide by smallest 0.2 0.2 1 3.125
4
value 0.2 0.2 5 Approximate to 1 3
whole number Solution
Empirical Formula Is CH3 Cation is Sodium
Anion is Chlorine and become chlor-ide
From: RMM = n(sum of RAM of all atoms) Its name is Sodium Chloride
30 = n(C + 3H)
30 = n(12 + 3x1) Example
30 = n(12 + 3) What is the name of the compound with
30 = 15n formula FeCl3?
n=2 Solution
Cation is Iron
Then: Anion is Chlorine and become chlor-ide
Molecular formula = n(Empirical Formula) But: find oxidation state of Iron (multivalent)
Molecular formula = 2(CH3) FeCl3 = 0
Molecular formula = C2H6 Fe + 3 x -1 = 0
Fe - 3 = 0
Structural Formula Fe = +3
By defn: Structural Formula Is the formula Then: Iron named as Iron (III)
which show arrangement of atoms in Its name is Iron (Iii) Chloride
molecule
Table shows Binary ionic Compounds
Nomenclature Symbol Name
By defn: Nomenclature is the systematic CuS Copper (II) Sulphide
way of assign names to item MgO Magnesium oxide
AlCl3 Aluminium Chloride
Binary Inorganic Compounds MnO2 Manganese (IV) oxide
By defn: Binary Inorganic Compound is the
compound formed by two ions Binary covalent Compounds
By defn: Binary covalent Compounds is the
Types of Binary Inorganic Compounds compound formed by two non-metal
There are two types include
i. Binary ionic Compounds Steps for Naming Binary Covalent
ii. Binary covalent Compounds Compounds
Steps used to name include
Binary ionic Compounds i. Name first the element
By defn: Binary ionic Compounds is the ii. Name second element ending with ”Ide”
compound formed by metal and non-metal iii. If more than one elements use prefixes to
indicate the number of atoms of each
Binary Ionic Compound Nomenclature element
By defn: Binary Inorganic Compound
Nomenclature is the systematic way of Prefixes to indicate the number of atoms
assign names to Binary Ionic Compound
Number of atom Prefix
1 mono-
Steps For Naming Binary ionic Compounds
2 di-
Steps used to name include
3 tri-
i. Name first the Cation
4 tetra-
ii. Second Name the anion
5 penta-
iii. Anion should end with ”Ide”
iv. Multivalent which form more than one 6 hexa-
valency should distinguished by starting 7 hepta-
ions in the compound 8 octa-
9 nona-
Example 10 deca-
What is the name of the compound with
formula NaCl? Example
What is the name of the compound with Fluorspar
Calcium fluoride CaF2
formula PCl3? (fluorite)
Solution Calcium
Lime water CaOH
First element has one Phosphorus atom hydroxide
Second element has three chlorine atoms
Chlorine become chlor-ide Nb:
Its name is Phosphororus Trichloride Common name can vary from one place to
another
Example
What is the name of the compound with
formula N2O4?
Solution
First element has two Nitrogen atoms
Second element has four oxygen atoms
Oxygen become ox-ide
Its name is Dinitrogen Tetraoxide
Some Binary Covalent Compounds

Formula Names
CO2 Carbon dioxide
SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride
N2O5 Dinitrogen pentaoxide
NO Nitrogen monoxide
CO Carbon monoxide
HCl Hydrogen chloride
Chemical names of common substance

Chemical names of common substance Is
the name of substance we encounter daily
to give accurate description of the
composition of a substance. Include
Common Chemical
Chemical name
name symbol
Water Water H2O
Common
Sodium chloride NaCl
salt
Sugar Sucrose C12H22O11
Soda ash Sodium carbonate NaCO3
Acetyl/salicyclic
Aspirin C9H8O4
acid
Sodium
Baking
hydrogencarbona NaHCO3
soda
te
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid C6H8O6
Calcium
Chalk CaCO3
carbonate
Magnesium
Asbestos MgSiO3
silicate
Plaster of
paris Calcium sulphate CaSO4
(POP)
Calcium
Marble CaCO3
carbonate

FORM THREE NOTES i. Reactants (A and B) are placed on the
Chemical Equations left-hand side of the equation
First we study chemical equation let study ii. Products (C and D) are placed on the
chemical reaction first right-hand side of the equation
iii. Reactants and Product separated by an
Chemical reaction arrow either single (→) or double (⇌)
By defn: Chemical reaction is event or which means Produce, Yield and form
process in which chemical substances iv. Each side of chemical reaction Reactant
change into different substance and products separated by plus (+) sign
Or v. Number of reactants and products do
By defn: Chemical reaction is event or not necessary to be the same
process in which atoms and molecules vi. Chemical equation written first in word
rearrange themselves to form new equation and second in formula equation
compound vii. State symbol must be included in
chemical equation inside parentheses ()
Nb: which is
i. Chemical substance (atoms and (a) Solid (s) – substance is solid state
molecules) reacting is called reactants (b) Liquid (l) - substance is liquid state
ii. New compound (substance) formed is (c) Gas (g) - substance is gas state
called products (d) Aqueous (aq) – substance dissolved
iii. Characteristics of Product formed are in water
different from the original reactants
Types of chemical equation
Characteristics of chemical reactions There are three types of chemical equation
i. One or more new chemical reactions are include
formed i. Word equation
ii. Energy is taken in or given out during ii. Molecular(formula) equation
reactions iii. Ionic equation
iii. Reaction may be reversible or irreversible
reaction Writing and balancing equation
Chemical equation must written according
Irreversible reaction to law of conservation of matter which state
By defn: Irreversible reaction is the reaction that
proceeds only in one (forward) direction. It “In a chemical reaction, the total mass of
goes forward direction to form product. It products equal to the total mass of the
denoted by single allow (→) reactants”
Reversible reaction Steps to write simple chemical equation

By defn: Reversible reaction is the reaction The follows includes the steps used to write
whereby proceed both direction forward and balance simple chemical equation
and backward direction. It goes either i. Write equation in word
forward direction to form product then ii. Write equation by using symbol
backward direction to form original iii. Balance the equation
reactants. It denoted by double allow (⇌) Make sure the total atoms of products
equal to the total atoms of the reactants
Chemical Equation iv. Include the state symbol
By defn: chemical equation is a short way of
describe chemical reaction, when reactant Example
changes to product Solid calcium burns in chlorine to form solid
A+B→C+D calcium chloride. Write an equation for the
reaction
Solution
Nb:
i. Write equation in word
Calcium + chlorine →calcium chloride
ii. Write equation by using symbol By defn: Combination reaction is reaction
Ca + Cl2 →CaCl2 whereby two or more substances combine
iii. Balance the equation to form a single more complex compound
Ca + Cl2 →CaCl2 (Balanced) Example:
iv. Include the state symbol A + B → AB
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) →CaCl2(s)
Example
Example Ammonia gas may be made from nitrogen
Hydrogen chloride is formed when and hydrogen in an industrial process
hydrogen burns in chlorine. Write an Chemical equation
equation for the reactions Nitrogen + hydrogen → Ammonia gas
Solution N2(g) + H2(g) → NH3(g)
i. Write equation in word
Hydrogen + chlorine → hydrogen chloride Example
ii. Write equation by using symbol If lead (IV) oxide is slight heated and then
H2 + Cl2 → HCl lowered into a gas jar of sulphur dioxide, the
iii. Balance the equation two compound combine to form one new
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl (Balanced) compound Lead (II) sulphate
iv. Include the state symbol Chemical equation
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) Lead (IV) oxide + sulphur dioxide → Lead (II)
sulphate
Example PbO2 (s) + SO2 (g) → PbSO4(s)
Zinc dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid to
form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. Write Decomposition reaction
balanced chemical reaction By defn: Decomposition reaction is reaction
Solution whereby single compound splitting to form
i. Write equation in word its components parts or simpler substance
Zinc n + dilute hydrochloric acid → zinc often on heating
chloride + hydrogen gas Example:
ii. Write equation by using symbol AB → A + B
Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
iii. Balance the equation Types of decomposition reaction
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 (g) (Balanced) There are three types include
iv. Include the state symbol i. Catalytic decomposition reaction
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) ii. Electrolytic decomposition reaction
iii. Thermal decomposition reaction
Example
Balance the following chemical equation Catalytic decomposition reaction
and show the reactants and reactants Catalyst is introduce to alter the rate of a
i. CaCO3(s) + 2HCL (aq) → CaCL2(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) chemical reaction
ii. H2O(l) + O2(g) → H 2 O2
Electrolytic decomposition reaction
Types of chemical reaction Aqueous solution or molten compound
The follows are types of chemical reactions, exposed in electrical current to
includes decomposition compound
i. Combination or synthesis reaction
ii. Decomposition reaction Thermal decomposition reaction
iii. Displacement reaction Heat used to decompose compound
iv. Precipitation (double displacement)
reaction Example
v. Redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction Potassium chlorate will readily decompose
when heated with manganese (IV) oxide as
Combination or synthesis reaction a catalyst to produce oxygen and
potassium chloride
Chemical equation By defn: Precipitation reaction is the
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Potassium chlorate →
oxygen + reaction whereby two soluble compound
𝑀𝑛𝑂2
combine to give a soluble compound and
potassium chloride
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 precipitate (insoluble compound)
→
2KClO3 (s) 𝑀𝑛𝑂2 3O2 (g) + 2KCl (s) Example:
AB(aq) + CD(aq) → AC(s) + BD(aq)
Example
When lead (II) nitrate crystals are heated, Example
they decompose with a cracking sound to White aqueous silver nitrate added to
give off nitrogen (IV) oxide gas which is aqueous solution of sodium chloride, a
brown in colour and oxygen gas. The solid white precipitate of silver chloride is formed
left behind is lead oxide which is yellow in Chemical equation
colour Silver nitrate + sodium chloride → silver
Chemical equation chloride + sodium nitrate
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Lead nitrate → lead oxide + nitrogen (IV) AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
oxide + oxygen
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 Example
2Pb(NO3)2 (s) → 2PbO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
White aqueous solution of sodium sulphate is
mixed with an aqueous solution of barium
Example chloride; a solid barium sulphate is formed
White silver chloride breaks down in the Chemical equation
presence of light to give tiny black crystals Sodium sulphate + barium chloride→ barium
of silver and chlorine gas sulphate + sodium chloride
Chemical equation Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl
𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Silver chloride → silver + chlorine (aq)
𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2AgCl (s) → 2Ag (s) + Cl2 (g)
Redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction
Displacement reaction By defn: Redox reaction is a reaction where
By defn: Displacement reaction is a reaction one substance oxidized and one is reduced
whereby a more active substance takes
place of a less active substance in a Term used
compound i. Reduction: Reduction is reaction where
Example: the oxygen removed from substance
AB + C → AC + B Or
Reduction: Reduction is reaction where
Example the hydrogen added to a substance
When zinc combines with hydrochloric acid, Or
the zinc takes place of hydrogen Reduction: Reduction is reaction where
Chemical equation electrons gained
Zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + Or
hydrogen Reduction: Reduction is reaction where
Zn(s) + HCL (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) oxidation number (state) lost
Example ii. Reducing agent : Reducing agent is the

When iron reacts with copper (II) sulphate, substance which removes of oxygen from
copper is replaced from the copper that substance
sulphate Or
Chemical equation Reducing agent: Reducing agent is the
Iron + copper (II) sulphate → iron (II) substance which transfers of hydrogen to
sulphate + copper another substance
Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
iii. Oxidation: Oxidation is reaction where
Precipitation (double displacement) the addition of oxygen from substance
reaction Or
Oxidation: Oxidation is reaction where Reducing agent: iron metal cause chlorine
the remove of hydrogen to a substance to gain electrons
Or
Oxidation: Oxidation is reaction where Ionic equation
electrons lost By defn: Ionic equation is the equation
Or whereby compound in aqueous solution or
Oxidation: Oxidation is reaction where ionic compound in molten state is written as
oxidation state (number) gained dissociated ions spectator ions are removed
Or
iv. Oxidizing agent: Oxidizing agent is the By defn: Ionic equation is the equation
substance which removes of hydrogen whereby spectator ions are omitted
from that substance
Or Spectator Ions
Oxidizing agent: Oxidizing agent is the By defn: spectator ions are ions do not
substance which transfers of oxygen to change their valency in the reaction
another substance Or
By defn: spectator ions are ions their
Example Valency remain unchanged in a chemical
When copper (II) oxide is heated in reaction
hydrogen it is reduced to copper metal
while the hydrogen gas is oxidized to water Steps to write ionic equation
Chemical equation The follows includes the steps used to write
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Copper (II) oxide + hydrogen → copper + ionic equation
water i. Write equation in word
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ii. Write equation by using symbol
CuO(s) + H2 (g) → Cu(s) + H2O (l) iii. Balance the equation
iv. Split all soluble ions compound into
Oxidation: copper (II) oxide loses oxygen to individual ions
form copper metal Nb: insoluble ionic compound should not
Oxidizing agent: hydrogen (takes away be split into ions
oxygen) v. insert state symbol
Reduction: hydrogen gains oxygen to form vi. cancel out spectator ions and write the
water net ionic equation
Reducing agent: copper (II) oxide loses
oxygen Example
Consider the reaction of silver nitrate with
Example an aqueous solution of calcium chloride
When iron metal is heated in a stream of Ionic equation
chlorine, it is oxidized while chlorine is Silver nitrate + calcium chloride → silver
reduced. The product is Iron (III) chloride chloride + calcium nitrate
Chemical equation
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Iron + chlorine → Iron (III) chloride AgNO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) → AgCl(s) +
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
fe(s) + 3Cl2 (g) → FeCL3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq)
Since is not involve oxygen and hydrogen,
let us looking electrons and charge Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 + Ca2+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
fe(s) + 3Cl2 (g) → Fe3+(aq) + CL-(aq)
fe(s) - 6e → Fe (aq)
3+
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
3Cl2 (g) + 6e → CL-(aq)
+ Ca2+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Oxidation: iron metal loses electron
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
Oxidizing agent: chlorine cause iron metal
to loose electrons
Example
Reduction: chlorine gain electrons

Write the net ionic equation for the reaction
of barium chloride with sodium sulphate
Ionic equation
Barium chloride + sodium sulphate →
barium sulphate + sodium chloride
BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4(s) + NaCl (aq)
Ba2+(aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+(aq) + SO42- (aq) →

BaSO4(s) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+(aq) + SO42- (aq) →

BaSO4(s) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4(s)
Example
Write the net ionic equation for the reaction
between dilute hydrochloric acid and
aqueous sodium hydroxide
Ionic equation
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide →
sodium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → Na+ (aq)

+ Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → Na+ (aq)

+ Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

Hardness of Water Ion exchanger is containers full of small
By defn: Hardness of water is the water beads which consists special plastic called
contaminated with calcium and ion exchange resign
magnesium compounds Diagram
Causes of water hardness

It caused by chemical compound includes
i. Calcium sulphate
ii. Calcium hydrogen carbonate
iii. Magnesium sulphate
iv. Magnesium hydrogen carbonate
Types of water hardness

It classified into two types include
i. Temporary hard water
ii. Permanent hard water
Temporary hard water When tap water (temporary hard water)

By defn: temporary hard water is the hard with calcium ions flow into ion exchanger,
water contaminated with hydrogen the calcium from temporary hard water
carbonates of calcium and magnesium replace sodium ions in the ion exchanger to
be used in the household as soft water
How to soft temporary hard water Diagram
Permanent hard water soften by the follows
methods, includes
i. Boiling
ii. Distillation
iii. Adding sodium carbonate (washing
soda)
iv. Use of ion exchangers
Boiling
Temporary hard water softens by boiling to
promote formation of carbonate from
hydrogen carbonate. Precipitate
(substance to be deposited in solid form
from a solution) of carbonate filtered and
Nb:
leaves water soft
When all sodium ions replaced, ion
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s)
exchanger cannot remove hardness any
more. This is resolved by regeneration of the
Distillation
resign by pouring a concentrated solution of
Temporary hard water by separate water
sodium chloride into exchanger
and it’s contaminated by using their boiling
points. It also give soft water even if is more
Permanent hard water
expensive
By defn: permanent hard water is the hard
water contaminated with calcium and
Adding sodium carbonate
magnesium sulphate or chloride. This
Sodium carbonate is added to precipitate
mineral become more soluble as the
calcium carbonate
temperature rises
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → CaCO3(s) +
NaHCO3(aq)
How to soft permanent hard water
Permanent hard water soften by the follows
Use of ion exchangers
methods, includes

i. Distillation When sodium ions replaced and ion
ii. Adding sodium carbonate (washing exchanger cannot remove hardness any
soda) more. This is resolved by regeneration of the
iii. Use of ion exchangers resign by pouring a concentrated solution of
sodium chloride into exchanger
Distillation
Permanent hard water by separate water Advantage of hard water
and it’s contaminated by using their boiling i. It tastes better due to dissolved
points. It also give soft water even if is more compound
expensive ii. It provide useful calcium for growth of
bones and teeth
Adding sodium carbonate iii. Formation of limescale (form insulator)
Sodium carbonate is added to precipitate which prevent pipe(tap) from rust
calcium carbonate iv. Formation of limescale(form insulator)
CaSO4(aq)+Na2CO3(aq) → which prevent poisonous metal salt in the
CaCO3(s)+Na2SO4(aq) water from water tap
v. Help in the formation of strong shells in
Use of ion exchangers some aquatic animals
Ion exchanger is a container full of small
beads which consists special plastic called Disadvantage of hard water
ion exchange resign i. Temporary hard water causes limescale in
Diagram water boiler, hot water pipes, kettles and
other appliances
ii. It need more soap than soft water
iii. It leaves scummy deposition on clothing
and in baths
iv. Destroy the quality some special finishes
on clothes
When tap water (permanent hard water)

with calcium ions flow into ion exchanger,
the calcium from permanent hard water
replace sodium ions in the ion exchanger to
be used in the household as soft water
Diagram
Nb:
Acids, Bases and Salts ii. Acid React with base to form salt and
Acid water
By defn: Acid is a chemical substance Acid + base → salt + water
(compound) when dissolved in water HCL(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaCL(aq) + H2O (l)
produce hydrogen ions [H+(aq)] as only H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ Na2SO4(aq) + H2O (l)
positive charged ions HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
HCL(aq) ⟶ H+(aq) + CL-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) ⟶ H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) iii. Acid React with carbonates to form salt,
HNO3(aq) ⟶ H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) carbon dioxide and water
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CH3COO -(aq) Acid + carbonate → salt + carbon
dioxide + water
Nature of acid 2HCL(aq) +CaCO3(aq) ⟶ CaCL2(aq) + CO2
Word acid comes from the Latin word (g) + H2O (l)
acidus means sour H2SO4(aq)+CaCO3(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) + CO2
(g) + H2O (l)
Natural sources of acids 2HNO3(aq) + CaCO3(aq) ⟶ Ca(NO3)2(aq) +
Nature acid can be found in all substance CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
with sharp taste due to the citric acid are
acid (Citrus fruits like oranges, lemon and iv. Acid React with hydrogen carbonates to
sour milk) form salt, carbon dioxide and water
Acid + hydrogen carbonates → salt +
Sources of common natural acids carbon dioxide + water
Acid Source HCL(aq) + Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ⟶ CaCL2(aq) +
Carbonic acid Soft drink CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Oxalic acid Spinach H2SO4(aq)+ Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) +
Acetic acid Vinegar CO2 (g)+ H2O (l)
Lactic acid Sour milk HNO3(aq) +Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ⟶ Ca(NO3)2(aq) +
Citric acid Citrus fruits CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Laboratory acids Nb:

The acids found at laboratory includes Not all substance contain hydrogen are
i. Hydrochloric acid (HCL) acid because other compound its
ii. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) hydrogen atom cannot ionize when
iii. Nitric acid (HNO3) dissolved in water. For example table sugar
Physical properties of acid Strength of acid

i. Acid have a sour taste Due to degree of dissociation when
ii. Acid turn blue litmus paper red dissolved in water, acid can be classified as
iii. Acid is corrosive i. Strong Acid
ii. Weak Acid
Chemical properties of acid
i. Acid React with metal to liberate Strong Acid
hydrogen gas By defn: Strong Acid is the acid whereby all
Acid + metal → metal salt + hydrogen atoms present in acid dissociate completely
gas in water to give hydrogen ions and negative
HCL(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ ZnCL2(aq) + H2 (g) ions associated with acid
H2SO4(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ ZnSO4(aq) + H2 (g) HCL(aq) ⟶ H+(aq) + CL-(aq)
HNO3(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g) H2SO4(aq) ⟶ H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
HNO3(aq) ⟶ H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Nb:
Most reactive like sodium and potassium Weak Acid
should not in such experiment, their By defn: Weak Acid is the acid whereby all
reactions are extremely explosive atoms present in acid dissociate partial in

water to give hydrogen ions and negative Bases
ions associated with acid By defn: Base is a chemical substance
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CH3COO -(aq) (compound) when dissolved in water
produce hydroxyl ions [OH-(aq)] as only
Concentration of acid negative charged ions
Concentration of acid is the quantity of the Or
acid (solute) in the water By defn: Base is a chemical substance
(compound of oxide, carbonates and
Nb: hydroxide) which neutralizes an acid to form
i. If acid contain very little or no water is salt and water
called concentrated acid NaOH(aq) ⟶ Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
ii. If acid contain more water is called NH4OH(aq) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH -(aq)
diluted acid
iii. Weak or strong acid can be Nb:
concentrated or diluted Soluble bases are called Alkalis
Basicity of acid Natural sources of bases

By defn: Basicity of acid is number of i. Some bases are found in substance that
hydrogen atoms per molecules of acid that we encounter in our environment like
can be replaced by metal in a solution Banana peels, Baking powder, Tooth
paste, Wood ash etc
Table shows Basicity of acid ii. Also found in many bleaches, soaps and
Acid Basicity cleaning agent
HCL(aq) ⟶ H+(aq) + CL-(aq) Monobasic
HNO3(aq) ⟶ H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) Monobasic Sources of common natural bases
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + Monobasic Base Source
CH3COO -(aq) Ammonia Gills of fish
H2SO4(aq) ⟶ 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Dibasic Methylamine Decaying fish
H3PO4(aq) ⟶ 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq) Tribasic Ethylamine Decaying fish
Pyridine Coal tar
Uses of acid Putrescine Decaying meat
i. Sulphuric acid Cadaverine Decaying flesh
(a) Remove rust from metal (iron and
steel) Laboratory bases
(b) Manufacture of synthetic textiles such The bases found at laboratory includes
as nylon i. Ammonia solution
(c) Making fertilizers ii. Metal oxides
(d) Production of sulphate iii. Metal hydroxides
(e) Production of hydrogen and oxygen
by electrolysis Classification of bases
ii. Hydrochloric acid Base classified into two parts includes
(a) Production of chlorides i. Base oxides
(b) In electroplating ii. Base hydroxides
(c) Manufacture of fertilizer
(d) Manufacture of rubber Base oxides
Base oxide is the base of oxide compound.
iii. Nitric acid For example Calcium oxide (CaO)
(a) Manufacture of fertilizer
(b) Of explosives Classification of Base oxides
(c) Of nylon Classified into two part includes
(d) Used as an oxidizing agent to clean i. Soluble oxides (Alkalis)
metal ii. Insoluble oxides (basic Oxides)
Base hydroxides
Base hydroxide is the base of hydroxide NH4OH(aq) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH -(aq)
compound. For example Calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2) Concentration of base
Concentration of base is the quantity of the
Classification of Base oxides base (solute) in the water
Classified into two part includes
i. Soluble hydroxide (Alkalis) Nb:
ii. Insoluble hydroxide (basic hydroxide) i. If base contain very little or no water is
called concentrated base
Physical properties of base ii. If base contain more water is called
i. Have a bitter taste diluted base
ii. Turn red litmus paper blue iii. Weak or strong base can be
iii. Have a soap or slippery feel concentrated or diluted
iv. Most insoluble in water
Uses of alkalis
Chemical properties of base i. In various neutralization process
i. Base react with acid to form salt and ii. In the manufacture of cleaning agent
water iii. In various industrial process like
Acid + base → salt + water manufacture of paper
HCL(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaCL(aq) + H2O (l)
H2SO4(aq) + CaO(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) + H2O (l) Indicator
By defn: Indicator is a chemical compound
ii. Alkalis precipitate insoluble metal that shows a definite colour change in acid
hydroxides from their salt solution or base. It used to test whether a substance
Alkalis + salt solution → insoluble is acidic, neutral or base
hydroxides + salt
3KOH(aq) + FeCl (aq) → Fe(OH)3 (s) + Common indicator
3KCl(aq) The follows are common includes
i. Litmus paper (LT)
iii. Alkalis react with ammonium salt to ii. Phenolphthalein (POP)
produce ammonia gas, water and salt iii. Methyl orange (MO)
Alkalis + ammonium salt → ammonia gas iv. Bromothymol blue (BB)
+ water + salt
2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCl2(aq)+ Colour change of common indicator
2H2O(l) + 2NH3 (g) Indicator Acidic basic
LT Red Blue
Strength of base POP Colourless Red
Due to degree of dissociation when MO Red Yellow
dissolved in water, acid can be classified as BB Yellow blue
i. Strong base
ii. Weak base
Strong base
By defn: Strong base is the base whereby all
atoms present in base dissociate completely
in water to give hydroxyl ions and positive
ions associated with base
NaOH(aq) ⟶ Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Weak base
By defn: Weak base is the base whereby all
atoms present in base dissociate partial in
water to give hydroxyl ions and positive ions
associated with base
pH scale (b) Ant bites and nettle sting contain
By defn: pH scale is the scale that indicates methanoic acid which also neutralized
the degree of acidity and basicity of a by baking soda or other alkaline
solution substance like cucumber, avocado
Diagram etc
(c) Wasp sting are alkaline and can be
neutralized by vinegar (acetic acid)
ii. Relieving indigestion

Stomach pain (indigestion) caused by
Relation between Ph scale and acidity
presence of excess acid (HCl) in the
Ph scale is inversely proportion to the acid
stomach. It relieving (neutralized) by
means increase in pH scale acidity
liquid/tables contain magnesium
decrease
bicarbonates or sodium bicarbonates
Mathematically
1
pH = 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦
iii. Soil treatment
When soil is too acidic lime materials
Relation between Ph scale and basicity include quick lime (CaO), Slaked lime
Ph scale is directly proportion to the basicity (CaOH) and Calcium carbonate
means increase in pH scale basicity (CaCO3) added to neutralize soil
increased
Mathematically iv. Treating factory wasters
pH = basicity Waste from factories often contains acid
which can cause death to living organism
Universal Indicator either land or water bodies. To prevent
Universal indicator is the mixture of these lime materials added to neutralize
indicators whereby indicate pH values more wastes from industries
range about 3-14 value
v. Manufacture of fertilizers
Colour of Universal Indicator Ammonium fertilizer produced from
it changes from bright pink in acid solution neutralization between ammonia (NH3)
to purplish then to green in middy alkaline with mineral acid
solutions and finally to yellow in very alkaline HNO3 (aq) + 2NH3 (g) →NH4NO3 (aq)
solution H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (g) → (NH4)2NO3 (aq)
Neutralization vi. Neutralizing accidental spills chemicals

By defn: Neutralization is the reaction When acid accidental spill at a particular
between base and acid to form salt and area since is corrosive is neutralized by
water base
Nb: vii. Reducing acid rain occurrence

i. Volume of acid neutralize alkalis is called Acid rain (acid formed by carbon
Titre dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
ii. Method of neutralization is known as dioxide) is reduced by fitted exhaust
volumetric titration since its involved to pipes and chimneys to neutralize acidic
find quantity of volume of titre compound before reaching the
atmosphere
Application of neutralization
i. Treating insect stings and bites
(a) Acidic liquids injected into the skin by
insect stings (bees) is neutralized by
rubbing with baking soda (NaHCO3) in
affected area

Salts Nb:
By defn: Salt is compound formed when Water removed by evaporation to get
hydrogen ions of an acid is replaced crystals
directly or indirectly by metal or an
ammonium (c) Reaction between acid and insoluble
base
Term used Acid + insoluble base → salt + water
i. Water of crystallization: Water of 2HCL(aq) + CuO(s) ⟶ CuCl2(aq) + H2O (l)
crystallization is the water bonded to H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) ⟶ ZnSO4(aq) + H2O (l)
compound which when removed , the
compound reabsorb water again Nb:
ii. Crystallization: Crystallization is the Water removed by evaporation to get
process formation of solid crystals from a crystals
homologous solution
iii. Crystallization point: Crystallization point is (d) Reaction between acids and metal
the point where solid crystal formed when carbonates
water evaporated Acid + metal carbonate → salt + carbon
iv. Solubility: Solubility is the number of moles dioxide + water
of the solute required to saturate 1kg of 2HCL(aq) +CaCO3(aq) ⟶ CaCL2(aq) + CO2
solvent at a given temperature. Its SI Unit (g) + H2O (l)
is Mol/kg H2SO4(aq)+CaCO3(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) + CO2
(g) + H2O (l)
Natural source of salt 2HNO3(aq) + CaCO3(aq) ⟶ Ca(NO3)2(aq) +
Natural sources of salt are sea water and CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
rocks which consists
i. Sodium chloride (common salt) - NaCl Nb:
ii. Sodium sulphate – Na2SO4 Water removed by evaporation to get
iii. Calcium sulphate - CaSO4 crystals
iv. Calcium carbonates – CaCO3
(e) Reaction between acids and metal
Preparation of salts hydrogen carbonates
Method used depend either salt is Acid + hydrogen carbonate → salt +
i. soluble salt carbon dioxide + water
ii. insoluble salt HCL(aq) + Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ⟶ CaCL2(aq) +
CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Preparation of soluble salt H2SO4(aq)+ Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) +
They prepared by the following methods CO2 (g)+ H2O (l)
(a) Reaction between acid and metal HNO3(aq) +Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ⟶ Ca(NO3)2(aq)
Acid + metal → salts + hydrogen gas + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
HCL(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ ZnCL2(aq) + H2 (g)
H2SO4(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ ZnSO4(aq) + H2 (g) Nb:
HNO3(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g) Water removed by evaporation to get
crystals
Nb:
This reaction is not suitable for very (f) Direct combination
reactive metals like potassium, sodium or Salt (anhydrous salt) can be formed by
calcium, the reaction would be too first direct combination or synthesis
so can cause explosion 2Fe (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → FeCl3 (s)
(b) Reaction between acid and alkalis Preparation of insoluble salt

Acid + alkalis → salt + water The only method used to prepare insoluble
HCL(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaCL(aq) + H2O (l) salt is double decomposition or ionic
H2SO4(aq) + CaO(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) + H2O (l) precipitation reaction, then filters, washed
by distilled water and dried to get crystals
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq) Double salt
Double salt is the salt formed when two
Other common insoluble salts which can be solution of salt are mixed together and
prepared using this method include allowed to stand for some time, they react
i. Calcium sulphate – CaSO4 to form a single new salt which is different
ii. Magnesium carbonate – MgCO3 from the original salts. For example
iii. Silver chloride - AgCl (NH4)2SO4(aq) + Fe2(SO4)3(aq) →
iv. Barium carbonate - BaCO3 [FeNH4(SO4)(aq)]
v. Barium sulphate - BaSO4
vi. Lead sulphate - PbSO4 Solubility of salt
By defn: Solubility of salt is the amount moles
Types of salt of salt required to saturate 1 kg of solvent at
There are four types of salts include a given temperature
i. Normal salt
ii. Acidic salt Nb:
iii. Basic salt i. Solubility varies with temperature
iv. Double salt ii. Solubility useful for predicting amount of
solute can dissolved in a given mass of
Normal salt solvent at a particular temperature
Normal salt is the salt formed when all the iii. All nitrates are soluble in water
replacement hydrogen ions of acid are iv. All suphates are soluble in water, except
replaced by metal. For example (a) Lead sulphate - PbSO4
Potassium carbonate – K2CO3 (b) Barium sulphate - BaSO4
Sodium sulphate – Na2SO4 (c) Calcium sulphate - CaSO4
Ammonium sulphate – (NH4)2SO4 (d) Mercury (II) sulphate - HgSO4
Zinc chloride - ZnCl v. All chlorides s are soluble in water, except
(a) Lead chloride - PbCl2
Acidic salt (b) Silver chloride - AgCl
Acidic salt is the salt formed when only part (c) Mercury (II) chloride – HgCl2
of the replacement hydrogen ions of acid vi. All carbonates are soluble in water
are replaced by metal. For example except
First stage (a) Sodium carbonate - Na2CO3
NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) → Na2CO3 (aq) (b) Potassium carbonate - K2CO3
(c) Ammonium carbonate – (NH4)2CO3
Second stage
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → NaHCO3 (aq) Solubility curve
Solubility curve is the graph of solubility (y-
Other acidic salt axes) against temperature (x-axis) which
i. Sodium hydrogen sulphate – NaHSO4 used to predict how much solute (salt) will
ii. Potassium hydrogen carbonate - KHCO3 dissolved in a given mass of solvent (water)
iii. Sodium hydrogen phosphate – NaHPO4 at a particular temperature
Diagram
Nb:
Monobasic acid cannot form acidic salts
Basic salt
Basic salt is the salt formed when amount of
acid required to neutralize an alkali (base) is
insufficient. For example
i. Basic zinc chloride – [ZnCl2 . Zn(OH)2]
ii. Basic magnesium chloride –
[MgCl2.Mg(OH)2]
iii. Basic lead carbonates - [PbCO3. Pb(OH)2]

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Example MgCO3 (s) → MgO (s)+ CO2 (g)
Consider the diagram below 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s)+ CO2 (g)
Green copper (II) carbonate decompose

easily to give black copper (II) oxide and
carbon dioxide
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
CuCO3 (s) → CuO (s)+ CO2 (g)
Zinc (II) carbonate decompose to form

yellow zinc (II) oxide and carbon dioxide
gas
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
ZnCO3 (s) → ZnO (s)+ CO2 (g)
at 50 ℃?, What solubility of Nb: when yellow zinc (II) oxide cool become
(a) KNO3 white
(b) (NH4)2SO4
(c) KCl Lead (II) carbonate decompose to give
(d) K2SO4 reddish brown lead (II) oxide and carbon
(e) NaCl dioxide gas
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Solution PbCO3 (s) → PbO (s) + CO2 (g)
The solubility at 50 ℃ is Nb: when reddish brown lead (II) oxide cool
(a) KNO3 – 92 mol/kg become yellow
(b) (NH4)2SO4 – 92 mol/kg
(c) KCl – 55 mol/kg Ammonium carbonate decompose to give
(d) K2SO4 – 35 mol/kg ammonia gas, carbon dioxide and water
(e) NaCl - 21 mol/kg 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
(NH4)2CO3 (s) → NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(g)
Nb: ammonia carbonate decompose slowly
Action of heat on salts
at room temperature to produce ammonia
When salt heated some salts decompose
gas which has a strong pungent smell
on slight heating, other salts decompose
when heated strongly and other salts do not
Effect of heat on carbonates
decompose on heating instead changes its
Carbonate Product
state, consider the follows
Potassium
i. Action of heat on carbonates Do not decompose
Sodium
ii. Action of heat on nitrates
iii. Action of heat on sulphates Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Action of heat on carbonates
Metal carbonates decompose on heating Zinc Metal oxide +carbon diode
Iron
to form a metal oxide and carbon dioxide
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 Lead
Metal carbonates → metal oxide + carbon Copper
dioxide Silver
Not exist
Mercury
Sodium and potassium carbonates does not ammonia gas + carbon
decompose on heating because is the very Ammonium
dioxide + water
reactive metal
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Na2CO3 → no reaction Action of heat on nitrates
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
K2CO3 → no reaction Nitrates are not stable so Most Metal nitrates
decompose on heating to form a metal
Magnesium and calcium carbonates oxide, nitrogen dioxide (brown fumes) and
decompose to gives oxide and carbon oxygen gas
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
dioxide Metal nitrate → metal oxide + nitrogen
dioxide + oxygen gas
Second stage occur during ammonium
Sodium and potassium nitrates melts and hydrogen sulphate cooling to form
decompose slowly to give oxygen and ammonia and sulphuric acid
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
metal nitrite NH4HSO4 (l) → H2SO4 (l) + NH3 (g)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
2NaNO3 (s) → 2NaNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
2KNO3 (s) → 2KNO2 (s) + O2 (g) Nb:
All ammonium salts decompose on heating,
All remain metal nitrates decompose to give ammonium chloride decompose on
metal oxides, nitrogen dioxide and water heating to form hydrogen chloride and
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ammonia gas
CuNO3 (s) → CuO (s) + NO2 (g) + O2 (g) 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 NH4Cl (l) → HCl (g) + NH3 (g)
CaNO3 (s) → CaO (s) + NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
Uses of salts
Silver and mercury decompose to give i. Control soil pH
metal, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas Calcium oxide added when soil is acidic
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
2AgNO3 (s) → 2Ag (s) + 2NO2 (g) + O2 (g) and calcium sulphate (gypsum) added
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
2HgNO3 (s) → 2Hg (s) + 2NO2 (g) + O2 (g) when soil is alkaline
ii. Used as antacid
Ammonium nitrates decompose to give Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt) and
Dinitrogen oxide and water sodium hydrogen carbonate are used to
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 relieve heartburn and acid in the
NH4NO3 (s) → N2O (g) + H2O(g)
stomach
iii. Used as inorganic fertilizer
Effect of heat on nitrates
Inorganic fertilizers like ammonium
Nitrate Product
sulphate, ammonium nitrate and calcium
Potassium
Metal nitrate + oxygen phosphate
Sodium
iv. Sodium chloride used for seasoning and
Calcium preserving food
Magnesium v. Sodium carbonates used to soft hard
Aluminium water
Metal oxide + nitrogen (IV)
Zinc vi. Ammonium chloride used as electrolyte in
oxide + oxygen
Iron dry batteries
Lead vii. Ammonium salts are used in the
Copper manufacture of plastic, synthetic fibre,
Silver Metal + nitrogen (IV) oxide + dyes, explosives and pharmaceuticals
Mercury oxygen viii. Copper (II) sulphate is used as a
Ammonium Dinitrogen oxide +water fungicide
ix. Silver bromide is used in making
Action of heat on sulphates photographic film
Sulphates are more stable than nitrate. It x. Calcium chloride is used as a drying
must heated strongly to decompose agent and in freezing mixture
Sulphate of alkalis and alkali earth metal do

not decompose when heated
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Na2SO4 → no reaction
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
K2SO4 → no reaction
Ammonium sulphate decompose on two

stage on heating
First stage decompose to form ammonium
hydrogen sulphate and ammonia gas
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
(NH4)2SO4 (s) → NH4HSO4 (l) + NH3 (g)

The Mole Concept and Related Calculations By Defn: Molar mass of a substance is the
Mole of substance mass of one mole of the substance
By defn: Mole of substance is the amount of expressed in grams per mole. SI Unit of molar
substance, equal to the quantity containing mass is g Mol -1
as many elementary units as there are Mathematically
m
atoms in 12 g of carbon-12 Mr = n – make n subject
Or Then: n = Mr
m
By defn: Mole of substance is the amount of 𝒎
a substance which contains the Avogadro’s n = 𝑴𝒓
number of particles. SI unit of mole is Mol
and its symbol in n
Where:
Mr = molar mass
Nb:
m = mass of a substance
Mole is the style of counting particles, same
n = mole of a substance
as shoes which sold in pair (items 2), exercise
book sold in dozen (items 12), sconce sold in
But: n = Mr and n = 𝑁⁄𝐿
m
gross (items 144) etc 𝐴
Finally: n = Mr = 𝑁⁄𝐿
m
𝐴
Avogadro’s constant, LA
𝐦
The mass of 12 g of carbon-12 is 1.9927 x 10-
23 g, what is the constant (Avogadro’s = 𝑵⁄𝑳
𝐌𝐫 𝑨
constant) help to get 12g?
Mathematically:
Nb:
LA x 1.9927 x 10-23 g = 12 g
12 i. Mr (have unit) = RAM (have no Unit)
LA = 1.9927 x 10−23 ii. Mr (have unit) = RMM (have no Unit)
LA = 6.022 x 1023 iii. Each molecular substance have its own
Therefore: one mole of any substance molar mass
contains 6.022 x 1023g particulate entities iv. Each atom have its own molar mass
(atoms, molecules or ions) like number of
items two in pair and 12 in dozen Example
Determine the molar mass of
Mole Formula (a) Magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO3)2)
From above (b) Benzene (C6H6)
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 (𝑁)
LA = Amount of substance in mole (n) (RAM: Mg = 24, N = 14, O = 16, C = 12, H =1)
N = n x LA
Solution
(a) Magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO3)2)
n = 𝑵⁄𝑳 Mr = RMM = Mg+(2N + 3 x2O)
𝑨 Mr = 24 +(2 x14 + 6 x 16)
Example Mr = 148 g mol-1
How many moles of nitrogen gas are there (b) Benzene (C6H6)
in 2.2 x 1012 molecules of the gas? Mr = RMM = 6C + 6H
Data Mr = 6 x 12 + 6 x 1
N = 2.2 x 1012 Mr = 78 g mol-1
LA = 6.022 x 1023g
n=? Example
Solution The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24
n=? (a) How many moles are there in 35.8 g of
From: n = 𝑁⁄𝐿 magnesium?
𝐴
12
(b) What is the mass of 3.58 moles of
n = 𝑁⁄𝐿 = 6.022 𝑥 1023 = 3.65 x 10 -12
2.2 𝑥 10
𝐴 magnesium?
n = 3.65 x 10 -12 mol Solution
(a) Moles = ?
Molar Mass
Mass = 35.8 g
RAM = Mr = 24 Molar volume of gases
m
From: n = Mr By defn: Molar volume of a gas is the
m 35.8 volume of one mole of the gas expressed in
n = Mr = = 1.492
24 decimetre cubic per mole at STP. SI Unit of
n = 1.492 moles molar mass is dm3 mol -1. It also called gram
molecular volume (GMV) of a gas
(b) Mass = ? Mathematically
Moles = 3.58 moles 𝑣
GMV = n – make n subject
RAM = Mr = 24 V
m
From: n = Mr – make m subject Then: n = GMV
m = n x Mr
𝐕
m = 3.58 x 24 n = 𝐆𝐌𝐕
m = 85.92 g
Example Where:
How many atoms are there in 8.68 g of GMV = molar volume of a gas
magnesium? v = volume of a substance
Data n = mole of a substance
m = 8.68 g
but: n = Mr , n = 𝑁⁄𝐿 and n = GMV
m V
Mr = 24 g mol-1 𝐴
= 𝑁⁄𝐿 = GMV
m V
LA = 6.022 x 1023g finally: n = Mr
𝐴
N=?
Solution 𝐦 𝐕
From: Mr = 𝑁⁄𝐿 – make N subject
m = 𝑵⁄𝑳 = 𝐆𝐌𝐕
𝐴 𝐌𝐫 𝑨
m x 𝐿𝐴
N= Mr
8.68 x 6.022 x 1023 Nb:
N= 24
i. STP means at standard temperature and
N = 2.178 x 1023
pressure
N = 2.178 x 1023 atoms
ii. At STP a gas of 1 mole of any atom
occupies 22.4 dm3
Example V
n = GMV – make GMV subject
How many atoms are there in 10.6 g of
V
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)?( Na = 23, C = GMV = n (v = 22.4 dm3 and n = 1 mole)
12, O = 16) GMV =
22.4
= 22.4
Data 1
m = 10.6 g Therefore: at STP GMV = 22.4 dm3

Mr = (23 x 2) + 12 + (16 x 3) = 106 g/mol iii. STP defines as an absolute pressure of
LA = 6.022 x 1023g 100KPa (1 bar or 1 atm) and a
N=? temperature of 273.15K or 0℃
Solution
Example
m
𝐴 How many moles of nitrogen gas is there in
m x 𝐿𝐴
N= 5.2 litres at the gas at STP?
Mr
10.6 x 6.022 x 1023 Data
N= 106 V = 5.2 litres = 5.2 dm3
N = 6.022 x 1023 GMV = 22.4 dm3 mol -1
N = 6.022 x 1023 atoms n=?
Solution
Avogadro’s law V
n = GMV
States that 5.2
“Equal volumes of all gases, measure at n = 22.4
same temperature and pressure contain the n = 0.232
same number of particles” n = 0.232 mol

1.12 x 6.022 x 1023
N= 22.4
Example
N = 3.011 x 1022 molecules
What is the volume of 8.0 moles of oxygen
gas at STP?
Molar solution
Data
By defn: Molar solution is a solution which
GMV = 22.4 dm3 mol -1
contains 1 mole of the solute dissolved to
n = 8.0 mol
make 1 litre of the solution
V=?
solution
V Concentration
n = GMV - make v subject By defn: Concentration is the quantity of the
v = n x GMV solute in the solution. SI Unit of
v = 8.0 x 22.4 concentration is g/dm3
v = 179.2 Mathematically
v = 179.2 litres 𝒎
Conc = 𝒗
Example
How many hydrogen molecules are there in Where:
(a) 4 g of hydrogen gas? Conc = concentration
(b) 0.1 mol of hydrogen gas at STP? m = quantity (mass) of solute
(c) 1.12 dm3 of hydrogen gas at STP? v = volume of solvent
Solution
(a) m = 4 g Molarity
Mr = H2 = 1 x 2 = 2 g/mol By defn: Molarity is the concentration of a
LA = 6.022 x 1023g solution expressed in moles per litre. Also it
N=? called molar solution. SI Unit of molarity is
Solution mol/dm3 or M
m
Mathematically
𝐴 𝒏
N=
m x 𝐿𝐴
Mr
M=𝒗
4 x 6.022 x 1023
N= 2
N = 6.022 x 1023 Where:
N = 1.2044 x 1024 molecules M = molarity
n = mole
(b) n = 0.1 mol v = volume of solvent
GMV = 22.4 dm3 m
LA = 6.022 x 1023 g But: n = Mr - - - - -1
𝑛
N=? M =𝑣----- 2
Solution Substitute eqn 1 into 2
From: n = 𝑁⁄𝐿 – make N subject M=nx𝑣
1
𝐴
N= n x LA m
M = Mr x 𝑣
1
N= 0.1 x 6.022 x 1023 m
N= 6.022 x 1022 M=
Mr x v
N= 6.022 x 1022 molecules 𝐦
M = 𝐌𝐫 𝐱 𝐯
m 1
(c) v = 1.12 dm3 Since: M = x Mr
𝑣
GMV = 22.4 dm3 But: Conc =
m
- substitute into eqn above
LA = 6.022 x 1023 g 𝑣
m 1
N=? M= 𝑣
x Mr
1
Solution M = Conc x Mr
From: GMV = 𝑁⁄𝐿 – make N subject
V 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐
𝐴 M=
v x 𝐿𝐴 Mr
N= 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄
GMV
M= 𝐌𝐫
Mathematically
Example n1 = n2
Calculate the molarity of the following But: n = cv
solutions Then: n1 = c1v1 and n2 = c2v2
(a) 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in 250 If: n1 = n2 = c1v1 = c2v2
cm3 of the solution Then: c1v1 = c2v2
(b) 2 moles of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
into 5 litres of the solution
c1v1 = c2v2
Solution
Where:
(a) Molarity of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
n1 = mole of concentrated solution
m = 4.0 g
n2 = mole of diluted solution
v = 250 cm3 = 0.25 dm3
c1 = concentration of concentrated solution
Mr = NaOH = 23 + 16 +1 = 40g/ mol
v1 = volume of concentrated solution
M=?
c2 =concentration of diluted solution
Solution
m v2 = volume of diluted solution
From: M = Mr x v
4
M =
40 x 0.25
4
Dilution Factor
M = 10 By Defn: Dilution Factor is the factor shows
M = 0.4 how times the volume of concentrated
M = 0.4 M solution is diluted to obtain the diluted
solution
(b) Molarity of sodium carbonate Mathematically
n = 2 moles From: c1v1 = c2v2
v = 5 litres = 5 dm3 Divide by v1 and c2 both sides
M=? 𝑪𝟏 𝑽
Solution = 𝑽𝟐 = k
n
𝑪𝟐 𝟏
From: M = v
n 2
M = = = 0.4 Where:
v 5
k = diluted factor
M = 0.4 M
Example
Example
What volume of 10 M of acetic acid is
How many moles of potassium hydroxide
required to prepare 1.0 dm3 of 0.50 M of
are there in 0.5 dm3 of a 0.2M potassium
acetic acid?
hydroxide solution?
Data
Data
c1 = 10 M
v = 0.5 dm3
c2 =0.50 M
M = 0.2 M
v2 = 1.0 dm3
n=?
v1 = ?
Solution
n Solution
From: M = v - substitute n subject
From: c1v1 = c2v2 – make c1 subject
n = Mv = 0.2 x 0.5 = 0.1 moles 𝐶 𝑥𝑉
v1 = 2𝐶 2
n = 0.1 mol 1
0.5 𝑥 1
v1 = 10
Dilution v1 = 0.05
By Defn: Dilution is the process of lowering v1 = 0.05 dm3
concentration by adding more solvent.
Concentrated solution is called stock Stoichiometry
solution By defn: Stoichiometry is the relationship
between relative quantity of Reactant and
Dilution formula products
Mole remain constant even if solution
concentration lowered Example of Stoichiometry
𝑚 10
Consider the reaction below n = 𝑀𝑟 =100 = 0.01 mol of CaCO3
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (𝑔)
i. For molecule 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
1 molecule of nitrogen gas requires 3 1 mole of CO2 → 1 moles of CaCO3
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
molecules of nitrogen gas to produce 2 X volume of CO2 → 0.01 mol of CaCO3
molecules of ammonia gas Then: Cross multiplication
1 𝑥 0.01
X = 1 = 0.05 mol
ii. For mole
X = 0.01 mol of CO2
1 mole of nitrogen gas requires 3 moles of
Then: find volume of CO2 at STP from
nitrogen gas to produce 2 moles of
calculated mol above
ammonia gas 𝑣
From: n = 𝐺𝑀𝑉 - make v subject
iii. According to Avogadro’s law V = n x GMV = 0.01 x 22.4 = 2.24
1 volume of nitrogen gas requires 3 V = 2.24 dm3
volumes of nitrogen gas to produce 2
volumes of ammonia gas
iv. For ratio

N2 : H2 : NH3 = 1:3:2
Example
How many moles of nitrogen would react
with excess hydrogen to produce 2.24 dm 3
of ammonia at STP?
Solution
From balanced equation
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (𝑔)
1 mole of N2 → 2 moles of NH3
X moles of N2 → 2.24 dm3 of NH3
Nb: find mole of ammonia
𝑣 2.24
n = 𝐺𝑀𝑉 =22.4 = 0.1 mol of NH3
1 mole of N2 → 2 moles of NH3
X moles of N2 → 0.1 mol of NH3
Then: Cross multiplication
0.1 𝑥 1
X = 2 = 0.05 mol
X = 0.05 mol
Example
Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide gas
that will be produced at STP. When 10g of
calcium carbonate is completely
decomposed by heating as shown by the
following equation
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Solution
From balanced equation above
1 mole of CO2 → 1 moles of CaCO3
X volume of CO2 → 10 g of CaCO3
Nb: find moles of CaCO3

Volumetric Analysis ii. Reading of burette should be in two
By defn: Volumetric analysis is a chemical decimal places
procedure for determining the
concentration of a solution How to clean burette
i. Clean by detergent and tap water. Rinse
Terms used (remove soap or dirt) by using tap water
i. standards solution: Standards solution is until no foam
solution of known concentration ii. Fill the burette with distilled water three
ii. Titration: Titration is a technique of adding times by allowing the distilled water to run
standard solution to flask from burette through the stop tap each times
iii. Indicator: Indicator is used to monitor a iii. Finally rinse the burette with (5 - 10)cm3 of
chemical change when the correct the reagent (titrant) to run through the
proportions have reacted stop tap each
iv. End point: End point is the point whereby
the correct proportions have reacted Nb:
completely If there leakage in the burette, apply some
v. Standardization: standardization is a petroleum jelly to the leaking part to stop
procedure used to determine the the leakage
unknown concentration of solution
vi. Equivalent point of titration: Equivalent How to use burette
point of titration is the point whereby i. Clamp the burette in the retort stand
number of moles of base is equal to the ii. Fill the reagent (titrant) by filter funnel up
number of moles of acid in a solution to above the zero mark
iii. Remove air bubble from the burette tip
Standard Volumetric Apparatus by rapid draining the titrant through the
The follows apparatus used burette while gently tapping the tip
i. Burette iv. Refill the burette and adjust its reading to
ii. Pipette zero and take the initial reading
iii. Volumetric flasks
iv. Conical flask Nb:
v. Filter funnel i. Initial reading should note be zero
vi. Retort stand with clamp ii. Hold a black-stripped white card behind
vii. White tile or paper the meniscus when taking the reading in
viii. Measuring cylinders order to ensure the meniscus is clearly
ix. Wash bottle visible
x. Beakers iii. Solution filled in burette is called titrant
xi. Dropper iv. View the meniscus horizontal to obtain
correct reading which tend to avoid
Burette parallax error
Burette is a graduated tube with one open v. During titration top of burette should be
end and a stop tap at the other end centre and dipped into the flask
Diagram:
Pipette
Pipette is a thin glass tube with a wide
middle part used to measure and transfer
definite volume of liquid or solution. It has a
capacity of (20 or 25) cm3
Diagram:
Nb:
i. Common burette has a capacity of 50
cm3
Nb: v. Remove the index finger from the pipette
i. Graduated Mark on the upper part of the opening to release the solution from the
tube indicate the level to which the liquid pipette to flask
should reach to measure the specific
volume Nb:
ii. Capacity of pipette always indicated at i. Do not suck poisonous, corrosive or toxic
wide middle part of pipette substances
iii. Pipette which deliver a fixed volume is ii. Do not suck a liquid if you are not sure of
called volumetric or transfer pipette its safety
iv. Pipette which deliver an any volume of iii. Solution measure by pipette and poured
liquid is called measuring pipette into flask is called Analyte
iv. Do not blow into the pipette to push left
How to clean pipette solution in pipette because required
Pipette cleaned in the same way as the volume has already been released into
burette the flask
How to use pipette Volumetric flasks

It involves two steps include Volumetric flask is flask used to prepare
i. Fill the Analyte (reagent solution) by standard solution from stock solution. It
sucking or pipette filter calibrated to contain specific volume of
ii. Pour Analyte into flask solution. It has different capacities ranging
(250 – 5000) cm3. It have graduated mark at
How to fill pipette by pipette filter its neck
i. Press button 1 while at the same time
squeezing the bulb to drive air out Conical flask
ii. Dip the tip into solution Conical flask most used is 250 cm3 which has
iii. Press button 2 to draw the solution a neck which enable easily held while
beyond the graduated mark swirling the contents inside
iv. Adjust solution until lowest meniscus is
level with graduated mark by pressing Nb: it should be rinsed with distilled water
button 3 before using
v. Place the pipette into a flask to put the
measured solution(Analyte) by pressing Filter funnel
button 3 It used to pour a solution into the burette
vi. Allow the last drop of the solution to without spilling solution
drain out by placing the tip against the
wall of flask Retort stand with clamp
It used to hold the burette in an upright
How to Fill pipette by sucking position while performing volumetric analysis
i. Suck the liquid from the upper end of the experiment
pipette until the solution passes the
graduated mark White tile or paper
ii. Quickly remove your mouth from the It kept under conical flask to give a clear
pipette and block the opening at the top background for observing colour change at
by using your index finger end point
iii. Adjust the level of the solution by slowly
release the index finger to let the solution Measuring cylinders
run out of the pipette until the lowest It used to measure reagent (titrant and
meniscus level corresponding with the Analyte) required during volumetric analysis
graduated mark experiment
iv. Place the pipette into a flask to put the
measured solution(Analyte) Wash bottle

It used to hold during measurement of solid Secondary standards solution also is called
compound mass during preparation of standardize solution because it obtained
standard solution from standardized from primary standard
solution
Beakers
It used to store reagent (titrant and Analyte) Preparation of standard solution
during volumetric analysis experiment Standard solution prepared by dissolving a
known amount of the primary standard in a
Dropper known volume of liquid
It used to add the indicator into the solution
inside conical flask Nb:
i. Pure water used for aqueous solutions
Standard Solution ii. Standard solution can be obtained by
By defn: Standard Solution is a solution of with another primary standard of another
known concentration. It expressed in moles substance
per litre (Mol/dm3) and usually indicated by
letter M for molarity Procedure for standard solution Preparation
i. Calculate number of moles needed to
Types of standards solution make standard solution by consider
There are two types include required volume and concentration
i. Primary standards solution ii. Work out the molar mass of the
ii. Secondary standards solution substance
iii. Using the data in steps 1 and 2,
Primary standards solution calculate the mass of the substance
By defn: Primary standards solution is one needed to prepare the standard
prepared by dissolving a known amount of solution
primary standard in a specific volume of a iv. Carefully weigh the required mass of the
known liquid. For example substance
i. Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) for acid- (a) Weigh empty watch glass and note
base titration reading (mw)
ii. Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) for redox (b) Add the mass of substance to watch
titration glass and Weigh watch glass together
with mass of substance (mt)
Characteristics of Primary standards solution (c) Subtract mass of watch glass and
i. High degree of purity substance from empty watch glass to
ii. Should not decompose with time get mass of substance
iii. Should not hygroscopic or efflorescent ms = mt - mw
(no water content) Where:
iv. Not volatile ms = mass of substance
v. Should be high soluble mt = mass of substance and empty
vi. Should have High molecular mass watch glass
mw = mass of empty watch glass
Secondary standards solution v. Transfer the primary standards into a
By defn: Secondary standards solution is a beaker. Rinse the watch glass using
one prepared by standardization using distilled water from wash bottle and
primary standards solution. For example pour rinse water into the beaker
i. Most common acids like vi. Stir the mixture in the beaker with glass
(a) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) rod until all the soluble is dissolved, then
(b) Dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) transfer the solution into a volumetric
ii. Most common bases flask
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) vii. Rinse the beaker and the glass rod using
distilled water from a wash bottle and
Nb: pour rinse water into the volumetric flask

viii. Add water to the solution to just below vd = diluted volume
the graduated mark on the volumetric
flask Nb:
ix. Top up the solution with water up to the Never add acid to water in order to avoid
graduated mark using a clean dropper explosion
Nb: make sure the lowest part of the
meniscus is exactly at the graduated Example
mark What volume of sulphuric acid that is 98% of
x. Stopper the flask and invert it several pure and has density of 1.84 g/cm 3 is
times to ensure the solution is needed to prepare 1 litre of 0.1M of
homogenous sulphuric acid solution? (The molar mass of
xi. Work out the molar concentration sulphuric acid is 98 g/mol)
(Molarity) of the solution Data
xii. Label the solution correctly by indicating Percentage purity = 98%
its name and concentration. For Density = 1.84 g/cm3
example 2M NaCl Mr = 98 g/mol
Cd = 0.1 M
Preparation of standard solution of common Vd = 1litre = 1 md3
bases Cc = ?
Common bases are secondary standard so Vc = ?
they prepared from standardization from Solution
primary standard (acids) First find Cc of sulphuric acids
density x percentage purity x 10
From: Mc = mr
Preparation of standard solution of common 1.84 x 98 x 10
Mc = = 18.4
mineral acids 98
Standard solution of mineral acids are Mc = 18.4 M
prepared by dilution of the concentrated Then: calculate Vc
acids From: Ccvc = cdvd – make Vc subject
𝐶 𝑥𝑉 0.1 𝑥 1
Vc = 𝑑 𝑉 𝑑 = 18.4
𝑐
Nb: Vc = 0.00543 dm3 = 5.43 cm3
i. Concentrated acids are bought as stock Vc = 5.43 cm3
solution from chemical shops
ii. Molar concentration does not indicated Example
on the reagent bottles What volume of Nitric acid that is 68% of
iii. Density and percentage purity of the pure and has density of 1.42 g/cm 3 is
acids are indicated needed to prepare 600 cm3 of 0.4M of Nitric
acid solution? (The molar mass of Nitric acid
Procedure for Preparation of standard is 63 g/mol)
solution of common mineral acids Data
i. Calculate molar concentration (Molarity) Percentage purity = 88%
stock solution by using data indicated on Density = 1.42 g/cm3
reagent bottle, by the given formula Mr = 63 g/mol
density x percentage purity x 1000
M= Cd = 0.4 M
mr x 100
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 Vd = 600 cm3 = 0.6 md3
M= Cc = ?
𝒎𝒓
ii. Find volume of concentrated by using Vc = ?
dilution formula Solution
First find Cc of Nitric acid
Ccvc = cdvd density x percentage purity x 10
From: Mc = mr
1.42 x 68 x 10
Where: Mc = = 15.3
63
cc = concentrated concentration Mc = 15.3 M
vc = concentrated volume Then: calculate Vc
cd = diluted concentration From: Ccvc = cdvd – make Vc subject
𝐶 𝑥𝑉 0.4 𝑥 0.6
Vc = 𝑑 𝐶 𝑑 = 15.3 Indicator which most used to change colour
𝑐
at end point is Litmus paper, methyl orange
Vc = 0.0157 dm3 = 15.68 cm3
and phenolphthalein
Vc = 15.67 cm3
Indicator with its colour changes in medium
Example
Colour in
Halima wants to prepare a solution whose Indicator Colour in basic
acidic
concentration is 0.4 M from 100 cm3 of 2M
Litmus Red/pink Blue
hydrochloric acid. To what volume should
she dilute the solution? MO Red/pink Yellow/orange
Data POP Colourless Red/violet
Cd = 2 M
Vd = 100 cm3 = 0.1 md3 Choice of indicator
Cc = 0.4 M It depends on the properties of the
Vc = ? reactants consider the table below shows
Solution Choice to be used indicator
From: Ccvc = cdvd – make Vc subject ACID
𝐶 𝑥𝑉
Vc = 𝑑 𝑑 =
2 𝑥 0.1 Strong Weak
𝐶𝑐 0.4 MO, POP and
Vc = 0.5 dm3 = 500 cm3 BASE Strong Litmus POP
Vc = 500 cm3 Weak MO, Methyl red No any
Titration Procedure for Acid-Base Titration

Titration involves the technique of adding The following are steps followed on
standard solution (known solution) from performing acid-base titration
burette to flask (unknown solution) i. Clean the burette and the pipette before
using them to remove impurities
Nb: ii. Use the retort stand to hold the burette
i. Known solution is also called titrant upright and fill the burette with the titrant,
ii. Unknown solution is also known as Analyte usually an acid
iii. Read and record the initial reading of
Condition suitable for Titration burette
i. Reaction must be fast iv. Pipette the Analyte usually a base(alkali)
ii. Reaction must be irreversible into conical flask
iii. Reaction must be represented by a single v. Add one/two drops of indicator to the
chemical equation base and note the colour of the solution
iv. Reaction must have definite end point vi. Drain Titrant (acid) slowly from burette
into the Analyte (alkali) , while carefully
Types of titration reaction swirling/shake the content of the flask
There are three common reaction includes until end point reached, note final
i. Acid-base reaction reading
ii. Precipitation reaction vii. Work out the (Mean Titre) titrant volume
iii. redox reaction used by subtract the initial reading from
Note: we will discuss only Acid-base final reading of burette
reaction viii. Repeat the procedure three more times
to obtain consistent value which are
Acid-Base titration within ± 0.2cm3 of each other
Acid-Base involves the technique of adding ix. Using your results to find unknown
standard solution (Acid) from burette to flask concentration
(base) and vice versa until end point
indicated by indicator by change in solution Nb:
colour i. When end point is near (colour of
indicator start to change) add titrant
Common acid-base indicator drop wise until end point reached
ii. The first titration is called pilot
iii. Pilot does not includes in calculation
Solution
Titration Formula (a) Methyl orange colour change from
Since titrant (acid) and Analyte (alkali) yellow to pink
each have its mole which is not the same (b) Find mean titre of acid
20.25+20.50+20.55
Mathematically Va = 3
na = MaVa - - - - - - - -1 Va = 20.525 = 20.53
nb = MbVb - - - - - - - -2 Va = 20.53 cm3
Then: divive eqn1 from eqn2 (c) balanced equation
𝐌𝐚𝐕𝐚 𝒏𝒂
= 𝒏𝒃 Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2
𝐌𝐛𝐕𝐛 (g) + H2O (l)
(d) moles of alkali used in the reaction
Where: vb = 25 cm3 = 0.025 dm3
na = number of moles of the acid Mb = 0.098
Ma = molarity of acid nb = ?
Va = volume of acid Solution
nb = number of moles of the base From: nb = vb x mb
Mb = molarity of base nb = vb x mb = 0.025 x 0.098
Vb = volume of base nb = 0.00245
nb = 0.00245 mol
Application of titration (e) moles of acid used in the rection
Titration can be used to calculate/ find From balanced equation
i. Concentration of solution 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
ii. Moles of solution 2 moles of HCl→ 1 moles of Na2CO3
iii. Relative atomic mass of element of X mole HCl → 0.00245 mol of Na2CO3
solution Then: Cross multiplication
2 𝑥 0.00245
iv. Percentage purity X = na = = 0.0049 mol
1
v. Water of crystallization na = 0.0049 mol
Concentration and mole of solution (f) concentration of the acid

Concentration (molarity) and mole of acid va = 20.53 cm3 = 0.02053 dm3
or base can be calculated with a standard na = 0.0049 mol
solution Ma = ?
Solution
Example From: na = va x ma – make Ma subject
25 cm3 of the 0.098M sodium carbonate 𝑛𝑎 0.0049
Ma = 𝑣𝑎 = 0.02053 = 0.239
solution was titrated hydrochloric acid by
using Methyl orange indicator. The following Ma = 0.239 M
results were obtained
Volume Reading Pilot I II III Alternatively
Final (Cm3) 21.05 20.25 40.75 20.55
From balanced equation
vb = 25 cm3 = 0.025 dm3
Initial (Cm3) 0.00 0.00 20.25 0.00
Used (Cm3) 21.05 20.25 20.50 20.55
Mb = 0.098M
nb = 0.00245 mol
Questions
na = 0.0049 mol
(a) Methyl orange colour change from
va = 20.53 cm3 = 0.02053 dm3
…….……… to ………………..
Ma = ?
(b) Find mean titre of acid MaVa 𝑛𝑎
(c) Write balanced equation for reaction From: MbVb = 𝑛𝑏 – make Ma subject
Mb x Vb x na 0.098 x 0.025 x 0.0049
(d) Calculate number of moles of alkali used Ma = =
va x nb 0.02053 x 0.00245
in the reaction 0.098 x 0.025 x 0.0049
Ma = = 0.239
(e) Calculate number of moles of acid used 0.02053 x 0.00245
in the reaction Ma = 0.239 M
(f) calculate concentration of the
hydrochloric acid Example
25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution was From: na = va x ma
titrated with 0.1M of hydrochloric acid. The na = va x ma = 0.01603 x 0.25
following results were obtained na = 0.004
Volume Reading Pilot I II III na = 0.004 mol
Final (Cm3) 21.05 20.25 40.75 20.55 (d) moles of base used in the reaction
Initial (Cm3) 0.00 0.00 20.25 0.00 From balanced equation
Used (Cm3) 21.05 20.25 20.50 20.55 2 mole of HCl→ 1 moles of X2CO3
Determine the molar concentration of the 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
0.004 mole of HCl → X of X2CO3
sodium hydroxide solution
Then: Cross multiplication
0.004 𝑥 1
Relative Atomic Mass of Element X = nb = = 0.0049 mol
2
RAM of unknown element of acid or base nb = 0.002 mol
can be determined with a standard solution
(e) molarity of base (mol/dm3) of the base
Example vb = 25 cm3 = 0.025 dm3
Make a solution of metal carbonate by nb = 0.002 mol
dissolving 2.12 g in water to make 250 cm3 Mb = ?
solutions. 25 cm3 of metal carbonate Solution
(X2CO3) solution was titrated with 0.25M From: nb = vb x mb – make Mb subject
𝑛𝑏 0.002
hydrochloric acid by using Methyl orange Mb = 𝑣𝑏 = 0.025 = 0.08
indicator. The following results were Mb = 0.08 M
obtained
Volume Reading Pilot I II III (f) concentration (g/dm3) of base
Final (Cm3) 17.00 16.10 32.00 46.10 m = 2.12 g
Initial (Cm3) 0.00 0.00 16.10 30.00 v = 250 cm3 = 0.25 dm3
Used (Cm3) 17.00 16.10 15.90 16.10 Conc = ?
Questions Solution
(a) Find the average volume of acid From: conc = m/v
(b) Write balanced equation for reaction Conc = m/v = 2.12/0.25 = 8.48 g/dm3
(c) Calculate number of moles of acid used Conc = 8.48 g/dm3
in the reaction
(d) number of moles of base used in the (g) relative atomic molecular mass of the
reaction metal carbonate
(e) Calculate molarity of base (mol/dm3) Mb = 0.08 M
(f) Calculate concentration (g/dm3) of Conc = 8.48 g/dm3
base Mr = ?
(g) Calculate relative molecular mass of the Solution
metal carbonate From: M = conc/Mr – make Mr Subject
(h) Calculate relative atomic mass of X Mr = conc/M = 8.48/0.08 = 106
(i) Name the meta X Mr = 106 g/ mol
Solution (h) Calculate relative atomic mass of X

(a) Find mean titre of acid From: Mr = sum of RAM of all atoms
16.10+15.90+16.10
Va = = 16.03 106 = 2x + 12 + 16 x 3
3
Va = 16.03 cm3 106 = 2x + 12 + 48
(b) balanced equation 106 = 2x + 60
X2CO3(aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2XCl(aq) + CO2 (g) 2x =106 – 60 = 46
+ H2O (l) x = 23 g/ mol
(c) moles of acid used in the reaction
va = 16.03 cm3 = 0.01603 dm3 (i) metal X is Sodium due to its RAM which is
Ma = 0.25 M 23 g/mol
na = ?
Solution Percentage purity

By defn: Percentage purity of a substance is 0.008 mole of HCl → X of Na2CO3
the percentage of pure substance in a Then: Cross multiplication
sample 0.008 𝑥 1
X = nb = = 0.0049 mol
Mathematically 2
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 nb = 0.004 mol
Percentage purity = x 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆
(e) molarity of base (mol/dm3) of the base
Note vb = 25 cm3 = 0.025 dm3
Percentage purity + Percentage impurity = 100% nb = 0.004 mol
Mb = ?
Example Solution
Make a solution of sodium carbonate by From: nb = vb x mb – make Mb subject
dissolving 6.63 g of the impure sodium 𝑛𝑏 0.004
Mb = 𝑣𝑏 = 0.025 = 0.16
carbonate in water to make 250 cm3
Mb = 0.16 M
solutions. 25 cm3 of metal carbonate
solution was titrate 0.5M hydrochloric acid
(f) mass of base
by using Methyl orange indicator. The
nb = 0.004 mol
following results were obtained
mb = 0.16M
Volume Reading Pilot I II III
v = 250 cm3 = 0.25 dm3
Final (Cm3) 16.00 16.20 32.45 16.00
Mr = 106 g/mol
Initial (Cm3) 0.00 0.00 16.10 0.00 m=?
Used (Cm3) 16.00 16.20 16.25 16.10
Solution
Questions 𝑚
From: M = 𝑣 𝑥 Mr – make m subject
(a) Find the average volume of acid
(b) Write balanced equation for reaction m = Mr x v x M = 106 x 0.25 x 0.16 = 4.24 g
(c) Calculate number of moles of acid used m = 4.24 g
in the reaction
(d) number of moles of base used in the (g) percentage purity
reaction Mass of pure = 4.24 g
(e) Calculate molarity of base (mol/dm3) Mass of impure = 6.63 g
(f) Calculate mass of base Percentage purity = ?
(g) Calculate percentage purity Solution
(h) Calculate Percentage impurity From:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒
Percentage purity = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 x 100%
Solution 4.24
Percentage purity = 6.63 x 100% = 63.95%
(a) Find mean titre of acid
16.20+16.25+16.10 Percentage purity = 63.95%
Va = = 16.18
3
Va = 16.18 cm3 (h) percentage impurity
(b) balanced equation Percentage purity = 63.95%
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2 Percentage impurity = ?
(g) + H2O (l) From:
(c) moles of acid used in the reaction Percentage purity + Percentage impurity = 100%
va = 16.18 cm3 = 0.01618 dm3 63.95% + Percentage impurity = 100%
Ma = 0.5 M Percentage impurity = 100% - 63.95%
na = ? Percentage impurity = 36.05%
Solution
From: na = va x ma Water of crystallization
na = va x ma = 0.01618 x 0.5 By defn: Water of crystallization is the water
na = 0.008 bound with the crystals of a substance
na = 0.004 mol
(d) moles of base used in the reaction Example
From balanced equation Make a solution of hydrated Sodium
2 mole of HCl→
1 moles of Na2CO3 carbonate (Na2CO3.XH2O) by dissolving 38.9
g to make one litre of solution. 25 cm3 of
hydrated Sodium carbonate solution was Solution
titrated with 0.24M hydrochloric acid by From: nb = vb x mb – make Mb subject
𝑛𝑏 0.0034
using POP indicator. The following results Mb = 𝑣𝑏 = 0.025 = 0.13656 = 0.136
were obtained Mb = 0.137 M
Volume Reading Pilot I II III
Final (Cm3) 28.95 28.40 28.45 38.50 (f) concentration (g/dm3) of base
Initial (Cm3) 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.00 m = 38.9 g
Used (Cm3) 28.95 28.40 28.45 28.50 v = 1 litre = 1dm3
Questions Conc = ?
(a) Find the average volume of acid Solution
(b) Write balanced equation for reaction From: conc = m/v
(c) Calculate number of moles of acid used Conc = m/v = 38.9/1 = 38.9 g/dm3
in the reaction Conc = 38.9 g/dm3
(d) number of moles of base used in the
reaction (g) relative atomic molecular mass of
(e) Calculate molarity of base (mol/dm3) hydrated metal carbonate
(f) Calculate concentration (g/dm3) of Mb = 0.137 M
base Conc = 39.9 g/dm3
(g) Calculate relative molecular mass of the Mr = ?
hydrated metal carbonate Solution
(h) Calculate relative atomic mass of X From: M = conc/Mr – make Mr Subject
Mr = conc/M = 38.9/0.136 = 286
Solution Mr = 286 g/ mol
(a) Find mean titre of acid
28.40+28.45+28.50
Va = = 28.45 (h) Calculate relative atomic mass of X
3
Va = 28.45 cm3 From: Mr = sum of RAM of all atoms
(b) balanced equation Na2CO3.XH2O = 2Na + C + 3O + X(2H +
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2 O)
(g) + H2O (l) 286 = (2 * 23) + 12 + (16 * 3) + x(1*2 + 16)
Nb: crystallization water does not involve 286 = 46 + 12 + 48 + x18
in reaction 286 = 106 + x18
(c) moles of acid used in the reaction 18x = 286 -106 = 180
va = 28.45 cm3 = 0.02845 dm3 18x = 180
Ma = 0.24 M x = 10
na = ?
Solution Application of volumetric analysis
From: na = va x ma In different field volumetric analysis are used
na = va x ma = 0.02845 x 0.24 as follows
na = 0.0068 1. Medicine
na = 0.004 mol i. Used to determine concentration of
(d) moles of base used in the reaction virus/bacteria in a blood sample
From balanced equation ii. Used to determine amount of acid
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 which can be neutralized by antacid
2 moles of HCl→ 1 moles of Na2CO3
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 tablet
0.0068 mole of HCl → X of Na2CO3
Then: Cross multiplication 2. Industries
0.0068 𝑥 1
X = nb = = 0.0034 mol i. Used to determine amount of acetic
2
nb = 0.0034 mol acid in vinegar
ii. Used to analyse the acidity of fruit
(e) molarity of base (mol/dm3) of the base juices
vb = 25 cm3 = 0.025 dm3 iii. Used to analyse the household
nb = 0.0034 mol ammonia (used as a cleaning fluid)
Mb = ?

3. Analysis of water
Used to determine hardness of water
4. Agriculture
Used to determine composition of soil
substances contained, Substance include
nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous
5. Other application
i. Used to determine percentage of iron
in iron ore
ii. Used to determine salt content in brine
(water containing dissolved salt)
iii. Used to determine percentage mass
of copper in a copper salt

Ionic Theory and Electrolysis Electrolytic Cell is any vessel whereby
Electrolysis electrolysis carried out. It contain
By Defn: Electrolysis is the process in which electrolyte, battery and electrode
an electric current is passed through the
electrolytes causing the Chemical Reaction Electrode
By Defn: Electrode is the component of the
Terms used cell which makes contact with the
i. Free electron or ion : Free electron or ion electrolyte to enable electric current to
is the electron or ions which can move at enter and leave the electrolytes
any point within a compound or atom
ii. Conductor: Conductor is a substance Types of electrode
which allows electricity to pass through. There are two types include
Example , copper, iron etc i. Cathode
Reason: conductor has free electron or ii. Anode
ion
iii. Non-conductor (insulator): Non- Cathode
conductor is a substance which does not By Defn: cathode is the electrode which the
allow electricity to pass through. Example electron leaves the electrolyte
wood Or
Reason: Insulator has not free electron or By Defn: cathode is the electrode which is
ion attached to the negative terminal of the
iv. Poor conductor: Poor conductor is a battery
substance which allow only small amount Or
of electricity to pass through. Example By Defn: cathode is the electrode where
Water, ethanol, paraffin etc Reduction takes place
Reason: poor conductor has very few free
electron or ion Anode
v. Migration: Migration is the movement of By Defn: anode is the electrode which the
an ions to the electrode electron enter the electrolyte
vi. Reduction: Reduction is the gain of Or
electrons to become stable By Defn: anode is the electrode which is
vii. Oxidation: Oxidation is the loss of attached to the positive terminal of the
electrons to become stable battery
Or
Electrolyte By Defn: anode is the electrode where
By Defn: Electrolyte is the solution/molten Oxidation takes place
state which its ions dissociated into free ions
thus allowing Electric current to pass Nb:
through it. It may be solution of Acids, Bases i. Oxidation reaction takes place at the
or Salts. anode
ii. Reduction reaction takes place at the
Non Electrolytes cathode
By Defn: Non Electrolytes is the solution or iii. Sometimes the anode may be oxidized
molten compound which Electric current and dissolve into the electrolyte
cannot pass through it iv. Cathode Attracts Cations
v. Anode Attracts anions
Questions vi. Cation discharged at cathode
i. Explain why Molten copper are non- vii. Anion discharged at anode
electrolytes but conduct electricity viii. Always Products formed at anode is a
ii. Explain why solution of sugar cannot non-metal or 02 (g)
conduct electricity ix. Always Products formed at cathode is
metal or H2 (g)
Electrolytic cell
Inert Electrodes
By Defn: Inert Electrode is electrode which Strong Electrolytes
do not undergo any changes during By defn: Strong Electrolytes are the one
electrolysis. For example platinum and which Dissociate completely into ions when
carbon (graphite) electrode in solution/molten. Example Sodium
Chloride, Sulphuric Acid, Hydrochloric Acid,
Ionic Theory Nitric Acid
Ionic compound is composed with ions
(Cation and anion) which carry electric NB:
current through an electrolyte i. The Strong electrolyte is High Electrical
i. Cation carry electric to cathode Conductivity
ii. Cation loose electron to cathode ii. Weak electrolyte is partially Electrical
iii. Anion gain electron to cathode Conductivity
iii. Weak electrolyte is all compound
When Ionic compound is solid undergo reversible reaction
Solid Ionic compound cannot conduct
electric current because ions are not mobile Concentration of Electrolytes
due to strong force of attraction between Concentration of Electrolyte is the quantity
Cation and anion of the solute in the electrolyte
When Ionic compound is molten Strength of Electrolytes

Molten Ionic compound can conduct Strength of Electrolyte is phenomenon
electric current because ions are mobile whether as electrolyte is weak or strong
due to weaker force of attraction between electrolyte
Cation and anion so form free ions
Nb:
When Ionic compound solution i. Electrolyte can have the same
Solution Ionic compound can conduct concentration but vary in strength
electric current because it dissociate into ii. Electrolyte can have the similar strength
ions, which are free to move within the but different concentration
solution
Concentration and Strength of Electrolytes
Example Electrolytes Concentration Strength
i. copper (II) sulphate solution form ions 6 M HCl strong
CuSO4 → Cu2+ + S042-
Same
ii. silver nitrate solution form ions 6M ethanoic
AgNO3 → Ag+ + NO3- acid weaker
6M ethanoic More Conc Weaker
Nb: acid
In general, all acids, bases and salts are
ionized in solution but not organic 1 M HCl Low Conc Strong
compounds 4 M HCl
Same Both strong
Types of Electrolytes 4M H2SO4
There are two types of Electrolytes includes 2M ethanoic
i. Weak Electrolyte acid
ii. Strong Electrolyte Same Both weak
2M aqueous
Weak electrolytes ammonia
By Defn: Weak electrolytes are the one
which dissociation partial into ions when in Mechanism of Electrolysis
solution then recombine to form the When an electric current is passed through
molecules. Example Ammonium chloride, an electrolyte in an electrolytic cell the free
Ethanoic acid, Methanoic acid etc ions move to the electrodes, The movement
of an ions to the electrolyte is referred to as
migration, Cation migrates towards the CuSO4 (aq) Cu 2+(aq) SO42-(aq)
cathode while anions migrates towards H2O (l) H +(aq) OH -(aq)
anodes
Migration
Factors Affect the Discharge on Ions cathode Anode
At the electrodes, some of the ions gain or Cu 2+(aq) SO42-
lose electrons; this has the effect of H+ OH -(aq)
discharging the ions.
i. The case of discharge of ion Discharge
ii. The concentration of the ions From Electrochemical Series copper Cation
iii. The nature of the electrode will discharge at cathode and Hydroxyl
anion will discharge at anode
Ease of Discharge At cathode: Cu 2+(aq) + 2e → Cu (s)
It is determined by the position of the At Anode: 4OH -(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
element in the Electrochemical Series
Overall equation for reaction
Electrochemical Series 2Cu 2+(aq) + 4OH -(aq) → 2Cu (s) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
By Defn: Electrochemical Series is an
arrangement of Elements depend on their Product
Ease in Gaining Electrons Copper metal will deposited at cathode,
oxygen gas will produced at anode and
Electrochemical Series water remain in the solution
Metal ions Least Non-metal Diagram
and hydrogen readily ions
K+ discharge NO3 -
Ca 2+ SO42-
Na + Cl -
Mg 2+ Br -
Increasing ease
of discharge
Al 3+ I-
Zn 2+ OH -
Fe 2+
Pb 2+
H+ Example
Most Electrolysis of sodium hydroxide solution with
Cu 2+
readily carbon cathode
Hg 2+
discharge Diagram
Ag +
Example
Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution
with graphite electrodes
Diagram
Component
Copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4)
Water (H2O) Component
Dissociation (Ions presents) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
compound Cation Anion Water (H2O)
Dissociation (Ions presents) compound Cation Anion
compound Cation Anion HCl (aq) H (aq)
+ Cl -(aq)
NaOH (aq) Na (aq)
+ OH -(aq) H2O (l) H +(aq) OH -(aq)
H2O (l) H +(aq) OH -(aq)
Migration
Migration cathode Anode
cathode Anode H +(aq) Cl -(aq)
Na +(aq) OH -(aq) H +(aq) OH -(aq)
H +(aq) OH -(aq)
Discharge
Discharge From Electrochemical Series Hydrogen
From Electrochemical Series Hydrogen Cation will discharge at cathode and
Cation will discharge at cathode and according to Concentration of Ions Chlorine
Hydroxyl anion will discharge at anode anion will discharge at anode instead of
At cathode: 2H +(aq) + 2e → H2 (g) hydroxyl anion
At Anode: 4OH -(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e At cathode: 2H +(aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
At Anode: 2Cl -(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e
4H +(aq) + 4OH -(aq) → 2H2 (g)+ 2H2O(l) + O2(g) Overall equation for reaction
2H +(aq) + 2Cl -(aq) → H2 (g)+ Cl2(g)
Product
Hydrogen gas will produced at cathode, Product
oxygen gas will produced at anode and Hydrogen gas will produced at cathode
water remain in the solution and chlorine gas will produced at anode
Concentration of Ions Nature of the Electrode Used

A high concentration of ions tends to favour The Nature of electrode used, Especially the
their discharge of the ions Cathode, also Determines which ions are
discharged
Example
Electrolysis of the concentrated solution of Example
Hydrochloric Acid with Carbon Electrode Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution with
Diagram mercury cathode
Diagram
Component
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Component Water (H2O)
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
Water (H2O) Dissociation (Ions presents)
compound Cation Anion
Dissociation (Ions presents) NaCl (aq) Na (aq)
+ Cl -(aq)

Migration
cathode Anode
Na +(aq) Cl -(aq)
H +(aq) OH -(aq)
Discharge
From Nature of the Electrode Used Sodium
Cation will discharge at cathode and
according to Electrochemical Series
Hydroxyl anion will discharge at anode
At cathode: Na +(aq) + e → Na (s)
At Anode: 4OH -(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
Overall equation for reaction Component

4Na +(aq) + 4OH -(aq) → 4Na (s) + 2H2O(l) + Sodium chloride (NaCl)
2O2(g) Water (H2O)
Dissociation (Ions presents)
Product compound Cation Anion
Sodium metal will deposited at cathode NaCl (aq) Na +(aq) Cl -(aq)
which dissolve in mercury to form Sodium H2O (l) H (aq)
+ OH -(aq)
Amalgam and chlorine gas will produced at
anode Migration
cathode Anode
Electrolysis of selected electrolytes Na +(aq) Cl -(aq)
The following is the selected electrolytes we
H +(aq) OH -(aq)
are going to study
i. Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride
Discharge
solution with carbon electrode
From Electrochemical Series Hydrogen
ii. Electrolysis of sodium hydroxide solution
with carbon electrode
iii. Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution
At cathode: 2H +(aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
iv. Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution
with copper electrode
v. Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid with
4H +(aq) + 4OH -(aq) → 2H2 (g)+ 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
carbon electrode
vi. Electrolysis of molten potassium iodide
Product
Hydrogen gas will produced at cathode
and oxygen gas will produced at anode
Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution
Nb:
Diagram
As process continue element of water will
decrease and finally NaCl become
concentrated and results discharge
chloride anion to produce chlorine gas
At Anode: 2Cl -(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e
Electrolysis of sodium hydroxide solution

Diagram

Component
Water (H2O)
CuSO4 (aq) Cu 2+(aq) SO42-(aq)
H2O (l) H (aq)
+ OH -(aq)
Component Migration
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) cathode Anode
Water (H2O) Cu 2+(aq) SO42-
Dissociation (Ions presents) H+ OH -(aq)
NaOH (aq) Na +(aq) OH -(aq) Discharge
H2O (l) H (aq)
+ OH -(aq) From Electrochemical Series copper Cation
will discharge at cathode and Hydroxyl
Migration anion will discharge at anode
cathode Anode At cathode: Cu 2+(aq) + 2e → Cu (s)
Na +(aq) OH -(aq) At Anode: 4OH -(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
H +(aq) OH -(aq)
Discharge 2Cu 2+(aq) + 4OH -(aq) → 2Cu (s) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Cation will discharge at cathode and Product
Hydroxyl anion will discharge at anode Copper metal will deposited at cathode,
At cathode: 2H +(aq) + 2e → H2 (g) oxygen gas will produced at anode and
At Anode: 4OH -(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e water remain in the solution
Diagram
4H +(aq) + 4OH -(aq) → 2H2 (g)+ 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Product
Hydrogen gas will produced at cathode,
oxygen gas will produced at anode and
water remain in the solution
Observation
Bubbles at electrode due to the formation Observation
of gases i. Solution turn blue colour due to the colour
of hydrated copper (II) sulphate
Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution ii. Mass of cathode increased due to
with carbon (graphite) electrode deposition of copper metal
Diagram iii. Mass of anode remains constant
iv. Bubbles at anode due to the formation of
oxygen gas

Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution iv. Intensity of the blue colour of the solution
with copper electrode remain the same
Diagram v. Concentration of copper (II) ions remains
constant in the solution
Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid with

carbon electrode
It conducted in electrolytic cell known as
Hoffman’s voltammeter
Diagram:
Component
Water (H2O)
CuSO4 (aq) Cu (aq)
2+ SO42-(aq)
Migration
cathode Anode
Cu 2+(aq) SO42- Component
H+ OH -(aq) Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
Water (H2O)
Discharge Dissociation (Ions presents)
From Electrochemical Series copper Cation compound Cation Anion
will discharge at cathode and according to H2SO4 (aq) H +(aq) SO4 2-(aq)
nature of anode used, copper anode will H2O (l) H (aq)
+ OH -(aq)
dissolved to form copper (II) ions into
solution Migration
At cathode: Cu 2+(aq) + 2e → Cu (s) cathode Anode
At Anode: Cu (s) → Cu 2+(aq) + 2e H +(aq) SO4 2-(aq)
H +(aq) OH -(aq)
Product
Copper metal will deposited at copper
Discharge
cathode
Diagram
At cathode: 2H +(aq) + 2e → H2 (g)

4H +(aq) + 4OH -(aq) → 2H2 (g)+ 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Product
Observation Hydrogen gas will produced at cathode,
i. Solution turn blue colour due to the colour oxygen gas will produced at anode and
of hydrated copper (II) sulphate water remain in the solution
ii. Mass of cathode increased due to
deposition of copper metal Observation
iii. Mass of decrease because copper i. Volume of hydrogen collected is
anode dissolved in solution approximately twice that of oxygen
because oxygen is more soluble in water

ii. Since involves element of water is called point in a circuit when a current of 1
electrolysis of water ampere flows for 1 second
iii. As process continue element of water will ii. Faraday (F): one Faraday is the quantity
decrease and finally sulphuric acid of electric charge carried by one mole of
become concentrated electrons
iii. Faraday constant: Faraday constant is
Electrolysis of molten potassium iodide with the amount of electric charge carried by
carbon electrode one mole of electron
Diagram iv. Electrochemical Equivalent (Z):
Electrochemical Equivalent is the mass of
the substance discharged/dissolved
when 1couloumb of electricity is passed
through an electrolyte. Its SI Unit is g/c
v. Chemical Equivalent: Chemical
Equivalent is the weight in grams of a
substance that combines with (displaces)
Component: potassium iodide (KI) one gram of hydrogen. It usually found by
Dissociation (Ions presents) dividing the formula weight by its Valence
vi. Electroplating: electroplating Is the
electrical deposition of one metal on
KI (l) K (l)
+ I -(l)
another
Migration
Category of Faraday Laws of Electrolysis
cathode Anode
There are two includes
K +(l) I -(l)
i. Faraday’s first law
ii. Faraday’s Second law
Discharge
Because only potassium Cation presents it First Faraday Law
will discharge at cathode and Iodide anion The law state that
will discharge at anode “The mass liberated during electrolysis is
At cathode: K +(l) + e → K (s) directly proportional to the Quantity of
At Anode: 2I -(l) → I2(g) + 2e Electricity transferred at that Electrode”
Mathematically
Overall equation for reaction M ∝ Q – remove proportionality constant
2K +(l) + 2I -(l) → I2(g) + I2(g)
M = ZQ
But: Q = It
Product Now: M=ZIt
Potassium metal will deposited at cathode, 𝑀𝑟
But: Z = VF
Iodine gas will produced at anode
𝑀𝑟 𝐼 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑀𝑟
Then: M = x It =
VF VF
Faraday Laws of Electrolysis 𝑰 𝒙 𝒕 𝒙 𝑴𝒓
The quantity (number of moles) of a M= 𝐕𝐅
substance produced at an electrode is From: M = ZQ – make Z subject
depends on three factors include 𝑀
Z = 𝑄 = g/c
i. Quantity of electricity passing through the
electrolyte per unit time SI Unit of Z is g/c
ii. Amount of time taken by the electric
current to pass through the electrolyte Where:
iii. The charge on an ion M = the mass liberated during electrolysis
Q= the Charge (Quantity of Electricity)
Term used Z = Electrochemical Equivalent
i. Coulomb: One Coulomb is the quantity of t = time taken for current to pass through
electric charge passes through at a given I = Current Electricity
Mr = Relative Atomic Mass
V = Valence (number of charge)
F = 96500 C
Electrochemical Equivalent of substances m=?
substance Z (g/c) Solution
𝐼 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑀𝑟
Hydrogen 1.045 x 10-5 From: M = VF
Silver 1.008 x 10-3 𝐼 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑀𝑟 3.2 𝑥 1800 𝑥 63.5
M= =
Oxygen 8.290 x 10-5 VF 2 x 96500
Copper 3.290 x 10-4 M = 1.895 = 1.90

M = 1.90 g
Gold 6.810 x 10-4
chromium 1.800 x 10-4
Example
Calculate the mass of magnesium metal
Example
that will be produced during the electrolysis
How long should a 5A be passed through a
during the electrolysis of molten magnesium
solution of silver chloride in order to deposit
chloride if a current of 1.93 A is passed
3.24 Kg of silver at the cathode (Z = 1.118 x
through for 16 minutes and 40 seconds
10-3 g/c)
(Mg = 24, Cl = 35.5)
Data
Data
M = 3.24 kg = 0.00324 g
I = 1.93 A
Z = 0.001118 x 10-3 g/c
t = 16 min + 40 sec = 1000 sec
1F = 96500 C
Mr = 24 g/mol
I = 5A
v=2
t=?
F = 96500 C
Solution
m=?
From: M=ZIt – make t subject
𝑀 0.00324 Solution
t = 𝐼 𝑥 𝑍 = 5 𝑥 0.001118 = 0.58 s 𝐼 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑀𝑟
From: M = VF
t = 0.58 s 𝐼 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑀𝑟 1.93 𝑥 1000 𝑥 24
M= =
VF 2 x 96500
Faraday’s Constant M = 0.24
By Defn: Faraday’s Constant is the amount M = 0.24 g
of electric Charge carried by one mole (n)
of electrons Example
Since: A steady current of 2 A is passed through a
1 mole of electron, N = 1.602 x10-19 C solution containing ions of a metal M 2+ for
1 mole of electron (LA) = 6.022 x1023 nine minutes. The mass of metal M is that
electrons liberated is 0.3555 g. calculate the relative
From: N = nLA – make n subject atomic mass of metal M and name metal M
n =N/L Data
n = 1.022x10-19/6.022x1023 I=2A
n = 9.647x104 ≈ 96500C t = 9 min = 540 sec
From: definition of faraday constant v=2
1n = 1F F = 96500 C
m = 0.3555 g
1n =1F = 1e = 96500C Mr = ?
Solution
Example 𝐼 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑀𝑟
From: M = VF – make Mr subject
A current of 3.2A is passed through a 𝑀𝑥𝑉𝑥𝐹 0.3555 𝑥 2 𝑥 96500
solution of copper (II) sulphate for 30 Mr = =
𝐼𝑥𝑡 2 x 540
minutes. What is the mass of copper Mr = 63.529 = 63.5
deposited at the cathode (Cu = 63.5, S = 32, Mr = 63.5 g/mol and metal M is copper
O = 16)
Data Second Faraday Law
I = 3.2 A Consider the diagram below
t = 30 min = 1800 sec
Mr = 63.5 g/mol
v=2
“When the same Quantity of Electric Current
Passes through Different Electrolyte during
electrolysis, the relative number of moles of
elements deposited are inversely
proportional to the number of charges on
the ions”
For First Electrolyte
1
n1 = 𝑣1…………… (1)
For Second Electrolyte

1
n2 = = 𝑣2 …………… (2)
The law state that
“When the same Charge (Quantity of Then: Divide Equation (1) to Equation (2)
Electric Current) Passes through Different 𝒏𝟏 𝑽𝟐
Electrolyte during electrolysis, the mass = 𝒗𝟏
𝒏𝟐
liberated is directly proportional to the
Chemical Equivalent” Example
Mathematically: M = KE A current of 10 000A is passed through an
But: K = 1 electrolytic cell for purifying copper for 12hrs
Then: M = E (a) What mass of pure copper is deposited
But: E = Mr/V at the cathode?
(b) What mass of aluminium would be
Where: deposited if the cell was changed to
M = the mass liberated during electrolysis refine aluminium?
K = the Constant (Cu=63.5, Al=27 and ZCu=3.29 x 10 -4)
E = the Chemical Equivalent Solution:
Mr = Relative Atomic Mass (a) Data
V = Valence (number of charge) I = 10 000 A
t = 12 hrs = 720 min = 43 200 sec
For First Electrolyte Mr = 63.5 g/mol
M1 = E1 …………… (1) v=2
F = 96500 C
For Second Electrolyte M1 = ?
M2 = E2 …………… (2) Solution
Then: Divide Equation (1) to Equation (2) From: M1 = VF
𝐼 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑀𝑟
𝐼 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑀𝑟 10000 𝑥 43200 𝑥 63.5

𝑴𝟏 𝑬𝟏 M1 = =
= 𝑬𝟐 VF
M1 = 142 134.715 g = 142.1 kg
2 x 96500
𝑴𝟐
M1 = 142.1 Kg
Then: Substitute eqn E = Mr/V into eqn M = E
M=E= 𝑉
𝑀𝑟 (b) Data
𝑀𝑟 Copper
M= – divide both sides with Mr M1 = 142.1 Kg
𝑉
𝑀 1 𝑀𝑟 63.5
=𝑉 E1 = 𝑉 = 2 = 31.75
𝑀𝑟
𝑀
But: =n Copper
𝑀𝑟
𝟏 M2 = ?
n=𝑽 𝑀𝑟 27
E2 = 𝑉 = 9 = 9
Form above relation second faraday law Solution
M1 E1
can also be states as From: M2 = E2 – make M2 subject
M1 x E2 142.1 x 9
M2 = = = 40.28
E1 31.75
The law state that
M2 = 40.28 Kg

Example 2mole of O2- = 1mole of O2
A current flowing through an electrolyte cell 0.05 moles of O2- = x mole of O2
deposits 0.25 g of silver at a certain time X = (0.05 x 1)/2 = 0.025
internal. How much copper would be X = 0.025 Moles
deposited from a solution of Copper (II)
sulphate in the same time internal using the Then: n = V/GMV – make V subject
same current? (Ag=108 Cu=63.5) V = n x GMV = 0.025 x 22400
Data V = 0.025 x 22400 = 560 cm3
Silver V = 560 cm3
M1= 0.25 g
E1=Mr/v = 108/1 =108 Example: Lambert chap. 6, Qn 8, 6th Edition
Copper How many moles of electrons are required
E2 = Mr/V = 63.5/2 = 31.75 to produce by electrolysis?
M2 = ? (a) 27grams of aluminium?
Solution (b) 8 grams of oxygen?
M1 E1
From: M2 = E2 – make M2 subject
M1 x E2 0.25 x 31.75 (a) Data
M2 = = = 0.073495
E1 108 M = 27g
M2 = 0.074 g Mr = 27g/mol
na = m/Mr = 27/27 = 1mole
Example: Lambert chap. 6, Qn 7, 6th Edition ne = ?
What mass of silver and what volume of From: Al3+ + 3e → Al
oxygen (measured at STP) would be 3mole of e = 1mole of Al
liberated in electrolysis by 9650 coulombs of x moles e = 1 mole of Al
electricity? x = (3x1)/1 = 3moles
Data: Silver ne = 3moles
Mr = 108 g/mol
Q = 9650 C (b) Data
v=1 M = 8g
F = 96500 C Mr = O2 = (16 x 2) = 32g/mol
M1 = ? na = m/Mr = 8/32 = 0.25mole
Solution ne = ?
𝑄 𝑥 𝑀𝑟
From: M = VF From: 2O 2- → O2 + 4e
M=
𝑄 𝑥 𝑀𝑟
=
1960 𝑥 108 4mole of e = 1mole of O2
VF 1 x 96500
x moles of e = 0.25 mole of O2
M = 10.8 g
x = (4 * 0.25)/1 = 1mole
M = 10.8 g
ne = 1moles
Volume of oxygen at STP
Example:Lambert chap.6,Qn11(b),6th Edition
Data: Silver
Calculate the mass of each product of
Mr = 16 g/mol
electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution
Q = 9650 C
by using platinum electrode if the current
v=1
were stopped after the passage of
F = 96500 C
0.01faraday
GMV = 22400 cm3
First: find moles of oxide ions
𝑄 𝑥 𝑀𝑟 Example: Lambert chap. 6, Qn 14, 6th Edition
From: M = VF – divide by Mr both sides 0.02 moles of electrons were passed through
𝑀 𝑄
= n = VF = a solution of sodium hydroxide using
mr
𝑄 9650 platinum electrode
n = VF = 2 x 96500 = 0.05 moles of O 2-
(a) Give the names of the gases evolved
n = 0.05 moles of O 2- and the name or signs of the electrodes
at which they were produced
Then: 2O2- → O2 + 4e
Therefore:

(b) Draw a labelled diagram of a suitable
apparatus for this electrolysis and for the
collection of the product
(c) Represents the reactions taking place at
the electrodes by ionic equations
(d) Calculate number of moles of each gas
produced and also the volume which
each gas occupied at STP
(e) Calculate the time required to complete
the passage of 0.02 faradays if a current
of 2A were passed through the solution
(f) Write an equation to represent the
reaction which would take place if the
volumes of gases mentioned in (d) were
mixed and ignited. State the number of
moles of the product which would be
formed
Example: Lambert chap. 6, Qn 16, 6th Edition

An element X has a relative atomic mass of
88. When a current of 0.5A was passed
through the fused chloride of X for 32
minutes and 1o second, 0.44g of X was
deposited at the cathode
(a) Calculate the number of faraday
needed to liberate 1 mole of X
(b) Write the formula for the X ions
(c) Write the formula for the hydroxide of X
Example: Lambert chap. 6, Qn 17, 6th Edition

0.2 faraday of electricity were passed
through solution of (a) Copper (II) sulphate
(b) dilute sulphuric acid. Calculate the mass
of copper liberated in (a) and the volume
of hydrogen evolved at STP in (b)
Application of Electrolysis
The following are some of industrial
application of electrolysis.
i. It used for Production of gases
ii. It used for Electroplating
iii. It used to Purification of copper
iv. It used in Extraction of Most Reactive
Metal

Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium Rate of chemical reaction can be fast or
In this topic we will discuss the following slow, consider the following Rate of
i. Chemical kinetics chemical reaction
ii. Chemical equilibrium
High rate of chemical reaction
Chemical kinetics High rate of chemical reaction are all
By defn: Chemical kinetics is the study of the chemical reaction which takes short time to
rate of chemical reactions complete reaction, for example
i. Neutralization of an acid and base
Rate of Chemical Reaction ii. Reaction of both colourless potassium
By defn: Rate of Chemical Reaction is the iodide and lead nitrate to formed yellow
measure of the progress of the reaction per lead iodide
unit time. It determined by measuring KI + Pb(NO3)2 → PbI2 + K(NO3)
amount of reactants used up or amount of iii. Precipitation of many substance like silver
product formed at particular time taken chloride (Formation of silver halides)
Mathematically By defn: halide is the compound formed
𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅
Rate = whereby one element is a group VII
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
element (halogens)
Or
𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅
Rate = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 Low rate of chemical reaction
Low rate of chemical reaction are all
Nb: chemical reaction which takes long time to
Amount of reactants used up or amount of complete reaction, for example
product formed at particular time taken i. Combination of hydrogen and oxygen in
can be a volume or mass absence of catalyst
ii. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in
Collision theory absence of manganese (IV) oxide
Reaction occurs due to approach and catalyst
collision of reactant particles (atoms, ions or H2O2 (l) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
molecules) which possess a certain iii. Rusting
minimum amount of energy that result 𝑋𝐻2 𝑂
4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3.xH2O(s)
chemical reactions
Factors affecting rate of chemical reaction
Nb:
The follows are main factors that affect the
i. Not all collisions succeed in producing a
rate of chemical reaction
chemical reaction
i. Change in Temperature
ii. succeed collisions which producing a
ii. Concentration
chemical reaction is called effective
iii. Surface area of reactant
collision
iv. Addition of Catalyst
v. Change in Pressure
Activation Energy
vi. Light
By defn: Activation Energy is the minimum
energy possessed by reactant particles in
Change in Temperature
order to undergo a chemical reaction
Increases the temperature tends to
increases the rate of chemical reaction by
Nb:
increase more effective collision of
i. Activation Energy is used to break the
reactants particles by increase kinetic
bonds in the reactants so that new bonds
energy and activation energy of reactant
can be formed in the products
particles
ii. All reactants particle must possess
Activation Energy for a complete
Concentration
reaction to occur
Increases the concentration tends to
increases the rate of chemical reaction by
Comparison of rate of chemical reaction
increases more effective collision of
reactants particles by increased likelihood chloride decopose to form ammonia and
of reactant particles hydrogen
NH4Cl (s) ⇌ NH3 (g) + HCl (g)
Surface area of reactant
Increases the Surface area tends to Chemical equilibrium
increases the rate of chemical reaction by By defn: Chemical equilibrium is the relative
increases more effective collision of stability of the reactant and the products
reactants particles by increase more
number of reactant particles to collides Equilibrium reaction
By defn: Equilibrium reaction Is the reversible
Addition of catalyst reaction whereby reaction attain
Catalyst increases the rate of chemical equilibrium point in closed system
reaction by lowering the activation energy Diagram:
required to start a reaction
Change in Pressure
From Boyle’s law pressure and volume are
inversely related so increase in pressure tend
to increase rate of chemical reaction by
decrease volume of reactants result greater
chance of collision
Light Terms used

Light increase rate of reaction some i. Closed system: Closed system is the
reaction like photosynthesis process in plant, situation of reversible reaction where no
present of light favour production of product (s) or reactant (s) escape to the
carbohydrate and when absent no outside environment
photosynthesis process happen ii. Equilibrium point: Equilibrium point is the
point whereby the rate of forward
Types of Chemical Reaction reaction and backward reaction are the
There are two types of chemical reaction same
includes iii. Dynamic equilibrium: Dynamic
i. Irreversible Reaction equilibrium is the situation whereby
ii. Irreversible Reaction reaction goes both forward and
backward direction at the same time
Irreversible Reaction
By defn: Irreversible Reaction is the kind of Nb:
chemical reaction which proceeds only in i. At equilibrium the rate of product formed
forward direction. It represent by a single and product changed back to reactant
arrow which means proceeds in forward are the same
direction (→). For example Reaction
between magnesium metal and dilute Different between equilibrium reaction and
hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride salt simple reversible reaction
and hydrogen gas Equilibrium Simple reversible
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) reversible reaction
Dynamic in nature Does in forward and
Reversible Reaction backward and
By defn: reversible Reaction is the kind of finally stops
chemical reaction which proceeds forward Must be in closed Not in closed system
and backward direction. It represent by an system
double arrow which means proceeds in Reaches an Not Reaches an
forward and backward direction (⇌).For equilibrium point equilibrium point
example on gently heating ammonium
Le Chatelier’s Principle
It states that Product particle = 4
’’If a system at equilibrium is subjected to This type of reactions favour low pressure
change, processes occur which tend to forward direction since products has high
counteract the change’’ number of particle and vice versa
Or
’’If stress is applied to a system at Example
equilibrium, the system readjusts, if possible, CO (g) + H2O (g) ⇄ CO2(g) + H2(g)
to reduce the effect of the stress’’ Reactant particle = 2
Product particle = 2
Factors affect position of equilibrium Has equal number of gaseous molecules on
The factors affect position of equilibrium both sides. Changing the overall pressure
include the following will not affect the state of equilibrium
i. Concentration
ii. Pressure Example
iii. Temperature H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⇄ 2HCl(g)
Reactant particle = 2
Concentration Product particle = 2
The reaction always shift (proceeds) from Has equal number of gaseous molecules on
the side of high concentration to low both sides. Changing the overall pressure
concentration will not affect the state of equilibrium
Pressure Example
Pressure depends on number of particles Determine whether the following reactions
reactants side and product side to favor high or low pressures?
determine the direction of reaction. (a) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇄ 2 SO3(g)
Increase in pressure cause reaction to shift (b) PCl5(g) ⇄ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
(proceeds) from the side of high number of (c) CO(g) + 2H2(g) ⇄ CH3OH(g)
particles to low number of particles (d) N2O4(g) ⇄ 2 NO2(g)
(e) H2(g) + F2(g) ⇄ 2 HF(g)
Nb: Pressure affects only gaseous Solution
components (a) high pressures
(b) high pressures
Example (c) high pressures
Consider the reaction of reddish brown (d) low pressures
nitrogen dioxide to form yellow Dinitrogen (e) high or low pressures will not affect the
tetraoxide state of equilibrium
2NO2 (g) ⇌ N2O4 (g)
Reactant particle = 2 Temperature
Product particle = 1 Temperature affect equilibrium in two
Increase in pressure will favour forward dimensions either reaction is
direction since reactant has high number of i. Endothermic reaction
particle and vice versa ii. Exothermic release reaction
Example Endothermic reaction

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇄ 2 NH3(g) By defn: Endothermic reaction is the
Reactant particle = 4 reaction absorbs heat energy from
Product particle = 2 surrounding. Increase in temperature favour
Increase in pressure will favour forward endothermic reaction. It denoted by +∆H kJ
direction since reactant has high number of mol -1. For Example
particle and vice versa i. Dissolving ammonium chloride in water
ii. Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water
Example iii. Mixing water and potassium chloride
CH4(g) + H2O(g) ⇄ CO(g) + 3H2(g), iv. Photosynthesis
Reactant particle = 2
Energy level diagram
Energy (heat) change can be represented
on a graph paper in which x-axis represents
energy and y-axis represents reaction path
Diagram:
Activation energy (AE) also can be shown in

an energy level diagram
Diagram:
Activation energy (AE) also can be shown in

an energy level diagram
Diagram:
Where
Ea = activation energy
∆H = -∆H = (Hp – Hr) = exothermic energy
Hp = final (product) temperature
Hr = initial (reactant) temperature
Where
Ea = activation energy Example
∆H = +∆H = (Hp – Hr) = endothermic energy Determine whether the following reactions
Hp = final (product) temperature favour high or low temperature?
Hr = initial (reactant) temperature (a) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇄ 2 SO3(g) ∆H = -180 kJ
(b) CO(g) + H2O(g) ⇄ CO2(g) + H2(g) ∆H = -46 kJ
Exothermic release reaction (c) CO(g) + Cl2(g) ⇄ COCl2(g) ∆H = -108.3 kJ
By defn: Exothermic reaction is the reaction (d) N2O4(g) ⇄ 2 NO2(g) ∆H = +57.3 kJ
release heat energy from surrounding. (e) CO(g) + 2H2(g) ⇄ CH3OH(g) ∆H = -270 kJ
Increase in temperature favour exothermic Solution
reaction. It denoted by -∆H kJ mol -1 for (a) Favour low temperature
Example (b) Favour low temperature
i. Combustion reactions (c) Favour low temperature
ii. Mixing of water and strong acids like (d) Favour high temperature
Concentrated HCl (e) Favour low temperature
Energy level diagram Example

Energy (heat) change can be represented A solution of sodium hydroxide is added to a
on a graph paper in which x-axis represents solution of hydrochloric acid
energy and y-axis represents reaction path (a) Given that both solution are at room
Diagram: temperature of 18℃, what type of
reaction takes place if the final steady
temperature of reaction mixture is 36℃
(b) Draw an energy level diagram for the
reaction
Solution
(a) Data
Hp = 36℃
Hr = 18℃
∆H = ? The reactants should mixed in stoichiometric
From: ∆H = (Hp – Hr)= (36 – 18) ℃ = 18℃ proportions of nitrogen and hydrogen (that
∆H = +18℃ is, 1 volume of N2 to 3 volume of H2) and
The reaction is endothermic reaction carrying out the reaction at high pressure,
the percent yield of ammonia is between
(b) (15 - 20)%
Effect of temperature
The reaction is exothermic reaction but in
this process temperature supplied is about
250 oC. This temperature is high enough to
enable the production of ammonia to
proceed at acceptable rate
Effect of pressure
Nb: Pressure about (200-300) atm supplied to
i. The study of energy change that enable the production of ammonia to
accompany chemical reactions is proceed at acceptable rate. Ammonia
called Thermochemistry condenses to a liquid under conditions at
ii. Energy (kinetic and potential)used to which nitrogen and hydrogen exist as gases
breaking intermolecular bond
iii. The sum of kinetic energy and potential Effect of catalyst
energy is called heat content or Iron is used as catalyst to speed up the
enthalpy reaction
iv. The energy gained or lost during
chemical reaction when molar quantity Effect of Concentration
are reacting is called enthalpy change However, equilibrium is shifted to the right by
in chemical reaction adding more N2 and H2 gases and
v. enthalpy change in chemical reaction simultaneously removing the ammonia as it
has a SI unit of kJ mol -1 is formed
vi. enthalpy change in chemical reaction It
denoted by delta H (∆H) Nb:
vii. enthalpy change in chemical reaction is i. The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen
obtained by subtract heat content of are recycled, together with the newly
reactant (Hr) from heat content of added batch of reactants
product (Hp) ii. In the above process, hydrogen is
Mathematically obtained from natural gas by the
∆H = (Hp – Hr) following reactions
CH4(g) + H2O(g) ⇄ CO(g) + 3H2(g)
2CH4(g) + O2(g) ⇄ 2CO(g) + 4H2(g)
Industrially Important Chemical Equilibrium
Many important processes in chemical
industries involve shifting equilibrium to make Contact Process
the most of product at the lowest cost. The The production of sulfuric acid starts with the
following are some of the examples following steps, include
i. Haber Process i. formation of sulfur dioxide
ii. Contact Process ii. formation of sulfur trioxide
iii. Production of Lime iii. formation of disulfuric acid
iv. formation of sulfuric acid
Haber process
In the Haber process, nitrogen and Formation of sulfur dioxide
hydrogen gases are fixed to form ammonia Formation of sulfur dioxide gas can be done
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇄ 2 NH3(g) ∆H = -92 kJ by the following methods
i. burning sulfur in dry air
2S (s) + O2(g)  2SO2(g) Formation of Sulfuric Acid
disulfuric acid, H2S2O7, is allowed to react
ii. combustion of hydrogen sulfide with water to form sulfuric acid
2 H2S(g) + 3 O2(g)  2 SO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)  2H2SO4(l)
iii. roasting processes of metal sulfides such Production of Lime

as FeS2 and FeCuS2 Lime is produced by heating calcium
4FeS2(s) + 11O2(g)  2Fe2O3(s) + carbonate:
8SO2(g) CaCO3(s) ⇄ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
4FeCuS2(s) + 7O2(g)  2Fe2O3(s) +
4CuS(s) + 4SO2(g) The reaction is carried out at high
temperature (900 - 1000 oC) and the
Formation of Sulfur Trioxide equilibrium is shifted to the right by
The next step, in the contact process, sulfur continuously removing the CO2 gas
dioxide is converted to sulfur trioxide (SO3)
according to the following equation, which Used of Lime
is exothermic and reversible i. it is used for making mortar
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇄ 2 SO3(g) ∆H = -198 kJ ii. it is used for making plasters
iii. it is used as a cheap base in industry
Effect of Pressure iv. it is used for treating acidic soil and in
The forward reaction favors high pressure. basic metal processing
Product formation is also favoured by v. it is used to manufacture of glasses
carrying out the reaction at high pressure vi. it used in water purification
Effect of Temperature
The forward reaction favors low
temperature but at low temperature the
reaction is very, very slow because the
reaction has a very activation energy. The
reaction is normally carried out at
temperature between (400 – 500) ℃.
Increasing the temperature much higher will
speed up reaction, but lowers the product
yield. Thus, the temperature condition is
compromised - high enough to make the
reaction proceeds at a reasonable rate but
low enough that it gives a reasonable yield
Effect of Catalyst
To attain the equilibrium faster, vanadium
pentaoxide or platinum is used as catalyst
Effect of concentration
The reaction is also driven in the forward
direction, favoring the formation of SO3, by
continuously adding SO2 and O2 and
simultaneously removing SO3.
Formation of Disulfuric Acid

The SO3 gas is dissolved in liquid
(concentrated) sulfuric acid to form
disulfuric acid
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l)  H2S2O7(l)

Extraction and Properties of Metals
Metals Chemical Properties of Metals
By defn: Metals is the elements which form Chemical strength against Physical strength
positive ions by losing electrons Physical strength refers to the ability of the
metal to withstand force on it without
Nb: breaking. Physical strength also is known as
i. Since metals They form positive ions by tensile strength
losing electrons are also known as Chemical strength refers to the measure of
electropositive elements how readily metal takes part in a chemical
ii. The most abundant metal in the earth’s reaction. May be very
crust is aluminium i. reactive, least reactive and Unreactive
iii. The second most abundant metal in the metals Very reactive metals include K, Na
earth's crust is iron etc
iv. Metals are present on the left side of the ii. Least reactive metals include Gold, silver
periodic table etc
Group
s I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 1 4 Redox reaction involve metals
1H 2He
When metal combine chemically with other
Periods
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
2 3Li 4Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 10Ne
substance, metals give electrons to the
23 24 27 28 31 32 36
3 11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si 15P 16S 18Ar
35.5
17Cl other element. This tendency to lose
39 40
4 19K 20Ca electrons and form Cation is called
v. Example of Some of the metals are Iron, Electropositivity
Aluminium, Copper, Silver, Gold, Platinum,
Zinc, Tin, Lead, Mercury, Sodium, Reducing Power of metal
Potassium and Magnesium It refers to the ability of metals to lose the
vi. Metals exist in nature either in free electrons in the outer most shell
element (gold, silver and platinum) or in
compound form (metals oxides, Example
carbonates, sulphates or complex Lithium [2:1] is more difficult to lose electrons
compound (more than one compound)) because it is very closer to nuclear which
vii. Minerals is a Metallic compound occur experience strong nuclear force than
in the earth crust together with impurities potassium [2:8:8:1] because the outermost
(sand, mud, rock particles etc) shell electrons are not near to the strong
viii. Ore is a mineral that contain large nuclear force
portion of metallic compound that has
an economic value Nb:
ix. Mining is the process of extracting ore or i. More difficult to lose require more energy
minerals from the ground (poor ability)
ii. Easily to lose require low energy (more
Physical properties of metals ability)
i. They are Good electrical conductors iii. Reducing power increase down the
ii. They are Good heat conductors group and decrease across the period
iii. They are Malleable (ability to bend or to from left to right due to increase number
be hammered into other shapes without of electrons to make noble gas (more
breaking) stable)
iv. They are Ductile ( ability to drawn
(stretched) into wire) Reactivity series of metals
v. They are shiny luster Reactivity series refers to the arrangement
vi. They are Opaque as thin sheet of metals according to the reducing power
vii. They are Solid at room temperature or reactivity
except Mercury
viii. The branch of science concerned with Nb:
the properties production and The high the reducing power the more
purification of metal I called Metallurgy reactive
Due to importance reference of carbon
Reactivity series of some metals and hydrogen in the extraction of metals
K Potassium most reactive and in the reaction of the metals with water
Na Sodium it is included in the reactivity series. They are
Ca Calcium reducing agents just like a metal even is
Mg Magnesium non-metal
Al Aluminium
C Carbon Carbon
Zn Zinc Carbon due to its reducing power is placed
Fe Iron between aluminium and zinc in the
Sn Tin reactivity series. Metals below zinc are
Pb Lead extracted by reducing their oxides by using
H Hydrogen carbon or carbon monoxide. Metals above
carbon in reactivity series are extracted by
Cu Copper
electrolysis
Ag Silver
2CuO (s) + C(s) 2Cu(s) + CO2 (g)
Au Gold
least reactive 2PbO (s) + C(s) 2Pb(s) + CO2 (g)
Pt Platinum
Hydrogen
Displacement reaction involving metals
Hydrogen due to its reducing power is
Takes place when most reactive atom,
placed between lead and copper in the
element or radical takes place of least
reactivity series
reactive of another
Nb:
Example
i. Metals below hydrogen cannot react
Consider the reaction of
with acid because hydrogen are most
Iron metal and hydrochloric acid to form
reactive than those below hydrogen in
iron (iii) chloride and hydrogen gas
reactive series
2Fe(s) +6HCl (aq) 2FeCl3 (aq) + 3H2
ii. The reaction is similar to the reaction with
(g)
water
Iron takes place of Hydrogen
iii. The metal which cannot replace
hydrogen whether in acid or water are
Example
used in jewellery like copper, silver, gold
When iron metal is added to blue colour of
and platinum.
copper (ii) sulphate changes to pale green
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) 2ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
due to formation of iron (ii) sulphate solution.
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Fe(s) +CuSO4 (aq) 2FeSO4 (aq) +
Cu(s)
Uses of Metals
Iron takes place of copper
Metals or alloys (mixture of metals) they
have a number of uses in our daily life as
Nb:
i. Used to make cooking utensils
Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid
ii. Used to make electric wires
more vigorous than zinc because it found
iii. Used to make sewing machines
higher in the reactivity series than zinc
iv. Used to make body of cars
v. Used to make body of trains
Example
vi. Used to make body of ships
When zinc metal is added to blue colour of
vii. Used to make body of aeroplanes
copper (ii) sulphate changes to brown due
to formation of zinc (ii) sulphate solution.
Zn(s) +CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
Iron takes place of copper
Carbon and Hydrogen in the reactivity

series

Extraction of metals If metal ore occur as sulphides, the
By defn: Extraction of metal is the process concentrated ore is heated in air to convert
whereby pure metal obtained from an ore the ore from sulphide compound to Oxide
compound
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Stages of the extraction of metals Metal sulphide → metal oxide (s) + SO2 (g)
There are four common stages include
i. Concentration of the Ore Chemical equation
ii. Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide 2Cu2S(s) + 3 O2 (g) 2SO2 (g) + 2Cu2O (s)
iii. Reduction 2FeS (s) + 2O2 (g) 2SO2 (g) + 2FeO (s)
iv. Purifying the Metal
Nb:
Concentration of the Ore i. Roasting usually involve greater chemical
It involves the removing the impurities change such as oxidation or chlorination
present in the metal ore ii. Roasting take place in a furnace
Method used to remove impurities Reduction

Impurities is removed by the follows methods Reduction is the process whereby oxygen is
i. Dressing removed from a metal oxide
ii. Calcination
NB
Dressing i. Reduction by carbon is called Smelting
Dressing is the removal of impurities from the ii. Reduction by heating in the presence of
metal Ore without decomposing the ore air is called Autoreduction
chemically iii. Reduction by passing electricity in the
compound solution is called electrolysis
Nb: iv. Reduction by forming precipitate is called
i. The main impurities which are removed precipitation
during the dressing of metal ores are v. Reduction by forming amalgam is called
Sand, Limestone, Quartz, Silicates amalgamation
ii. Ore is broken down into small pieces vi. Impure metal from reduction is known as
which are then ground to fine powder crude Metal
iii. Fine powder fed into water tanks
containing frothing chemical for froth Method used to extract different metal ore
flotation Less electropositive
metal oxides and
Calcination sulphides such a lead,
Calcination is heating of metal ore of Autoreduction mercury and copper.
hydrated oxide or carbonate in the HgS is reduced to
absence of Air below its melting point mercury using this
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Metal oxide.XH2O → Metal oxide(s) + method
XH2O(g) The oxides, hydroxide or
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Metal carbonate → Metal oxide (s) + CO2 chlorides of more
reactive metal like
(g) Electrolysis
sodium, calcium,
Nb: magnesium and
i. small molecules such as water, carbon aluminium
dioxide or Sulphur dioxide are usually The oxides of less
expelled from the ore reactive metals. A
ii. Calcination and roasting take place in a solution containing the
furnace Precipitation metal’s ion is reacted
with a more reactive
Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide metal. The more reactive
metal displaces the less

reactive metal from the i. crude metal contains impurities such as
solution other metals, non-metals such as Silicon
Less reactive metals like and phosphorus and unreduced oxides
silver and gold. The finely and sulphides of the metals
crushed ore is brought ii. Some impurities are also introduced in the
Amalgamation into contact with process when preparing the metal ore for
mercury which forms an reduction
alloy (amalgam) with the
metal Extraction of most reactive metals
It found in compound, the most reactive
Purifying the Metal metal is all four above in reactivity series like
Purifying the Metal Is the process whereby potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium
crude Metal Purified to get pure metal and aluminium. It can by the following
methods
Methods used to Purifying the Metal
i. Distillation of crude metal Concentration of the Ore
ii. Oxidation of crude metal It involves the removing the impurities
iii. Electro-refining(Electrolysis) of crude present in the metal ore; it may by Dressing
metal or Calcination
Distillation of crude metal Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide

The crude metal is heated in a furnace until If metal ore occur as sulphides, the
the pure metal evaporates, leaving behind concentrated ore is heated in air to convert
the impurities. The vapour is then collected the ore from sulphide compound to Oxide
and condensed in separated chamber compound
Oxidation of crude metal Reduction

The molten crude metal is heated in air in Most reactive metal reduced by electrolysis
furnace. The impurities are oxidized and to obtain a pure metal
escape as a vapour or form of scum over
the molten metal. The scum is then removed Purifying the Metal
by skimming Most reactive Metal forming crude Metal
Purified to get pure metal whether by
Nb: Distillation of crude metal or Oxidation of
i. Skimming is the remove a substance from crude metal or Electro-refining(Electrolysis)
the surface of a liquid of crude metal
ii. Skimming is used only when the impurities
have a greater affinity for oxygen than
the metal
iii. Affinity is the degree to which a
substance tends to combine with another
Electrolysis of crude metal

The crude metal is moulded into blocks and
made the anode of an electrolytic cell. The
cathode is usually made up of a thin plate
of the pure metal. When a current is passed
the anode dissolves and the pure metal is
deposited on the cathode. The soluble
impurities go into solution while the insoluble
impurities settle down below the anode as
anode mud or sludge
Nb:
Extraction of Sodium iv. The large Graphite anode is used to
Sodium does not occur naturally as a free facilitate maximum oxidation of chlorine
element. This is because it is too reactive. ions to chlorine gas
However, it is abundant different compound v. The large Graphite anode is used
such as maximizes the formation of sodium metal
i. NaCl - common salt at cathode
ii. NaNO3 - chile salt petre
iii. Na2SO4.10H2O - Glauber‘s salt Component
iv. Na2B4O7.10H2O - Borax (sodium Molten sodium Chloride (NaCl)
tetraborate sodium borate) Molten Calcium chloride (CaCl 2)
Nb: The main ore used is NaCl Dissociation (Ions presents)
Extraction methods NaCl (l) Na +(l) Cl -(l)
Concentration of the Ore CaCl2 (l) Ca (l)
2+ Cl -(l)
The sodium chloride is collected
Migration
Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide cathode Anode
Since sodium chloride does not contain Na +(l) Cl -(l)
sulphur it is not roasted Ca 2+(l) Cl -(l)
Reduction Discharge
Sodium chloride reduced by electrolysis to From concentration Sodium Cation will
obtain a crude metal discharge at cathode and chlorine anion
will discharge at anode
Electrolysis to obtain a pure metal At cathode: Na +(l) + e → Na (s)
Molten mixture of Sodium chloride (NaCL) At Anode: Cl -(l) → Cl2(g) + e
and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) in a Downs
cell at 600oC. The cell has a graphite anode Product
and a circular iron cathode, both covered Chlorine liberated at the cathode rises up
and with proper outlets through a pipe and gets collected in a
Diagram: receiver in the molten state and chlorine will
produced at anode and water remain in
the solution
Nb:
i. Chlorine collects in the inverted trough
(Hood) placed over the cathode, rises up
the pipe, and is tapped off through an
iron vessel
ii. The sodium metal is collected upwards
because of its low density which makes it
to float over the mixture
Nb:
i. Calcium Chloride (CaCl 2) is added to
Purifying the sodium Metal
sodium chloride to lower the melting
The sodium metal collected from the Downs
point of sodium chloride from 774oC to
cell contains some Calcium, which is also
about 600oC
formed through electrolysis. Calcium
ii. Sodium and chlorine produced would
crystallizes when the mixture cools and a
react violently if allowed to come into
relatively pure sodium metal is obtained
contact
iii. steel gauze (Diaphragm) around the
anode to keep the two products apart
introduced to prevent reaction between
Sodium and chlorine produced

Extraction of aluminium i. Cryolite (Na3AlF6) is added to alumina to
Aluminium does not occur naturally as a lower the melting point of alumina to
free element. This is because it is too about (800 – 900)℃
reactive. However, it is abundant different ii. When electrolysis conducted at high
compound such as temperature aluminium formed would
i. Al2O3.2H2O - bauxite vaporize
ii. Na3AlF6 - Cryolite iii. Cryolite (Na3AlF6) is added to improve the
iii. KAlSi3O8 - felspar electrical conductivity of alumina
iv. Al2Si2O7.2H2O - Kaolin
Nb: The main ore used is bauxite and Component
Cryolite Molten Alumina - Al2O3(l)
Extraction methods compound Cation Anion
Concentration of the Ore Al2O3(l) Al (l)
3+ O 2-(l)
The bauxite is collected, crushing and then
purified from iron and silicon impurities by Migration
Hall process cathode Anode
Al 3+(l) O 2-(l)
Hall process
i. Aluminium powder ore is heated to bright Discharge
redness with sodium carbonate to form At cathode: Al 3+(l)+ 3e → Al (s)
sodium aluminate (NaAlO2), water and At Anode: 2O 2-(l)) → 2O2(g) + 4e
carbon dioxide
Al2O3.2H2O (s) + Na2CO3 (s) → NaAlO2 (l) + Purifying the sodium Metal
2H2O(l) + CO2 (g) The crude aluminium (99% pure) contains
ii. Molten mass is removed with the water impurities such as small quantities of iron,
while the insoluble iron and silicon oxides silicon, alumina and carbon is purified
are left behind as residual further by electrolysis in Hooper’s electrolytic
iii. Molten mass is removed with the water is cell
heated at (50 – 60)℃ to in carbon
dioxide stream to form precipitate of of Electrolysis to obtain pure aluminium
aluminium hydroxide and sodium Hooper’s electrolytic cell
carbonates It made up of an iron tank lined on the
NaAlO2 (l) + 2H2O(l) + CO2 (g) → Al(OH)3 (s) inside with carbon as anode. the tank has
+ Na2CO3 (aq) three different layers of molten substance
iv. Aluminium hydroxide is filtered off, Diagram:
washed, dried then calcinated at 1500℃
to give alumina
Al(OH)3 (s) → Al2O3(l) + 2H2O(l)
Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide

Since bauxite does not contain sulphur it is
not roasted
Reduction Nb:
Alumina is reduced by electrolysis to obtain i. The bottom layer contains impure molten
impure aluminium aluminium containing copper and silicon
to increase the density
Electrolysis to obtain a impure aluminium ii. The middle layer contains a mixture of
Alumina and Cryolite (Na3AlF6) mixed and fluorides of sodium, barium and
introduced in a electrolytic cell aluminium in fused form (electrolyte)
Diagram: iii. The top layer contains pure molten
aluminium which together with the
Nb:
carbon rods as cathode which Extraction of Iron
suspended from above Iron does not occur naturally as a free
element. This is because of it is relatively
Mechanism reactive. However, it is abundant different
The impure aluminium passes from bottom compound such as
layer to the middle layer and aluminium i. Fe2O3 - Haematite Contains about 70%
formed in the middle layer passes to the top ii. Fe3O4 - Magnetite Contains about 72.4%
layer as pure aluminium and the process iii. Fe2O3. H2O Limonite
continues to obtain pure aluminium about iv. FeCO3 - Siderite or Spathic iron ore
99.99% tapped from the tapping hole v. FeS2 - Iron pyrites
Nb: The main ore used is Haematite
Question
Why most reactive metal reduced by Extraction methods
smiting? Concentration of the Ore
Answer: In this metallurgical operation, the ore is
They have a greater affinity for oxygen than concentrated by removing impurities like soil
carbon therefore they will react with carbon etc. The process involves the crushing and
to form metal carbide washing of ore
Extraction of relatively reactive metals Calcination

It found in compound, the most reactive The concentrated ore is now heated in the
metal is all three below the most reactivity presence of air in shallow kilns. The following
series in the reactivity series like zinc, iron changes occur during the roasting process
and Lead. It can by the following methods (a) The process performed to remove water
Fe2O3 . XH2O (s) Fe2O3 (s) + XH2O (l)
Concentration of the Ore (b) The process performed to remove
It involves the removing the impurities Carbon dioxide gas when Siderite (
present in the metal ore; it may by Dressing FeCO3 ) used as ore
or Calcination FeCO3 (s) FeO (s) + CO2 (g)
(c) The process performed to remove
Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide impurity of sulphur and escape as a gas
If metal ore occur as sulphides, the S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
concentrated ore is heated in air to convert (d) The process performed to remove
the ore from sulphide compound to Oxide impurity of arsenic and escape as a gas
compound 4As (s) + 3O2 (g) 2As2O3 (g)
(e) The process of heating Ferrous oxide (
Reduction Iron (II) Oxide) is also oxidized to ferric
Moderate reactive metal reduced by oxide ( Iron (III) Oxide)
smelting to obtain a pure crude metal FeO (s) + O2 (g) Fe2O3 (s)
Purifying the Metal Roasting of Sulphide to Oxide

Moderate reactive Metal forming crude If metal ore Iron pyrites (FeS2) used is heated
Metal Purified to get pure metal either by in air to convert the ore from sulphide
Distillation of crude metal or Oxidation of compound to Oxide compound
crude metal or Electro-refining(Electrolysis) 2FeS (s) + 2O2 (g) 2SO2 (g) + 2FeO (s)
of crude metal
Reduction
Moderate reactive metal reduced by
smelting to obtain a crude metal
Smelting (Reduction of ore)

The process of reduction is carried out in a
Blast Furnace

Structure of blast furnace iii. The carbon monoxide formed reduce
The blast furnace is a cylindrical tower like ferric oxide ( Iron (III) Oxide) to spongy
structure about 25m to 35m high. It has an Iron
outer shell of steel. Inside of furnace is lined FeCO3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
with fire bricks. The top of the furnace is iv. when Siderite (FeCO3 ) present
closed by a cup-cone feeder. Small Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
opening near the base known as Tuyeres
Diagram: Nb:
i. The main reducing agent in the blast
furnace is carbon monoxide and not
carbon
ii. Iron obtained is called Spongy Iron
because the temperature in this zone is
too low to melt iron
iii. When iron ore is reduced, part of the
limestone decompose at 600oC to lime
and carbon dioxide
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
iv. The limestone also react more coke to
form carbon monoxide
CaCO3 (s) + C (s) CaO (s) + CO (g)
How iron smelted The Middle Zone reduction

The ore is mixed with Carbon (Coke) and The zone is lower zone of reduction. The
Limestone (CaCO3) and introduced into the temperature range in this zone is 900oC -
furnace from the top. Blasts of hot air are 1200oC. The following are the reaction that
blown into the furnace through Tuyeres takes place in this zone
Diagram: i. The carbon dioxide reduced to carbon
monoxide. this reaction is accompanied
by heat absorption
CO2 (g) + C (s) CO (g)
ii. At about 1000 C, calcium Carbonates is
o
almost completely decomposed to lime

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
iii. The lime (Calcium oxide) combines with
the silica presences as impurity in the ore
to form Calcium silicate (Fusible Slag)
CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) CaSiO3 (l)
iv. A flux is a mixture of chemicals that react
with impurities to form Slag
The Lower Zone reduction

The zone is lowest and hottest part of
The Upper Zone Reduction furnace. The temperature range in this zone
The zone is near the top of the furnace. The is 1200oC - 1500oC. The following are the
temperature range in this zone is 300oC - reaction that takes place in this zone
800oC. In this zone i. The carbon burns in oxygen of the hot air
i. The carbon burns in oxygen of the hot air to form carbon dioxide
to form carbon dioxide C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) The spongy iron melts in this zone at
ii. The carbon dioxide formed react more about 1300oC and collects at the bottom
coke to form carbon monoxide ii. The carbon monoxide formed reduce
CO2 (g) + C (s) CO (g) ferric oxide (Iron (III) Oxide) might have

escaped the reduction process in the Extraction of copper
middle zone to spongy Iron Copper occurs in both free and combined
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g) states. Most copper occurs in compound
form, mainly as sulphides and oxides. The
Nb: main ores of copper are
i. At the bottom of the furnace, the molten i. copper pyrites - (CuFeS)
iron sinks while the fusible slag, being less ii. copper glance - (Cu2S)
dense, floats over the molten iron forming iii. cuprite - (Cu20)
a separate layer iv. malachite - [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]
ii. Separate layer of slag prevents iron from v. azurite - [2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]
being oxidized by the hot air NB: Main ore used is copper pyrites
iii. The slag and iron are periodically
removed through different outlets Concentration of the Ore
iv. The mixture of water gases containing The powdered ore is concentrated to
nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon remove impurities such as galena (PbS)
monoxide are known as blast furnace
gases Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide
v. The mixture is burnt in air to produce heat The concentrated ore is heated strongly in
which is used for pre-heating the air blast the presence of excess air in a special
coming in through the tuyeres furnace
vi. The iron obtained from the blast furnace i. The copper pyrites decompose to form
is an impure variety known as Pig Iron copper (I) and iron (II) sulphides
2CuFeS(s)+02(g) 4Cu2S(s)+2FeS(s) +
Purifying the Metal S02(g)
Pig iron is further purified by re-smelting it ii. Part of the sulphides may be oxidized to
with coke and lime in another furnace their respective oxides
called Cupola. The molten iron from the 2Cu2S(s) + 302(g) 2Cu2O(s) +
cupola is poured into moulds desired 2S02(g)
shapes. The iron thus obtained is called Cast 2FeS(s) + 302(g) 2FeO(s) + 2S02(g)
Iron iii. As the roasting proceeds, any moisture
present in the ore evaporates
iv. Impurities such as sulphur, arsenic and
antimony oxides are also removed as a
gas
S(s) + 02(g) S02(g)
4As(s) + 302g) 2As2O3 (g)
4Sb(s) + 302(g) 2Sb2O3 (g)
v. The roasting process results in a mixture of
sulphides and oxides of copper and iron
Reduction
Moderate reactive metal reduced by
smelting to obtain a pure crude metal
Smelting (Autoreduction)
The roasted ore is mixed with coke and sand
and heated in the presence of excess air in
a water jacketed blast furnace as shown
Diagram:

The following reactions take place in the

converter
i. Iron (II) sulphide reacts with oxygen to
form iron (II) oxide
How copper ore smelted (Autoreduction) 2FeS(l) + 302(g) 2FeO(l) + 2S02(g)
Consider the follow is chemical reaction ii. The iron (II) oxide formed reacts with sand
which takes place in the blast furnace (silicon dioxide) to form slag
i. oxidation of iron (II) sulphide which FeO(l) + Si02(s) FeSiO3(l)
started during the roasting process iii. Some of the copper (I) sulphide is
continues oxidized to copper (I) oxide
2FeS(s) + 302(g) 2FeO(s) + 2S02(g) 2Cu2S(s)+ 302(g) 2Cu2O(s) + 2S02(g)
ii. The iron (II) oxide formed combines with iv. Copper (I) oxide is reduced by copper (I)
sand to form a fusible slag: sulphide to copper
FeO(s) + Si02(s) FeSiO3(l) 2Cu2O(s) + Cu2S(s) 6Cu(l) + S02(g)
iii. The copper (I) oxide also reacts with iron
Nb:
(II) sulphide to form matte (iron (II) oxide
i. This is self-reduction of copper because
and copper (I) sulphide)
the substances involved are both copper
Cu2O(s) + FeS(s) CuS(s) + FeO(s)
compounds
ii. The molten metal is poured out into sand
Nb:
moulds and allowed to stand to cool
i. The above reaction takes place because
iii. On cooling, any dissolved sulphur dioxide
iron has a greater affinity for oxygen than
escapes leaving blisters on the surface of
copper
the copper
ii. The matte is taken out through the outlet
iv. The copper obtained from the Bessemer
at the bottom
converter is therefore known as blister
copper
Conversion
The molten matte is then transferred to a
Purifying of copper
Bessemer converter for Conversion. This is a
Blister copper is refined further by electrolysis
pear-shaped furnace made of steel. The
in copper (II) sulphate solution. The blister
furnace is fitted with pipes known as tuyeres
copper is cast into blocks and made the
on the sides. Sand and hot air are blown
anode. The cathode is made up of a sheet
through these pipes
of pure copper
Diagram:
Diagram:
At the anode

Blister copper is oxidized (blister copper
dissolved) to copper (II)ions
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) +2e-
At the cathode
The copper ions move to the cathode. At
the cathode, copper (II) ions are reduced
to copper metal
Cu2+(aq) +2e- Cu(s)
Product
The copper is deposited on the cathode
sheet and the pure plate will become larger
in size

Compounds of Metals iii. When sodium peroxide dissolves in water
By Defn: A compound is a substance at room temperature, it forms an alkaline
formed by the chemical Combination of solution and Oxygen gas
two or more elements. Metals react with 2Na2O2(s) + 2H20(l) → 4NaOH (aq) + O2(g)
other substances, especially non- metals, to
form different compounds. The compounds iv. When sodium peroxide dissolves in ice-
of metals include: cold water, it forms an alkaline solution
i. Metal oxides and sodium peroxide forms hydrogen
ii. Metal hydroxides peroxide
iii. Metal Hydrogen Carbonates 2Na2O2(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2O2(l)
iv. Metal carbonates
v. Metal nitrates v. Sodium oxide reacts with water to give
vi. Metal chlorides sodium hydroxide
vii. Metal sulphates Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
Metal Oxides vi. Depending on the degree of heating,

By defn: Metal oxides an oxide is a sodium peroxide and sodium oxide can
compound formed by the combination of be formed at the same time
oxygen and metal elements 6Na(s) + 202(g) → Na202(s) + 2Na2O(s)
Nb: Magnesium oxides

i. Metal oxides are compounds of the Magnesium burns in air with a very brilliant
metals with oxygen white flame to form a white solid of
ii. Oxides they are binary compounds magnesium oxide
means contain two elements, one of 2Mg(s) + 02(g) → 2MgO(s)
which must be oxygen
Magnesium oxide reacts with water to form
Preparation of metal oxides basic magnesium hydroxide
Metal oxides can be prepared using two MgO (s) + H20(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq)
methods namely:
i. Direct method Calcium oxides
ii. Indirect method Calcium burns in air with a red flame to form
calcium oxide which is white
Preparation oxides by direct methods 2Ca(s)+ 02(g) → 2CaO(s)
In the direct method, a metal is directly
heated in oxygen to give a metal oxide Calcium oxide reacts with water to form
basic calcium hydroxide
Sodium oxide CaO(s)+ H20(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
Sodium burns in air with a persistent yellow
flame to form sodium peroxide which is a Nb:
pale yellow solid i. Calcium hydroxide is sparingly soluble in
2Na(s) + O2(g) → Na2O (s) water
ii. Metals high in the reactivity series such as
When sodium is exposed to air, it reacts with sodium and potassium readily react with
the oxygen of the air to form sodium oxide oxygen directly to form oxides
(Na20) which is a whitish-grey solid iii. Magnesium and calcium also react with
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s) air to form an oxide coating on the
metals
Nb:
i. sodium is stored under oil to prevent react Preparation of oxides by indirect methods
with oxygen at room temperature The indirect methods of preparing oxides by
ii. Sodium oxide is also formed when sodium i. Decomposing compound by heating it to
is burnt in a limited supply of air give the oxide

ii. Preparing a compound which is then i. A green Copper (II) hydroxide when
decomposed by heating to give the heated decompose to give black copper
oxide oxide and water
Cu(OH)2→CuO + H20
Decompose compound by heating to oxide
1. The carbonates of zinc, lead, copper ii. White Zinc hydroxide when heated
and iron decompose on heat to form decompose to give Yellow zinc oxide
metal oxide and carbon dioxide and water
i. Copper carbonate decomposes to Zn(OH)2 → ZnO + H20
give copper (II) oxide
CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + C02 (g) iii. White Lead hydroxide when heated
decompose to give Reddish Brown lead
ii. Zinc carbonate, which is white in oxide when hot and yellow when cool
colour, decomposes to give zinc and water
oxide and carbon dioxide PbOH → PbO + H20
ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + C02(g)
iv. Reddish Brown Iron (III) hydroxide when
iii. Lead carbonate decomposes to the heated decompose to give Reddish
lead (II) oxide which is reddish-brown Brown irin (II) oxide and water
when hot and yellow when cold: Fe(OH)3 → Fe203 + H20
PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + C02(g)
v. White Magnesium hydroxide when
iv. Iron (II) carbonate decomposes to heated decompose to give white
give iron (II) oxide which is black magnesium oxide and water
FeCO3(s) → FeO(s) + C02(g) Mg(OH)2 → MgO + H20
v. The iron (II) oxide formed is vi. White Aluminium (III) hydroxide when
immediately oxidized to iron (III) oxide heated decompose to give white
4FeO(s) + 02(g) → 2Fe2O3 (s) aluminium (III) oxide and water
Al(OH)3 → Al203 + H20
vi. Magnesium carbonate decomposes
only on strong heating to give Nb:
magnesium oxide i. The hydroxides of lithium, sodium and
MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + C02(g) potassium are stable and do not
decompose on heating
vii.Calcium carbonate, like magnesium ii. Hydroxides of silver, gold and mercury do
carbonate, will only decompose not exist
when strongly heated iii. Hydroxides such as those of zinc, iron,
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + C02(g) lead and copper decompose to metal
oxides on heating
Nb:
i. Alkali metal carbonates such as sodium Preparing a compound which is then
carbonate do not decompose when decomposed by heating to give the oxide
heated Copper reacts with Nitric acid to form
ii. oxides of Alkali metals cannot therefore brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide and
be prepared using this method copper nitrate
iii. carbonates such as those of zinc, iron, Cu(s) + 4HN03(I) → Cu(N03)2(aq) + 2N02(g) +
lead and copper decompose to metal 2H2O(l)
oxides on heating
When the blue solution of copper nitrate is
2. Metal hydroxide when heated heated to dry to blue crystals of copper
decompose to give oxide and water nitrate and when heating is continued, the
copper nitrate decomposes to form copper

(II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen Amphoteric oxides are the metal oxides
gas which have both acidic and basic
2Cu(N03)2(aq) →2CuO(s) + 4N02(g) + 02(g) characteristics. The oxides of aluminium, zinc
and lead react with both acid and base
Nb: Reaction with base
i. Copper (II) oxide is left as a black residue Al2O3 + NaOH → Al(OH)3 + Na2O
ii. Nitrogen dioxide is observed as brown ZnO + NaOH → Zn(OH)2 + Na2O
fumes
Reaction with acid
ClassifiCation of metal oxides Al2O3 + HCl → AlCl3 + H2O
Metal oxide grouped into various categories ZnO + HCl → ZnCL2 + H2O
based on their solubility and their reactions
with acids and bases, includes Chemical properties of metal oxides
i. Soluble metal oxides 1. Reaction of metal with water
ii. Insoluble metal oxides Metal oxides react differently with water.
iii. Basic metal oxides Most of the metal oxides are not soluble
iv. Amphoteric oxides in water
When calcium oxide is added to water,
Soluble metal oxides some of it reacts with water to form basic
Soluble metal oxides readily dissolve in calcium hydroxide:
water to form a metal hydroxide solution. CaO(s) + H20(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
They include potassium, sodium and
magnesium oxides. Soluble metal oxides are Nb:
known as alkalis Calcium hydroxide is sparingly soluble in
K2O(s) + H2O(l) → KOH(s) water. It forms calcium and hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(s) ions:
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s) Ca(OH)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 0H-(aq)
Magnesium oxide reacts with water to form The solution of calcium hydroxide in water
a basic solution of magnesium hydroxide is called lime water when exhaled air is
MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(s) blown through the, lime water; a white
precipitate (calcium carbonate) is
Insoluble metal oxides formed. Exhaled air contains a large
Insoluble metal oxides do not dissolve in proportion of carbon dioxide
water. Most metal oxides are insoluble in Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H20(l)
water. Aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, lead (II)
oxide, copper (II) oxide and iron (II) and (III) 2. Reaction of metal oxides with acids and
oxides do not react with water alkalis
Most metal oxides react with acids to
Basic metal oxides form a salt and water and Amphoteric
Basic metal oxides react with acids to give a oxides react with both and alkalis
salt and water as the only products. Basic
metal oxides include all the oxides of Group Table below shows the reactions of metal
I metals oxides with dilute mineral acids
PbO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → PbCl (s) + H20 (l) Metal oxides Reaction
PbO (s) + H2S04 (aq) → PbSO4(s) + H20 (l) Dilute nitric acid
Calcium CaO(s)+2HN03(aq)→Ca
Basic metal oxides readily dissolve in water oxide (N03)2(aq) + H20(l)
to form a metal hydroxide solution (CaO)
K2O(s) + H2O(l) → KOH(aq) Magnesium MgO(s)+2HN03(aq)→Mg
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) oxide (MgO) (N03)2(aq) + H20(l)
Li2O(s) + H2O(l) → LiOH(aq) Aluminium Al203(s)+6HN03(aq)→2Al(
oxide (Al203) N03)3(aq) + 3H20(l)
Amphoteric oxides Iron(II) oxide FeO(s)+2HN03(aq)→
(FeO) Fe(N03)2(aq) + H20(l) The insoluble salts form a coating on the
Lead(II) oxide PbO(s)+2HN03(aq)→ oxides, thus preventing further reaction.
(PbO) Pb(N03)2(aq) + H20(l)
Copper(II) CuO(s)+2HN03(aq)→ iv. Metal oxides react with dilute acids to
oxide (CuO) Cu(N03)2(aq) + H20(l) form salt and water only
Dilute hydrochloric acid v. The calcium sulphate formed from the

Calcium CaO(s)+2HCI(aq) → reaction of calcium oxide with dilute
oxide CaCI2(aq) + H20(l) sulphuric acid is sparingly (slightly) soluble
(CaO) in water
Magnesium MgO(s)+2HCI(aq)→
oxide (MgO) MgCI2(aq) + H20(l) vi. Dilute nitric acid reacts with metal oxides
Aluminium Al203(s)+6HCI(aq) → to form the metal nitrate and water. All
oxide(A1203) 2AlCI3(aq) + 3H20(l) metal nitrates are soluble in water.
Iron (II) oxide FeO(s) + 2HCI(aq)
(FeO) →FeCI2(aq)+ vii. Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with
H20(l)) metal oxides to give the metal chlorides
Lead (II) PbO(s) + 2HCI(aq) → and water
oxide PbCl(s) + H20(l)
(PbO) viii. The reaction between lead (II) oxide
Copper (II) CuO(s)+2HCI(aq) → and dilute hydrochloric acid stops as
oxide (CuO) CuCI2(aq) +H20(l) soon as it starts
Dilute sulphuric acid Reason: This is due to the formation of
lead (II) chloride which is insoluble; the
Calcium CaO(s) +H2SO4(aq)→
lead (II) chloride forms a coating on the
oxide CaSO4(s) + H20(l)
lead (II) oxide, thus preventing further
(CaO)
reaction
Magnesium MgO(s)+H2SO4(aq)→
oxide (MgO) MgSO4(aq) + H20(l)
ix. Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metal
Aluminium A1203(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) →
oxides to give metal sulphates and water
oxide(A1203) A12(SO4)3(aq)+ 3H20(l)
Iron (II) oxide FeO(s)+H2SO4(aq)→
x. The reactions involving calcium oxide with
(FeO) FeSO4(aq) + H20(l)
sulphuric acid produces insoluble calcium
Lead (II) PbO(s) + H2SO4(aq)
sulphate and stops as soon as it starts
oxide PbSO4(s) + H20(l)
Reason: The sulphates form a coating on
(PbO)
their respective metal oxides, thus
Copper (II) CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq)
preventing further action on the metal
oxide(CuO) CuSO4(aq) + H20(l)
oxides
Nb: xi. The reactions involving lead (II) oxide with
i. Magnesium, aluminium, zinc and lead sulphuric acid produces insoluble lead (II)
oxides are basic oxides. They react with sulphate and stops as soon as it starts
dilute nitric acid to form a salt and water Reason: The sulphates form a coating on
only. their respective metal oxides, thus
preventing further action on the metal
ii. Aluminium, zinc and lead oxides react oxides
with both the sodium hydroxide and the
nitric acid. They are amphoteric oxides. Uses of metal oxides
The following are the uses of metal oxide
iii. Dilute sulphuric acid and hydrochloric i. Calcium oxide used to prepare calcium
acids cannot be used with lead (II) oxide carbide
because they form insoluble salts: ii. Calcium oxide used as Refactors in
PbO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → PbCl (s) + H20 (l) furnace to Lining of furnaces
PbO (s) + H2S04 (aq) → PbSO4(s) + H20 (l)

iii. Calcium oxide used in Formation of slag Metal Hydroxides
in extraction of iron By Defn: Metal Hydroxides is any inorganic
iv. Calcium oxide used as Drying agent in compound that contains the hydroxyl group
preparation of ammonia gas and (-OH)
ethanol
v. Calcium oxide used to Make mortar Nb:
(CaO + sand + water) for stick brick i. Most Metal Hydroxides are base
together and to plaster building ii. The Alkali Metal Hydroxides such as
vi. Calcium oxide used to manufacture Sodium Hydroxide are very soluble in
cement (mixture of calcium silicate and water and are very strong Base
aluminates)
vii. Calcium oxide used as lime material to Preparations of Metal Hydroxides by Direct
treat soil Method
viii. Magnesium oxide is used as lining for The Metals those have high in the Reactivity
open-heath and steel furnaces because Series are reacted with water to form the
it have high melting point (2800)℃ Hydroxide and hydrogen gas
ix. Zinc oxide used as a white pigment in (effervescence)
paints, filter in rubber Ca + 2H2O→ Ca(OH) + H2
x. Zinc oxide used as a component of Na + 2H2O→ Na(OH) + H2
glazes, enamels and antiseptic K + 2H2O →K(OH) + H2
ointments Mg + 2H2O→ Mg(OH) + H2
xi. Aluminium oxide used as an abrasive
(capable of polishing or cleaning a hard Nb:
surface by rubbing or grinding) The Hydroxide of metal below hydrogen in
the reactivity series cannot be prepared by
the direct method
Preparation of Metal Hydroxides by Indirect

Method
The Hydroxide is obtained by reaction
between Alkalis (Base) with Salts to form
Hydroxide. See the Example Below.
ZnCl2 + NaOH→ Zn(OH)2 + NaCl
CuCl2 + NaOH→ Cu(OH)2 + NaCl
FeCl3 + NaOH→ Fe(OH)3 + NaCl
ClassifiCation of Metal Hydroxides

It classified by their Solubility in water, and
Reaction with Acid and Base. They classified
into three, includes
i. Soluble Hydroxides
ii. Insoluble Hydroxides
iii. Basic Hydroxides
iv. Amphoteric Hydroxides
Soluble Hydroxide
Most metal hydroxides are soluble in water
and hydroxide of Magnesium and Calcium
are sparing soluble in water
Insoluble Hydroxide
Alkali metal hydroxides and metal
hydroxides of zinc, Lead and Aluminium are
insoluble in water
Basic Hydroxide Metal Carbonates
All hydroxides are basic in Nature it react By defn: Metal Carbonates are formed
with Acid to form Salt and Water when both hydrogen atoms in carbonic
acid (H2CO3) are replaced by a metal
Amphoteric Hydroxide
When excess Sodium Hydroxide is added to Preparation of Metal Carbonates
the insoluble metal hydroxides of zinc, Lead They are two method used to prepare
and Aluminium, They dissolve to form carbonates, includes
Complex ions. These hydroxides are said to i. Soluble carbonates
be Amphoteric. They react both with Acid ii. Insoluble carbonates
and Base
Zn(OH)2+ NaOH →Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O Soluble carbonates
Pb(OH)2+ NaOH→ Na2PbO2 + 2H2O Soluble carbonates prepared by reacts
Al(OH)3+ NaOH→ Na2AlO2 + 2H2O corresponding Alkali with Carbon dioxide
2NaOH (aq) + CO2→Na2CO3 + H2O
Chemical Properties of Metal Hydroxides
1: Action on Heating Nb:
Hydroxides of metals high in the reactivity i. The Crystalline Sodium Carbonate is
series do not decompose on heating but known as Washing Soda
the left decompose to give a metal oxide ii. Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium
and water carbonate are the only soluble
Pb(OH)2→ PbO + H2O carbonate
2: Action on Acids Insoluble carbonates

Metal hydroxides react with mineral acids to All Insoluble Metal Carbonate prepared by
give a Salt and Water precipitate Method. Any soluble carbonate
NaOH + HCL NaCl+ H2O can be reacted with other soluble salt of the
Metal
Uses of Metal Hydroxides CaCl2(aq)+Na2CO3(aq)→ CaCO3(s)+2NaCl (aq)
The following include some of the uses MgCl2(aq)+Na2CO3(aq)→ MgCO3(s)+2NaCl (aq)
i. Calcium Hydroxide (slake lime) Uses as ZnCl2(aq)+Na2CO3(aq)→ ZnCO3(s)+2NaCl (aq)
Liming Material in soil treatment FeCl2(aq)+Na2CO3(aq)→ FeCO3(s)+2NaCl (aq)
ii. Hydroxide of Aluminium and Magnesium CuCl2(aq)+Na2CO3(aq)→CuCO3(s)+2NaCl (aq)
uses as Antacids to neutralize stomach 2PbCl(aq)+Na2CO3(aq)→Pb2CO3(s)+2NaCl (aq)
acid
iii. Calcium Hydroxide uses to make mortal Nb:
iv. Calcium Hydroxide Used in Bleaching of i. Potassium carbonates can be used in
pulp to prepare (Ca(HSO3)2) sulphite place of Na2CO3
pulp (used in making parer and artificial ii. Na2CO3 is not used to prepare carbonate
silk) from wood of Lead, Zinc and Copper. Instead of
v. Manufacture of paints precipitating simple carbonates of Lead,
vi. Uses in Qualitative Analysis Zinc and Copper. Na2CO3 also
vii. Calcium Hydroxide used to soft water precipitate basic Carbonates of these
viii. Sodium Hydroxide used in Extraction of metals, that is ZnCO3.Zn(OH)2,
Aluminium from Bauxite Ore CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 and PbCO3.Pb(OH)2
respectively.
iii. Aluminium Carbonate (Al2CO3) and
Iron(II) Carbonate Fe2(CO)3 does not exist
ClassifiCation of Metal Carbonates

They classified into two due to Solubility in
water, includes
i. Soluble carbonates
ii. Insoluble carbonates
The insoluble carbonates are then filtered
Soluble Carbonates out
All Alkali metal carbonates include of
Sodium, Potassium and so on is soluble in ii. Manufacture of glass: Glass is made by
water heating sand, calcium carbonate and
sodium carbonate together, at a
Insoluble Carbonates temperature of 1300°C to 1400°C
All left metal carbonates include of CaCO3(s) + Si02(s) → CaSiO3(s) + C02 (g)
Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc, Iron (III) and Na2CO3(s) + Si02(s) →Na2SiO3(s) + C02 (g)
Copper are soluble in water NB: Glass is a mixture of sodium and
calcium silicates
Chemical Properties of Metal Carbonates
1. Action on Heating iii. Sodium Carbonates is used in the
Carbonates of metals high in the reactivity qualitative analysis of reactions involving
series do not decompose on heating but carbonates because it is soluble in water
the left decompose to give a metal oxide
and Carbon dioxide. iv. Sodium carbonate is also used in
MgCO3Pb(OH)2 →MgO + CO2 quantitative analysis because the
moisture it absorbs from the air can
2. Action on Diluted Acids readily be removed by heating without
Metal carbonates s react with mineral acids decomposing the salt
to give a Salt, Carbon dioxide and Water.
Na2CO3 + 2HCL→ 2NaCl+ H2O + CO2 v. Sodium carbonates used to Manufacture
of sodium Hydroxide
Test for Carbonates Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2→ 2NaOH + CaCO3
1. The carbon dioxide from carbonates after
decomposes or neutralization forms a white vi. Sodium carbonates is used to
precipitation with lime water (Calcium Manufacture of water Glass
Hydroxide). When Sodium Carbonates is heated
CaOH + CO2 → CaCO3 together with Silicon dioxide form A
This is used as a confirmatory test for Metal concentration solution of Sodium Silicates
Carbonates (NaSiO3) in water known Water Glass
Na2CO3 + SiO2 → NaSiO3 + CO2
2. The soluble Carbonates when react with
Magnesium Sulphate solution which is Uses of water glass
soluble in water form white precipitation of (a) It is used as a Preservative for Eggs
Magnesium carbonates which is insoluble (b) It is used as an adhesive in paper
Salt. making and in television tubes
Na2CO3(aq)+MgSO4(aq)→2NaSO4(aq)+MgCO3(s
)
Uses of Hydrogen Carbonates

i. Sodium carbonate Used to soft water
Sodium carbonate is used to remove
both temporary and permanent hardness
of water. It reacts with the ions to form
insoluble carbonates
Temporary water
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) →
CaCO3(s) + 2NaHCO3(aq)
Permanent water
MgSO4 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → MgCO3(s) +
Na2SO4(aq)
Metal Hydrogen Carbonates CaOH+ CO2 → CaCO3
By defn: Metal Hydrogen Carbonates are This is used as a confirmatory test for Metal
formed when only one hydrogen atoms in hydrogen carbonates
carbonic acid (HCO3) are replaced by a
metal 2. The Hydrogen Carbonates when react
with Magnesium Sulphate solution which is
Preparation of Metal Hydrogen Carbonates soluble in water form soluble salt of
1. Reaction between concentrated Sodium Magnesium hydrogen Carbonates
Hydroxide (NaOH) and Excess Carbon NaHCO3 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) → 2NaSO4 (aq)
dioxide. The reaction takes place in two + Mg(HCO3)2(aq)
stages includes
First Stage But: when heated Magnesium hydrogen
NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O Carbonate salt decompose to form white
precipitation of Magnesium Carbonates
Second Stage which is insoluble Salt.
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → NaHCO3 Mg(HCO3)2(aq) → MgCO3(s) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)
2. The Calcium carbonates also prepared
as the Sodium Carbonate. The reaction Nb:
takes place in two stages includes i. All Metal Hydrogen Carbonates are
First Stage soluble in water
CaOH + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O ii. The Hydrogen carbonates of Aluminium,
Zinc, Iron, Lead, and Copper do not exist
Second Stage
CaCO3 + H2O+ CO2 → CaHCO3 Uses of Hydrogen Carbonates
i. Sodium hydrogen carbonates used to
Nb: make Baking soda
When Calcium hydrogen carbonate boiled
it decompose to form calcium carbonate, ii. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonates act as
carbon dioxide and water. Magnesium Antacid which neutralizes the
hydrogen carbonate can also prepared Hydrochloric Acid in the stomach
using the procedure as Calcium hydrogen
carbonate prepared above.
Chemical Properties of Metal Hydrogen

Carbonates
1. Action on Heating
Hydrogen carbonates whether in solution or
solid form Decompose on heating to give a
metal carbonate and Carbon dioxide
CaHCO3→ CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 → NaCO3 + H2O + CO2
2. Action on Diluted Acids

Metal Hydrogen carbonates s react with
mineral acids to give a Salt, Carbon dioxide
and Water
NaHCO3 + HCL → NaCl+ H2O + CO2
Test for Hydrogen Carbonates

1. The carbon dioxide from Hydrogen
carbonates after decomposes or
neutralization forms a white precipitation
with lime water (Calcium Hydroxide).
Metal Nitrates Zinc does not give nitrogen dioxide with
By Defn: Metal Nitrates are the Salts concentration nitric acid instead
delivered from Nitric Acid ammonium nitrate is formed
4Zn(s) + 10HNO3(aq) → 4Zn(NO3)2(aq)+
Preparations of Metal Nitrates NH4NO3(aq) + 3H2O(g)
There are different methods of prepare
Metal Nitric. These include Copper Metal reacted with
i. Reaction between metal with dilute Nitric concentrated nitric Acid to give a blue
Acid solution of Copper nitrate and Brown
Na (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → 2NaNO3 (aq) + H2 (g fumes of Nitrogen (iv) oxide gas
Mg (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g Cu(s) + 4HNO3(l) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2
Cu (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g (g) +2H2O(l)
ii. Reaction between metal Hydroxide with When moderately concentration nitric
dilute Nitric Acid Acid is used, nitrogen monoxide gas (NO)
NaOH (aq)+ HNO3(aq)→NaNO3 (aq)+H2O (l) is formed instead of Nitrogen (IV) oxide.
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) +
iii. Reaction between metal Oxides with 2NO(g) + H2O(l)
dilute Nitric Acid
CuO(s) + 2HNO3 (aq)→Cu(NO3)2(aq)+H2O (l) The solution should not be evaporated to
dryness because Nitrate will undergo
iv. Reaction between metal Carbonates thermal decomposing
with dilute Nitric Acid
CuCO3(s)+2HNO3(aq)→Cu(NO3)2(aq)+CO2(g) +2H2O(l) The reaction of nitric acid with aluminium
and Iron stops soon after starting due to
v. Reaction between metal Hydrogen the formation of an Oxide layer on the
carbonates with dilute Nitric Acid Metals surfaces. The Oxide layer prevents
CuHCO3(s)+HNO3(aq)→Cu(NO3)2(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l) further reaction between the Acid and
the Metals
Nb:
i. Nitric Acid, unlike other acid, does not iii. Dilute nitric acid reacts with metal
give hydrogen gas with Metal, except the hydroxides in a neutralization reaction to
acid is very diluted about one give a salt and water
percentage by mass A blue solution of copper nitrate is formed
Mg (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g) when copper carbonate reacts with
dilute nitric acid
ii. Metal reacts with concentrated nitric acid CuCO3(s) + 2HN03 (aq) Cu(N03)2(aq) +
to give a Nitrate of metal among other C02(g) + H20 (l)
products When the solution is heated to saturation
The other product depend the then cooled, blue crystals of copper
concentration of the nitric acid. Nitrogen nitrate are formed
gas (Brown gas) is the mainly gas given
off when Metals react with concentrated Sodium carbonate, a colourless solution
nitric acid of sodium nitrate is formed
Na2CO3(s) + 2HN03 (aq) 2NaNO3 (aq) +
Magnesium reacts with concentrated C02 (g) + H20 (l)
nitric acid to form a solution of White crystals of sodium nitrate are
magnesium nitrate and nitrogen (IV) formed when the solution is heated to
oxide gas saturation, and then cooled
Mg(s)+4HNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) +2NO2(g)
+ 2H2O(l) iv. Reactions between dilute nitric acid and
metal hydroxides are neutralization
reactions

The acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to
form sodium nitrate and water Test for Nitrates
NaOH (aq) + HNO3 (aq)→ NaNO3 (aq) + The follows is different tests of nitrate,
H20(l) include
White crystals of sodium nitrate are i. Decomposition of metal nitrates
formed when the solution of sodium ii. Metal nitrate React with Copper
nitrate is heated to saturation then iii. Brown Ring Test
cooled
Decomposition of metal nitrates
v. Reactions between dilute nitric acid and When metal nitrate except of most reactive
metal oxides are neutralization reactions metal decompose on heating and always
Zinc oxide forms a colourless solution of the Reddish Brown Fumes of Nitrogen
zinc nitrate. This is shown in the equation dioxide (NO2) are observed
below
ZnO(s) +2HN03 (aq) → Zn(N03)2(aq) + H2O (l) Metal nitrate React with Copper
White zinc crystals are formed when the Any Metal nitrate will readily dissolve in
colourless solution is heated to saturation water to form solution and react with metal
to form brown fumes of Nitrogen dioxide
Copper (II) oxide reacts with dilute nitric (NO2) are observed
acid to form a blue solution of copper
nitrate Brown Ring Test
CuO(s) +2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)(aq)+H2O (l) When concentration sulphuric acid is
The solution forms blue crystals when poured down the side of the test tube, it
heated to saturation then cooled moves down and settles at the bottom of
the test tube contain the mixture of the
Calcium oxide forms a colourless solution prepared Iron (II) Sulphate and Metal
of calcium nitrate. The solution forms Nitrate. A brown ring forms between the
white crystals when the saturated solution layer forms between the layer of
is cooled concentration Sulphuric Acid and the
CaO(s) + 2HN03 (aq) → Ca(N03)2(aq) + H20(l) Mixture of the solution of Metal nitrates and
Iron sulphate, if the test solution is a Nitrate
Chemical Properties of Metal Nitrates Concentration sulphuric acid + (Iron (II)
The following Metal Nitrates IdentifiCation Sulphate + Metal Nitrate) → brown ring
by their production on heating
i. All Nitrate of Sodium and Potassium Nb:
decompose to gives Metal Nitrite and Brown ring test is the best test since all
Oxygen gas Nitrate form this Brown Ring
NaNO3 (aq) → NaNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
KNO3 (aq) → KNO2 (s) + O2 (g) How Brown Ring Formed
i. Concentrated sulphuric acid react with
ii. All Nitrate of Calcium, Magnesium, Nitrate ion to form Nitric acid
Aluminium, Zinc, Iron, Lead and Copper H2SO4 (l) + 2NO3-(aq) → 2HNO3(aq) +
decompose to gives Metal Oxide, SO42-
Nitrogen dioxide and Oxygen gas
2Ca(NO3)2(s) → 2CaO(s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) ii. Nitric acid Oxidizes Iron (II) Sulphate to
2Cu(NO3)2(s) → 2CuO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) form Iron (III)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) → 2PbO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) Fe2+ → Fe3+
2Zn(NO3)2(s) → 2ZnO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
iii. Nitric acid itself reduced to nitrogen
iii. All Nitrate of Silver and Mercury Monoxide
decompose to gives Metal, Nitrogen 4HNO3 (aq) + 4NO (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 3O2 (g)
Dioxide and Oxygen gas
AgNO3 (s) 2Ag (s) + 2NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
HgNO3 (s) 2Hg (s) + 2NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
iv. The nitrogen Monoxide combine with How: Potassium and Sodium Nitrate is
some of the remaining Iron (II) Sulphate to used as a source of Nitrite (NO2), the
form a Dark Brown Complex nitrite breaks down in the meat into Nitric
FeSO4(aq) + NO (g) → FeSO4.NO (aq) Oxide (NO) which helps to prevent
Oxidation of Meat and fish.
Nb:
i. If the solution is disturbed the Brown ring
disappears
Reason: This is because concentrated
Sulphuric Acid and Water mix, produce
allot of heat which helps to decompose
the Dark Brown Complex which is a very
Unstable Compound
FeSO4.NO (aq) → FeSO4(aq) + NO (g)
ii. The formation of the brown complex is a
reversible chemical reaction
FeSO4.NO (aq) ⇌ FeSO4(aq) + NO (g)
Uses of Metal Nitrates

i. Agriculture: Nitrogen fertilizers are mainly
Nitrate. They include Ammonium Nitrate,
Potassium Nitrate, and calcium nitrate
ii. Photography: Silver Nitrate Solution reacts

with Potassium Bromide to form Silver
bromide.
2AgNO3(aq) + KBr(aq)→2AgBr(s) +KHO3 (aq)
Photographic films and plates contain an
emulsion in form of Silver Bromide which
decomposes to small amount of Silver on
exposure to Light
2AgBr(s) → 2Ag (s) + Br2 (g)
The photochemical change involving
Silver Bromide is the key reaction in Black
and White photography
iii. Antiseptics: Is the one which used to kill

Germs on the Skin. Silver Nitrate
Compound and Silver Sulphadiazine have
been used to prevent the infection of
burns and some eye infections and to
destroy Warts
iv. Weapons: Gun powder is a mixture of

potassium Nitrate, Charcoal and Sulphur.
Ammonium Nitrate is also used in making
explosives and blasting agents which are
used in mines and quarries
v. Food Preservation: Nitrates and Nitrites

are used in Curing meats and fish, Not
only to kill Bacteria but also to produce a
characteristic flavour and give meat a
pink or Red colour
Metal Chlorides v. Preparation by reaction between
By defn: Chlorides are salts that are derived hydrochloric acid with a metal
from hydrochloric acid
Preparation by direct method
Preparation of metal chlorides i. When chlorine gas passed over heated
Metal chlorides are prepared using iron the sublimes solid reddish-brown Iron
common methods used to prepare other (III) chloride is formed. It involves two
salts. Include stages
i. Precipitation (for insoluble chlorides) First stage
ii. Metal reacts with dry chlorine gas The iron (II) Chloride is formed first. The
iii. Reaction of hydrochloric acid with an equation for this reaction is as follows.
alkali Fe(s) + CI2 (g) → FeCI2 (s)
iv. Reaction of hydrochloric acid with a
metal oxide Second stage
v. Reaction of hydrochloric acid and a Chlorine being a strong oxidizing agent
metal carbonate oxidizes iron (II) chloride to iron (III)
vi. Reaction of hydrochloric acid with a chloride
metal 2FeCI2(s) + CI2 (g) → 2FeCl3(s)
Preparation by Precipitation method Nb: Iron (III) chloride is a deliquescent

When Silver nitrate solution reacts with dilute substance. When it is exposed to air, it
hydrochloric acid to form silver chloride absorbs water vapour to form a solution
AgNO3(aq) + HCI(aq)→ AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)
ii. Zinc and chlorine react to form zinc
Also lead nitrate reacts with dilute chloride
hydrochloric acid to form lead chloride Zn(s) + Cl2 (g) → ZnCl2 (s)
Pb(N03)2(aq)+2HCl(aq)→PbCl(s)+2HN03 (aq)
iii. Aluminium chloride can also be prepared
Nb: using the same method.
i. Silver and lead chlorides are insoluble in 2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 3Al2Cl3(s)
water. They are prepared using the
precipitation method Preparation by Reaction between
Hydrochloric Acid with an Alkali
ii. When white solids silver chloride exposed i. Sodium hydroxide reacts with dilute
to light, silver chloride decompose to from hydrochloric acid in a neutralization
purple silver metal and chlorine gas reaction to form sodium chloride and
2AgCl(s) 2Ag(s) + Cl2 (g) water
NaOH(aq) + HCI(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H20(l)
iii. when white solids lead chloride exposed
to light, lead chloride decompose to from ii. Potassium hydroxide neutralized by dilute
white of lead metal and chlorine gas hydrochloric acid.
2PbCl(s) 2Pb(s) + Cl2 (g) KOH (aq) + HCI (aq) → KCl (aq) + H20 (l)
Preparation of chlorides iii. Calcium hydroxide neutralized by dilute

The following is the methods used to hydrochloric acid
prepare chlorides, includes Ca(OH)2(aq)+2HCl(aq)→CaCl2 (aq) + H20 (l)
i. Preparation by direct method
ii. Preparation by Reaction between Nb: Sodium chloride, calcium chloride and
Hydrochloric Acid with an Alkali potassium chloride are all soluble in water
iii. Preparation by reaction between
hydrochloric acid with a metal oxide Preparation by reaction between
iv. Preparation by reaction between hydrochloric acid with a metal oxide
hydrochloric acid with a metal
Carbonates
i. Zinc oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid The solution forms green crystals when
to give a Colourless solution of zinc boiled to saturation then cooled
chloride
ZnO(s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H20 (l) iii. Calcium carbonate reacts with dilute
White crystals of zinc chloride are formed hydrochloric acid to give a colourless
when the solution is boiled to saturation solution of calcium chloride
then cooled CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl (aq) + C02
(g) + H20 (l)
ii. Iron (III) oxide, which is reddish-brown in The solution crystallizes to form white
colour, reacts with dilute hydrochloric crystals of calcium chloride on heating to
acid to give a reddish-brown solution of saturation
iron (III) chloride
Fe203(s) + 6HCl (aq) → 2FeCl3 (aq) + 3H20 (I) Nb:
Lead (II) carbonate cannot be used with
iii. Copper (II) oxide reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to prepare lead (II)
hydrochloric acid to form a green solution chloride
of copper (II) chloride Reason: Lead (II) chloride is insoluble and
CuO(s) + 2HCl (aq) → CuCl(aq) + H20(l) would form a coating on the carbonate,
The solution crystallizes to form green preventing any further contact of the oxide
crystal of copper (II) chloride with the acid
iv. Calcium oxide reacts with dilute Preparation by reaction between

hydrochloric acid to form a colourless hydrochloric acid with a metal
solution of calcium chloride i. When zinc granules are put into dilute
CaO(s) + 2HCI (aq) → CaCI2 (aq) + H20 (l) hydrochloric acid, metal chloride is
The solution crystallizes to form white formed and hydrogen gas is liberated.
crystals when a saturated solution of Zn(s) + 2HCI (aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2 (g)
calcium chloride is cooled The saturated solutions of zinc chloride
crystallize to form white crystals
Nb:
i. The reaction between hydrochloric acid ii. When magnesium granules are put into
and lead oxide cannot therefore be used dilute hydrochloric acid, metal chloride is
to prepare lead chloride formed and hydrogen gas is liberated.
ii. When dilute hydrochloric acid is added Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2 (g)
to the lead oxide, the reaction starts then The saturated solutions of magnesium
stops after a short time chloride crystallize to form white crystals
Reason: This is due to the formation of
insoluble lead chloride which forms a Nb:
coating on the oxide hence preventing i. There is no reaction when copper is used
any further action of the acid Reason: Copper is below hydrogen in the
reactivity series and cannot displace
Preparation by reaction between hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid to
hydrochloric acid with a metal Carbonates produce hydrogen gas
i. Sodium carbonate forms a colourless
solution of sodium chloride when react ii. Sodium cannot be used
with dilute hydrochloric acid Reason:
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + (a) Reaction would be too vigorous to
C02(g) + H20(l) control
(b) Possibility of an explosion if hydrogen
ii. Copper (II) carbonate, which is green in gas catches fire
colour, reacts to give a green solution of
copper (II) chloride Chemical properties of metal chlorides
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → CuCl2 (aq) + C02 i. All chlorides do not decompose on heat
(g) + H20 (l) except ammonium chlorides
NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g)
By using ammonia gas
Nb: Hydrogen chloride gas forms dense white
(a) Hydrated chlorides Undergo hydrolysis fumes with ammonia gas due to the
when heated strongly formation of ammonium chloride
(b) By defn: hydrolysis is chemical NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s)
breakdown of a compound due to
reaction with water By using acidified silver nitrate solution
Hydrogen chloride gas also forms a white
ii. Hydrated magnesium chloride gives up its precipitate with acidified silver nitrate due
water of crystallization when it is gently to the formation of silver chloride
heated HCl(g) + AgNO3(aq) → HNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
MgCl2.6H20 → MgCl2 + 6H20
By using moist blue litmus paper
iii. The liquid turns cobalt chloride paper The gas is acidic and turns wet blue litmus
pink due hydrolysis paper red
iv. anhydrous copper (II) sulphate from white Nb:

to blue confirming that the liquid is water i. When test presence of hydrogen chloride
due hydrolysis gas, a few drops of dilute nitric acid are
added first to a test solution followed by
v. When strongly heated, the magnesium silver nitrate solution, a white precipitate
chloride decomposes to give a greenish- of silver chloride is formed if the test
yellow gas (chlorine), magnesium oxide solution is a chloride
and water Ag+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
2MgCI2.6H20(s) + 02(g) → 2MgO(s) Silver chloride does not dissolve even
+2Cl2(g) +12H20 (l) when dilute nitric acid is added to it
Nb: ii. Dilute nitric acid is added to prevent

i. Chlorine gas turns a wet blue litmus precipitation of other silver salts such as a
paper red, and then bleaches it carbonate, otherwise it will be mistaken
ii. When magnesium oxide mixed with for a chloride
water, the white residue of magnesium 2Ag+ (aq) + C032- (aq) → Ag2CO3(s)
oxide forms a white suspension of
magnesium hydroxide iii. If a carbonate is present, it will react with
MgO(s) + H20 (l) → Mg(OH)2 (s) the nitric acid to give carbon dioxide and
iii. The suspension of magnesium water
hydroxide turns the phenolphthalein H+(aq) + C032-(aq) →C02(g) + H20(l)
indicator from colourless to red or pink
iv. Chlorides are not affected by the dilute
Test for chlorides nitric acid
The following is the simple chemical
reaction used to test metal chlorides Uses of metal chlorides
When concentrated sulphuric acid is added The following are some of the areas where
to a metal chloride, hydrogen chloride gas metal chlorides are used.
is given off i. Manufacture of dry batteries: Zinc
NaCl (s) + H2S04 (l) → NaHSO4 (aq) + HCl (g) chloride mixed with ammonium chloride is
used in dry batteries
The presence of the hydrogen chloride gas ii. Household use: Common salt (sodium
can be confirmed by testing using chloride) is added to food to give it taste
i. Ammonia gas (concentrated aqueous iii. Food preservation: Canned foods contain
ammonia) sodium chloride which in this case is used
ii. Acidified silver nitrate solution as a preservative to prevent the growth
iii. Moist blue litmus paper of bacteria.
iv. Petroleum industry: Aluminium chloride Metal Sulphates
acts as a catalyst in many organic By defn: Metal Sulphates are salts that are
reactions whose reactants are derived derived from sulphuric acid
from petroleum
v. Aluminium chloride used in the Preparation of sulphates
manufacture of synthetic lubricating oils The method used for preparing any metal
vi. Spinning industry: Magnesium chloride is sulphate depends on whether the sulphate
used to lubricate cotton threads in the is soluble or insoluble
spinning industry
vii. Dentistry: Magnesium chloride is a Nb:
constituent of the cement used to fill All metal sulphates are soluble in water
cavities in teeth. except the sulphates of barium and lead.
Calcium sulphate is sparingly soluble
Preparation of soluble sulphates

Soluble sulphates can be prepared by
reacting a metal, a metal carbonate, a
metal hydroxide or a metal oxide with dilute
sulphuric acid.
i. Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with
granulated zinc to give a colourless
solution of zinc sulphate and hydrogen
gas
Zn(s) + H2S04 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
White crystals of zinc sulphate are formed
when the solution is heated to saturation
and then cooled.
Nb:
(a) Granulated zinc contains impurities
which act as a catalyst
(b) The impurities make the gas
produced to have a choking smell.
With pure zinc, the reaction would be
very slow
(c) metal sulphates such as magnesium,
copper and iron (III) sulphates can
also be prepared using this method
ii. Zinc carbonate reacts with dilute

sulphuric acid to give a colourless solution
of zinc sulphate, carbon dioxide gas and
water.
ZnCO3(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ZnSO4(aq)+C02(g) +
H20(l)
Nb:
Other metal sulphates that can be
prepared in the same way are copper
sulphate (using copper carbonate) and
magnesium sulphate (using magnesium
carbonate)

iii. Zinc hydroxide reacts with dilute sulphuric Effect of heat on metal sulphates
acid in a neutralization reaction to form Sulphates are more stable to heat than the
zinc sulphate and water corresponding nitrates. Even sulphates of
Zn(OH)2(s) + H2S04(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + 2H20(l) metals low in the reactivity series must be
strongly heated to decompose
Nb: i. When crystals of hydrated copper
(a) Zinc sulphate solution is colourless but sulphate are heated, the colour changes
forms white crystals of zinc sulphate from blue to white due to the formation of
when heated to saturation then anhydrous copper (II) sulphate
cooled CuSO4.5H20(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H20(l)
(b) Other sulphates that can be prepared
using the same method are copper On strong heating, the anhydrous copper
sulphate, magnesium sulphate and (II) sulphate decomposes to copper (II)
aluminium sulphate oxide and sulphur trioxide gas
CuSO4(s) → CuO(s) + S03 (g)
iv. Copper (II) oxide, which is black in colour,
reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form a Nb:
blue solution of copper (II) sulphate The gas turns a wet blue litmus paper red
CuO (s) + H2S04 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H20 (l)
ii. Zinc sulphate decomposes in the same
Nb: way on strong heating
(a) The reaction between copper (II) ZnSO4(s) →ZnO(s) + S03 (g)
oxide and dilute sulphuric acid is a
neutralization reaction iii. When hydrated iron (II) sulphate is gently
(b) The blue solution crystallizes to form heated, it gives up its water of
blue crystals when heated to crystallization to give anhydrous iron (II)
saturation then cooled sulphate
FeSO4.7H2O(s) → FeSO4(s) + 7H20(l)
Preparation of insoluble sulphates (Light green) (White)
Barium and lead sulphates are the two
common metal sulphates which are not iv. On strong heating, the anhydrous iron (II)
soluble in water. Insoluble metal sulphates sulphate decomposes to form a reddish-
are prepared by precipitation reactions brown iron (III) oxide, Sulphur trioxide and
i. lead sulphates prepared by reacting with sulphur dioxide
dilute sulphuric acid to form precipitation 2FeSO4(s) → Fe203(s) + S03 (g) + S02 (g)
of Lead (II) sulphate
Pb(N03)2(aq)+H2S04(aq)→ PbSO4(s) + Nb:
2HN03(aq) Sulphur dioxide turns the filter paper
dipped in acidified potassium dichromate
ii. A similar reaction would take place if solution to green
lead chloride used
PbCl2 (aq) + H2S04(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq) v. When hydrated iron (III) sulphate is gently
heated, it releases its water of
iii. A white precipitate of barium sulphate is crystallization to form a reddish brown
formed when dilute sulphuric acid is solid which is anhydrous iron (III) sulphate
added to barium chloride solution Fe2(S04)3.9H20(s) → Fe2(SO)3(s) + 9H20(l)
BaCl2 (aq) + H2S04(aq) →BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)
vi. On strong heating, the anhydrous iron (III)
iv. similar reaction would take place if sulphate decomposes to a reddish-brown
barium nitrate used iron (III) oxide and sulphur trioxide
Ba(N03)2(aq) + H2S04(aq) → BaSO4(s) + Fe2(S04)3(s) → 4Fe2O3(s) + 3S03(g)
2HN03(aq)
Nb:
Chemical properties of sulphates
Sulphur trioxide turns a wet blue litmus vi. To form a reddish-brown iron (III) oxide.
paper red The oxide commonly referred to as ‘red
oxide’ is used as a pigment
Test for sulphates vii. To make potassium hexacyanoferrate
Barium ions (Ba2+) and lead ions (Pb2+) are which reacts with iron (III) ions to form a
used to test for the presence of sulphate dark blue insoluble crystalline solid
ions called Prussian blue which is used
Reason: they form insoluble sulphates extensively as a dye for blue print paper
ink
How tested viii. As a weed killer
Hydrochloric acid is added to a test solution ix. For treating sewage and water
which is a sulphate, if no effervescence is x. To coagulate (bind together) blood in
observed it indicate that the solution is a slaughterhouses
sulphate. If on adding barium chloride a xi. In tanning leather (iron-tanning)
precipitate is formed, then the test solution is xii.As a fungicide
a sulphate.
Ba2+ (aq) + S042-(aq) → BaSO4(s) Barium sulphate
Pb2+ (aq) + S042-(aq) → PbSO4(s) xiii. As a white pigment in white paints.
xiv. When taking X-ray pictures of the
Nb: digestive tract. Barium ions (Ba2+) have a
i. The acid is added to eliminate any high ability to scatter X-rays which helps
sulphites and carbonates, which if present to detect the illnesses and disorders in
would also form precipitates with barium the digestive tract
ions.
Ba2+ (aq) + S032- (aq) → BaSO3(s) Aluminium sulphate
Ba2+ (aq) + C032- (aq) → BaCO3(s) xv. As a mordant in dyeing. A mordant is a
substance that to fix a pigment into a
ii. The acid reacts with any sulphates and fabric during the dyeing process.
carbonates present where by eliminating xvi. As a size in paper making. A size is a
them from the solution. substance that is added to the paper
iii. Similar results would also be obtained if pulp to reduce the tendency of the
nitric acid and barium nitrate were used. paper to absorb liquids
iv. Soluble salts of lead such as lead nitrate
can also be used in place of barium salts Potassium aluminium sulphate
xvii. Alum (potassium aluminium sulphate) is
Uses of metal sulphates used in the dyeing industry, as a source
The following are uses of some metal of aluminium ions (Al3+) which are
sulphates: uncontaminated by iron (III) ions
xviii. It is also used in water treatment plants
Calcium sulphate as a coagulant. As a coagulant, it binds
Plaster of Paris (POP) which is a form of together very fine suspended particles
calcium sulphate is used in the following into large particles that can be removed
ways: by settling and filtration.
i. in making moulds xix. Alum is also used in the tanning of
ii. as plaster leather
iii. to give an accurate reproduction of a
shape Other metal sulphates
iv. In hospitals to immobilize broken limbs xx. Hydrated sodium sulphate (Na2SO4.
10H20), commonly known as Glauber’s
Iron (II) sulphate salt, is used as a mild laxative.
v. To make tablets prescribed to patients xxi. Copper (II) sulphate is used as a catalyst
who have iron deficiency in the preparation of ethanol.

xxii. Hydrated zinc sulphate (ZnSO4.7H20) is
used in the dyeing industry as an
antiseptic and in preserving wood
xxiii. Hydrated zinc sulphate (ZnSO4.7H20) is
used in zinc-plating by electrolysis

FORM FOUR NOTES Chlorine
Non-metals and their compounds Chlorine exists as a diatomic molecule with
Non-metals can be described as elements an atomic number of 17. Chlorine is a very
that lack the general properties of metals reactive element. It is the second strongest
oxidizing agent among the halogens, after
Different Between Metals and Non Metals fluorine. Sodium chloride is the source main
Metal Non Metal of chlorine in most industrial processes
good conductors Non/poor
conductors Preparation of Chlorine by Using HCl
forms basic and forms acidic oxides It prepared by oxidation of HCl by using
Amphoteric oxides oxidizing agent like potassium
ductile and Brittle permanganate, manganese (IV) oxide and
malleable lead (IV) oxide. No heating is required.
Shine/glow/luster Little/no luster
High melting point Low melting point
and boiling point and boiling point
Lose electrons Gain electrons
Nb:
Most non-metal exist in gaseous or liquid
Some non-metal exist in solid form like
carbon
MnO2 (s) + 4HCl (g) Cl2 (g) + MnCl2 (aq)
General Chemical Properties of Non Metals + 2H2O (l)
Oxidizing properties
Non-metal are oxidizing agent since it gain Nb:
electrons. Electronegativity (tendency to i. Water in the first conical flask is to remove
gain electron) decrease down the group, any acid spray and hydrogen chloride
Hence oxidizing power decrease down the gas
group ii. Conc. Sulphuric acid in the second
conical flask for dry chlorine gas
Displacement reactions involving halogens iii. It collected down ward delivery because
Most non-metal replaces less non-metal it is denser than air
during chemical reaction iv. When we use potassium permanganate
Fluorine displace chlorine or bromine no need to use heat because is more
2KCl(aq) + F2(g) 2KF(aq) + Br2(l) reactive (very strong oxidizing agent)
PbBr2(aq) + F2(g) PbF2(aq) + Br2(g)
Preparation of Chlorine by Using H2so4
Chlorine displace iodine or bromine Consider the diagram above exchange
2KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) 2KFCl(aq) + Cl2(g) HCL for H2SO4. Then mix sodium chloride with
NaI (aq) + Cl2(g) NaCl (aq) + Cl2(g) manganese (IV) oxide. Heat is required. The
mixture forms hydrogen chloride and then
hydrochloric acid during the reaction. The
chloride ions (Cl-) are then oxidized by
manganese (IV) oxide to chlorine. The
overall equation for the reaction is
2NaCI (s) + 3H2S04 (l) + MnO2(s)
2NaHSO4(s) + MnSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l) + C12 (g)
Preparation of Chlorine by Using Mineral

Acid
Chlorine can also be prepared by the
action of any dilute mineral acid on calcium

hypochlorite bleaching powder, (CaOCl2). vi.Chlorine oxidizes sulphites such as sodium
No heating is required. sulphide, to sulphates
CaOCl2 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO3(aq)+C12(g) + H2O(1)
H2O (l) + Cl2 (g) Na2SO4(aq) + 2HC1(aq)
Physical Properties of Chlorine vii. Chlorine reacts with cold sodium

i. Chlorine gas is greenish-yellow in colour hydroxide solution to form a mixture of
with pungent irritating smell. It is chlorides and hypochlorite which are
poisonous bleaching agents.
ii. It is denser than air 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) NaCl(aq) +
iii. It is soluble in water to form pale yellow NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)
solution known as chlorine water
viii. The gas reacts with a hot solution of
Chemical Properties of Chlorine sodium or potassium hydroxide to give a
i. It is soluble in water to form pale yellow mixture of sodium chloride and sodium
solution known as chlorine water chlorate.
C12 (g) + H2O (l) HCl (aq) + HOCl (aq) 3C12(g) + 6NaOH(aq) 5NaCl(aq) +
NaC1O3(aq) + 3H20(1)
Chlorine water is a mixture of chlorine as Chlorine reacts with potassium hydroxide
in water, chloric (I) acid (HOCl), and in the same way.
hydrochloric acid (HCl). When
hypochlorous (chloric (I) acid) acid With cold potassium hydroxide solution
comes into contact with a dye, it oxidizes 2KOH(aq) + C12(g) — KCI(aq) +
the dye to a colourless compound. This KOCl(aq) + H2o(l)
process called bleaching
HOCl(aq) + dye HCI(aq) + dye - With hot potassium hydroxide solution
oxygen complex (colourless) 3C12(g) ÷ 6KOH(aq) — 5KC1(aq) + KCIO3
+3H2o
ii. When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed
through chlorine water, it turns colourless ix. Chlorine oxidizes Sulphur dioxide gas to
and a yellow precipitate is formed. form Sulphur chloride.
Chlorine oxidizes the hydrogen sulphide Cl2(g) + S02(g) S02C12(g)
gas to sulphur and is itself reduced to
hydrogen chloride gas. Uses of Chlorine
H2S (g) + Cl2 (g) S(s) + 2HCl (g) The following are some of the uses of
The sulphur produced in the reaction chlorine.
forms a yellow precipitate. i. Chlorine is used as a bleaching agent in
textile industries. It is also used to bleach
iii. Hydrogen chloride gas forms white fumes wood pulp in the paper industry. Liquid
of ammonium chloride, with ammonia household bleach is a solution of sodium
gas. hypochlorite (NaOCl).
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) NH4Cl(s) ii. Chlorine can be used both as a
germicide and a disinfectant. It is also
iv.Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent. It used to treat drinking water, water in
oxidizes the iron (II) chloride to iron (III) swimming pools and sewage.
chloride. iii. Chlorine is used to manufacture
C12 (g) + 2FeCI2(s) 2FeC13(s) tetrachloromethane which is used as a
The green iron (II) chloride turns brown, solvent. It is also used to manufacture
the colour of iron (III) chloride. trichloroethane which is used as a
solvent to remove grease from clothes.
v. Chlorine reacts with hydrogen gas to iv.Chlorine is used to prepare hydrogen
form hydrogen chloride gas. chloride gas, which is dissolved in water
Cl2 (g) + H2(g) 2HC1(g) to form hydrochloric acid. The acid is

used as a reagent in many industrial Hydrogen Chloride Gas
processes and as a rust remover. Hydrogen chloride gas is a compound of
v. Chlorine is used to manufacture plastics chlorine and hydrogen. Its formula is HCl.
such as polychloroethene which is
commonly known as polyvinylchloride Preparation of Hydrogen Chloride Gas
(PVC). PVC is used in making insulators Hydrogen chloride gas can be prepared in
for wires and cables. the laboratory by reacting rock salt (sodium
chloride) with concentrated Sulphuric acid
to give sodium hydrogensulphate and
hydrogen chloride gas.
NaCI (s) + H2S04 (l) → NaHSO4 (aq) + HCl (g)
Physical Properties of Hydrogen Chloride

Gas
i. Hydrogen chloride is a colourless gas.
ii. It has a pungent choking smell and the
sharp taste of acids.
iii. Dry hydrogen chloride gas does not
affect dry blue litmus paper.
iv.Hydrogen chloride gas does not burn
and it extinguishes a burning wooden
splint.
1
v. It is about 14 times denser than air, thus it
is collected by downward delivery or
upward displacement of air.
Chemical Properties of Hydrogen Chloride

Gas
Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to
form hydrochloric acid.
HCl (g) + water HCl (aq)
Hydrogen chloride gas reacts with
ammonia gas to form ammonium chloride
(dense white fumes).
HCl (g) + NH3 (g) NH4Cl(s)
Chemical Properties of Hydrochloric Acid

i. It reacts with metal to produce metal
chloride and hydrogen gas. Example
Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc,
Calcium, magnesium and iron metal to
form metal chloride and hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Ca(s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) form in pipes, taps, washing machines,
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) shower heads and boilers.
Fe(s) + 2HCl (aq) FeCI (aq) + H2 (g)
3. Production of inorganic compounds
Nb: Many useful inorganic compounds can
(a) The copper (II) sulphate used as be produced using hydrochloric acid in
crystals normal acid-base reactions. These
(b) If no catalyst is used, warm the mixture include chemicals such as iron (III)
(c) Cold dilute hydrochloric acid has no chloride and polyaluminium chloride
effect on copper metal (PAC). Both iron (III) chloride and PAC
are used as flocculation and
ii. It reacts with carbonates of more coagulation agents in the treatment of
reactive metals to give a salt (chloride), both waste and drinking water. They are
carbon dioxide gas and water. Example also used in paper production.
carbonates of calcium and magnesium
reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to 4. Qualitative analysis
give carbonates of calcium and Hydrochloric acid is used to analyze
magnesium respectively, water and substances in laboratories. For example,
carbon dioxide gas. iron (II) oxide (FeO) is insoluble in water
CaCO3(s)+2HCl(aq)→CaC12(aq)+C02(g)+H20(l) but it can dissolve in hydrochloric acid to
MgCO3(s)+2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 +C02(g)+H20 (l) form iron (II) chloride solution.
Hydrochloric acid is also used in
iii. Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with some volumetric analysis.
metal oxides in neutralization reactions to
give a salt and water as the only 5. Production of organic compounds
products. For example: Most of the hydrochloric acid
CaO(s) + 2HCl (aq) CaC12 (aq) + H20 (l) manufactured in industries is used in the
MgO(s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H20 (l) production of organic compounds such
as polyvinylchloride (PVC)
iv.The reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid
with metal hydroxides is a neutralization 6. The production of fertilizers, dyes,
reaction. artificial silk and paint pigments.
NaOH(aq) + HC1(aq) NaC1(aq) + H20 (l) 7. The refining of edible oils and fats.
8. The concentration of metal ores.
Uses of Hydrogen Chloride Gas/
Hydrochloric Acid
1. Controlling pH in chemical processes
In industries where high purity is required
such as in the manufacture of food,
medicines and drinking water, high
quality hydrochloric acid is used to
control the pH of the water used.
2. Cleaning metals
Hydrochloric acid is used to remove rust
(oxide) from iron. The acid dissolves the
oxide (the rust) to form a chloride.
Fe203(s) + Fe(s) + 6HC1(aq)
3FeC12(aq) + 3H20(l)
Hydrochloric acid is also used in
removing limescale from boilers.
Limescale is the precipitation of calcium
salts in water, causing a hard scale to

Sulphur i. Super-heated water (at 170°C) is forced
Sulphur is a yellow, crystalline non-metallic down through the outer pipe to melt the
element that occupies the 16th position in sulphur.
the Periodic Table. Its atomic number is 16. It ii. Hot compressed air is forced down
is a member of Group VI elements. through the inner pipe. The combination
of the hot water and the hot air melts the
Nb: sulphur. The molten sulphur, hot air and
i. Sulphur exists in nature as a free element hot water form froth.
and in compounds, mainly in sulphides iii. The froth is forced to the earth’s surface
and sulphates. through the middle pipe by the
ii. In hot springs and volcanic areas sulphur compressed air. It is then collected in
exists as free element vats, where the water drains off and the
sulphur solidifies.
Extraction of Sulphur
Sulphur extracted by Frasch process Allotropes of Sulphur
By Defn: Allotropy is the existence of an
Position of Sulphur element in two or more different physical
Solid Sulphur are found at over 200 meters or forms in the same physical state. There are
more beneath the rocks and quicksand two main allotropes of sulphur include.
i. Monoclinic sulphur
Frasch Process ii. Rhombic sulphur
The Frasch process makes use of the relative
low melting point (119°C) of sulphur. In this Nb: other allotropes of
process, three concentric pipes (pipes with iii. Plastic sulphur
a common center) are used iv.Amorphous sulphur
Diagram: v. Colloidal sulphur
Monoclinic Sulphur
The name is derived from the shapes of the
crystals, it containing eight sulphur atoms.
Monoclinic sulphur is obtained by allowing
molten sulphur to solidify
The crystals of monoclinic sulphur are
needle-shaped. Monoclinic sulphur is also
known as prismatic sulphur or beta sulphur
(β-sulphur). It is stable above 96°C.
Rhombic Sulphur
The name is derived from the shapes of the
crystals, it containing eight sulphur atoms.
Rhombic sulphur is obtained when sulphur
crystallizes from solution in carbon
disulphide. The crystals of rhombic sulphur
have an octahedral shape. Rhombic sulphur
changes to monoclinic sulphur when
Stages Involved In the Frasch Process heated above 96°C and vice versa.
Rhombic sulphur is also known as alpha

sulphur (α-sulphur). Rhombic sulphur is stable Heated sulphur reacts with metals such
below 96°C. as iron, copper, zinc and tin, to give
metal sulphides.
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s) - (Black)
2Cu(s) + S(s) Cu2S(s)
ii. Reaction with acids

Sulphur is oxidized by strong
concentrated acids such as
concentrated sulphuric acid and nitric
acid. In such reactions, sulphur acts as
reducing agent.
S(s) + 2H2S04 (1) 3S02 (g) + 2H20(l)
Plastic Sulphur
S(s) +6HN03 (l) → H2S04 (g) + 6N02 (g) + 2H20(l)
Plastic sulphur, which is a tough plastic
(brown fumes)
substance formed when molten sulphur is
poured into cold water.
iii. Reaction with hydrogen
When hydrogen gas is bubbled through
Amorphous Sulphur
molten sulphur, hydrogen sulphide is
Amorphous sulphur which is an insoluble
formed.
white solid that remains when flowers of
H2 (g) + S (l) H2S (g)
sulphur are reacted with carbon disulphide.
Flowers of sulphur are a fine powder of pure
Nb: This is not a convenient method of
sulphur.
preparing hydrogen sulphide
Colloidal Sulphur
iv.Reaction with strong alkalis
Colloidal sulphur, which is a yellow
Sulphur dissolves in sodium and
crystalline solid
potassium hydroxides to form a mixture
of a sulphite, (SO32-) and a sulphide, S2-
Physical Properties of Sulphur
3S(s) + 6NaOH (aq) 2Na2S(aq) +
i. Sulphur is a yellow solid.
Na2SO3(aq) + 3H20(l)
ii. It is a non-metal.
iii. It is insoluble in water but soluble in non-
v. Reaction with other non-metals
polar solvents such as carbon disulphide
Sulphur directly combines with fluorine,
and methylbenzene.
chlorine and carbon.
iv.If rhombic sulphur is melted and partly
S(s) + 3F2 (g) SF6(l)
allowed to crystallize slowly, needle like
2S(s) + C12 (g) S2C12 (l)
crystals of monoclinic sulphur are formed.
2S(s) + C(s) CS2 (l)
v. Rhombic sulphur is stable below 96°C.
vi.Rhombic sulphur has a density of 2.06
Uses of Sulphur
gcm-3
i. Most of the sulphur produced in the
vii. Monoclinic sulphur has a density of
world is used to make sulphuric acid.
1.96 gcm-3
ii. Sulphur is used in the manufacture of
viii. When left standing at room
sulphur dioxide and sodium sulphite,
temperature, monoclinic sulphur
which are used for bleaching straw and
gradually changes to rhombic sulphur.
wood fibres. They are also used in
ix. Plastic sulphur is insoluble in carbon
disulphide removing lignin from wood pulp in the
paper industry.
iii. Gunpowder is a mixture of potassium
Chemical Properties of Sulphur
nitrate, carbon and sulphur.
In chemical reactions, sulphur exhibits both
iv.Sulphur is used in the vulcanization of
reducing and oxidizing properties.
natural rubber. Vulcanization is the
i. Reaction with metals
process of making naturally soft rubber
harder by reacting it with sulphur.
v. Sulphur is used in the manufacture of 2SO2 (g) + 02(g) 2 2SO3(s) + heat
various organic compounds such as
plastics and medicines. Conversion of Sulphur Trioxide to Sulphuric
vi.It is used to dust vines to prevent the Acid
growth of fungus. The sulphur trioxide from the conversion
chamber is passed through a heat
Sulphuric Acid exchanger to remove excess heat. It is then
Sulphuric acid is the compound involves taken to an absorption tower where it is
combination of hydrogen, oxygen and dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to
sulphur (H2SO4). form oleum or fuming sulphuric acid.
H2S04 (l) + S03 (g) H2S207 (l)
Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid Oleum is then diluted to give concentrated
Sulphuric acid is produced in large scale by sulphuric acid.
using contact process. Contact process H2S207 (l) + H20 (l) 2H2S04 (l)
involves four major stages
Nb: Sulphur trioxide cannot be dissolved
Stages Involves In Contact Process directly in water to form sulphuric acid, the
i. Production of sulphur dioxide reaction is highly exothermic and the heat
ii. Purification of sulphur dioxide produced vaporizes the sulphuric acid
iii. Catalytic conversion of sulphur dioxide to formed. This makes it difficult to collect the
sulphur trioxide acid
iv.Conversion of sulphur trioxide to sulphuric
acid Physical Properties of Conc. H2s04
i. It is a dense oily liquid. It is sometimes
Production of Sulphur Dioxide referred to as oil of vitriol.
i. The sulphur dioxide may be obtained by ii. It is a colourless liquid with a specific
Burning sulphur in air. gravity of 1.84 g/cm3.
S(s) + 02(g) S02 (g) iii. It has a boiling point of 333°C. It
decomposes at this temperature to give
NB: This is the most convenient method of sulphur dioxide gas and water.
producing sulphur dioxide. Conc. H2S04 (l) S03 (g) +H20 (g)
iv.Concentrated sulphuric acid has no
ii. Burning sulphide ores such as iron pyrite effect on litmus paper
(FeS2) and zinc blende (ZnS) v. It does not conduct electricity
4FeS2(s) + 1102(g) 8SO2 (g) + 2Fe2O3(s) vi.It does not give hydrogen when reacted
2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) 2S02 (g) + 2ZnO(s) with metals. This is because the acid is a
Sulphur dioxide gas is produced as a by- covalent compound and it is not ionized.
product (secondary product)
Nb: The properties of concentrated and
Purification of Sulphur Dioxide dilute sulphuric acid are not the same
Sulphur dioxide obtained in the first stage is
purified by remove impurities, such as dust Chemical Properties of Dil. H2s04
and arsenic (III) oxide, which may poison i. Reaction with metals
catalyst in the next stage. Also is passed Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with common
through conc. H2SO4 for drying sulphur metals such as magnesium, zinc and iron
dioxide. to form a sulphate of the metal and
hydrogen gas
Catalytic Conversion of Sulphur Dioxide to Mg(s) + H2S04 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Sulphur Trioxide Cu(s) + H2S04 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Dry sulphur dioxide is heated at 4500C at Fe(s) + H2S04 (aq) FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
normal atmospheric pressure in presence of
catalyst, may be vanadium pentaoxide or ii. Reaction with metal hydroxides
platinum. Since vanadium pentaoxide is
cheapest it preferred. Reaction is reversible
The reactions between dilute sulphuric Sulphuric acid is used in large quantities in
acid and metal hydroxides are the iron and steel-making industry to
neutralization reactions. remove rust and scale from rolled iron
2NaOH (aq) + H2S04 (aq) Na2SO4 sheets
(aq) + 2H20(l)
ii. Manufacture of fertilizers
iii. Reaction with metal carbonates Ammonium sulphate, an important
Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metal nitrogenous as fertilizer, is commonly
carbonates to give a metal sulphate, produced as a by-product in the
carbon dioxide and water. production of coke from coal. The
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2S04 (aq) Na2SO4 ammonia produced in the thermal
(aq) + C02 (g) + H20 (1) decomposition of coal is reacted with
PbCO3(s) + H2S04 (aq) PbSO4(s) + waste sulphuric acid to produce
C02 (g) + H20 (l) ammonium sulphate
Chemical Properties of Conc. H2S04 iii. Manufacture of aluminium sulphate

In chemical reactions, concentrated Sulphuric acid is used in the manufacture
sulphuric acid can act as a dehydrating of aluminium sulphate, which is used in
agent, a drying agent or an oxidizing agent. water treatment plants to filter impurities
and to improve the taste of the water.
i. Sulphuric acid as a dehydrating agent Aluminium sulphate is made by reacting
As a dehydrating agent, sulphuric acid ‘bauxite with sulphuric acid
removes the elements of water (oxygen
and hydrogen) from a compound to form iv. Refining crude oil
a new compound. A large quantity of sulphuric acid is used
C12H22011(s) + H2S04 12C(s) + 11H20(g) in refining petroleum. The acid is used as
(Sugar) (Black) a catalyst for the reaction of isobutane
with isobutylene to give isooctane, a
The reaction is highly exothermic. compound that raises the octane rating
CuSO4.5H20(s)+H2S04 CuSO4(s)+5H20(l) of petrol
(Blue) (White)
v. Sulphuric acid is used in lead-acid (car)
ii. Sulphuric acid as a drying agent batteries
As a drying agent, concentrated vi. Sulphuric acid is used as a dehydrating
sulphuric acid absorbs traces of water agent in its concentrated form
from substances. It is especially used as a vii. Sulphuric acid is used in the manufacture
drying agent during the laboratory of a wide range of pigments
preparation of gases, with the exception
of ammonia and carbon dioxide
iii. Sulphuric acid as an oxidizing agent

Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is a
strong oxidizing agent. It oxidizes both
metals and non-metals while it is reduced
to sulphur dioxide.
C(s) + 2H2S04(l) C02(g) + 2S02(g) +
2H20(1)
S(s) + 2H2S04(l) 3S02(g) t 2H20(l)
NB: The orange colour of the dichromate
(VI) paper changes to green. This confirms
the presence of sulphur dioxide gas
Uses of Sulphuric Acid

i. Extraction of metals
Sulphur Dioxide Sulphur dioxide has a high solubility in
By Defn: Sulphur dioxide is a binary water. It dissolves to form sulphurous
compound of sulphur with oxygen. acid. 1 cm3 of water dissolves about 700
cm3 of sulphur dioxide
Preparation of Sulphur Dioxide
1. When sulphur burns in air (oxygen) it iii. Reducing property of sulphur dioxide
gives sulphur dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is a strong reducing
S(s) + 02(g) S02 (g) agent. It reduces potassium
2. In the laboratory, sulphur dioxide is permanganate and potassium
prepared by reacting a sulphite or a dichromate (VI) solutions to manganese
hydrogen sulphite with an acid. sulphate and chromic sulphate
respectively. In moist conditions, sulphur
dioxide is a bleaching agent.
2KMnO4 (aq) + 5S02 (g) +2H2O (l)
K2SO4 (aq) + 2MnSO4 (aq) + 2H2S04 (aq)
Where:
2KMnO4 = purple
2MnSO4 =colourless
K2Cr2O7 (aq) + H2S04 (aq) + 3S02 (g)

K2S04 (aq) + Cr2(S04)3(aq) + H20(l)
Na2SO3(s) + H2S04 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq)
Where:
+ H20 (l) + S02 (g)
K2Cr2O7 = orange
Nb:
Cr2(S04)3 = green
i. Conc. Sulphuric acid in the conical flask
for dry chlorine gas
iv.Oxidizing property of sulphur dioxide
ii. It collected down ward delivery because
In the presence of moisture Sulphur
it is denser than air
dioxide is also an oxidizing agent.
Consider the chemical reaction below.
3. In the laboratory, sulphur dioxide is
FeS(s) + 2HCI(aq) HS(g) + FeCl2(aq)
prepared by the reaction between
2H2S(g) + S02(g) 3S(s) + 2H20(l)
copper turnings and concentrated
sulphuric acid can be represented by
v. Reaction of sulphur dioxide with oxygen
the following equation.
Sulphur dioxide does not burn. However,
Cu(s) + 2H2S04 (l) CuSO4 (s) + S02 (g)
it combines with oxygen in the presence
+ 2H20(l)
of a heated catalyst (platinized asbestos)
to give sulphur trioxide.
Physical Properties of Sulphur Dioxide
2S02 (g) + 02(g) 2S03 (g)
i. It is a colourless gas with an irritating
chocking smell.
Test for Sulphur Dioxide
ii. It is poisonous and should therefore be
i. The presence of sulphur dioxide can
prepared in the fume chamber.
be tested using a filter paper that has
iii. It is two and a half times denser than air.
been soaked in acidified potassium
iv.It is readily liquefied. Liquid sulphur
dichromate (VI). If sulphur dioxide is
dioxide boils at about -10°C.
present, the colour of the paper
changes from orange to green due to
Chemical Properties of Sulphur Dioxide
i. Sulphur dioxide is an acidic gas. Dissolve the reduction of dichromate (VI) to
chromate (III).
in water to form acidic solution of
ii. Sulphur dioxide also decolorizes
sulphuric acid which is commonly known
acidified potassium permanganate
as sulphurous acid.
solution.
S02(g) + H20(l) H2S03(aq)
ii. Solubility of sulphur dioxide

Pollution Effects of Sulphur Dioxide
i. Soil erosion because the major sources of Nitrogen
sulphur dioxide in the air are power Nitrogen exists in gaseous state as a
plants that use fossil fuels such as coal diatomic molecule (N2). Nitrogen gas is
and diesel, industrial boilers, and exhaust odourless and colourless. Nitrogen also
emissions from motor vehicles. occurs in combined state in the form of
ii. It causes acidic rain. nitrates and oxides. It is also found in plants
iii. It can cause impairment of respiratory and animals as a constituent of proteins.
function and heart diseases
Preparation of Nitrogen Gas
Uses of Sulphur Dioxide Nitrogen prepared in the laboratory by
i. The main use of sulphur dioxide is in the isolation from atmospheric air.
manufacture of sulphuric acid through Diagram:
the contact process.
ii. It is used as a bleaching agent for fibres,
mainly of animal origin, for example
wool, silk, straw and sponges.
iii. It is used in the manufacture of calcium
and sodium hydrogensulphites. Calcium
hydrogensulphite (CaHSO3) is used for
bleaching wood-pulp in the When air is passed through a solution of
manufacture of paper and artificial silk. sodium hydroxide, carbon dioxide from the
Sodium hydrogensulphite, NaHSO3, is air dissolves in the alkali which removes
used in the manufacture of sodium carbon dioxide from the air.
sulphinate, which is a reducing agent NaOH (aq) + C02 (g) NaHCO3 (aq)
used in dyeing.
iv.It is used for fumigating houses and In the combustion tube, the hot copper
clothing to kill micro-organisms. It is also turnings (brown) react with oxygen to form
used to kill insects such as white ants copper (II) oxide (black) where oxygen is
because it is poisonous. removed from the air
v. Sulphur dioxide is used in small doses as a 2Cu(s) + 02(g) 2CuO(s)
preservative of some liquids such as
lemon and orange juices. This is because Nb:
even a small concentration of the gas i. The nitrogen obtained is impure which
prevents fermentation of the liquids as it contains inert gases such as neon and
reacts with oxygen. This prevents argon makes the gas impure
oxidation of the liquids. ii. Dry nitrogen gas can be obtained by
vi.Liquid sulphur dioxide is used in passing it through concentrated sulphuric
refrigerators because it liquefies at three acid instead of collecting it over water
atmospheres at room temperature.
Physical Properties of Nitrogen
i. Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless and
tasteless gas.
ii. It is almost insoluble in water.
iii. It has a boiling point of -196°C.
iv.It can be liquefied to form liquid nitrogen.
v. Nitrogen prepared from air is denser than
pure nitrogen since it contains the noble
gases
vi.It occupies about 78% by volume in the
atmosphere
Chemical Properties of Nitrogen

Nitrogen is relatively Unreactive

Nitrogen gas is stable below 3000°C. It only Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of
takes part in reactions at very high ammonia through the Haber process.
temperatures. Reaction is reversible
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) + heat
Reaction with oxygen
Nitrogen does not burn nor does it support 6. Manufacture of nitric acid
combustion. When heated, the gas The ammonia gas manufactured in the
combines with oxygen to form nitrogen Haber process is used in the manufacture of
monoxide gas. nitric acid by catalytic oxidation.
N2 (g) + 02(g) 2N0 (g)
This Process Involves Three Main Stages.
Reaction with hydrogen i. Catalytic oxidation of ammonia.
Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen when platinum gauze used as catalyst at
heated to form ammonia. 700°C
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) 4NH3(g) +502(g) 4N0(g) + 6H20(g) + Heat
Reaction with metals ii. Oxidation of nitrogen monoxide to

When heated together with metals, nitrogen nitrogen dioxide at 30°C. Reaction is
forms metal nitrides. For example, with reversible
magnesium it forms magnesium nitride. 2N0 (g) + 02(g) 2N02 (g)
3Mg(s) + N2 (g) heat Mg3N2 (g)
iii. Reaction of nitrogen dioxide with water
Uses of Nitrogen to form nitric acid.
The following are some uses of nitrogen gas. 4N02 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) 4HN03 (aq)
1. Manufacture of fertilizers
Nitrogen is used to manufacture nitrogenous
fertilizers. These include Diammonium
phosphate (DAP), calcium ammonium
nitrate (CAN), ammonium superphosphate
(ASP), ammonium nitrate (AN), ammonium
phosphate sulphate (APS), ammonium
sulphate nitrate (ASN), and ammonium
sulphate (AS) and urea.
2. Refrigeration
Nitrogen gas is used as a refrigerant
because of its low boiling point (inert
atmosphere 196°C).
3. Processing reactive substances

Because of its low reactivity; nitrogen is used
to provide an inert atmosphere for storing
and processing reactive substances.
4. Plastic industries
Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of
synthetic fibres such as polyamides.
Polyamides are commonly known as nylons.
Nylons are chemically inert and are stronger
than natural fibres. They are used in making
fishing nets, clothes and many other items.
5. Manufacture of ammonia

Ammonia Physical Properties of Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of hydrogen and i. Ammonia is a colourless gas with a
nitrogen. Its chemical formula is NH3. It exists pungent choking smell
in nitrogenous organic materials such as ii. It is less dense than air
hoofs and horns of animals. iii. Ammonia is highly soluble in water
Preparation of Ammonia Fountain Experiment

Ammonia can be prepared in the
laboratory by heating any ammonium salt
together with an alkali. The most commonly
used alkalis are potassium hydroxide with
ammonium chloride.
Diagram:
When a drop of water is released into the

boiling tube containing ammonia, the water
dissolves most of the ammonia gas, thus
leaving a partial vacuum. This lowers the
pressure inside the boiling tube. The rubber
remains pressed inside because of
atmospheric pressure.
Calcium hydroxide reacts with ammonium

chloride to produce ammonia gas, calcium
chloride and water
2NH4CI(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) CaCI2(aq) +
2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Ammonia gas is dried by passing it over
quicklime When the teat is removed, the water in the
beaker rushes into the boiling tube, thus
Nb: dissolving the remaining ammonia gas. The
i. The round-bottomed flask is tilted to water forms a fountain, thus the name of
prevent any condensed water from the experiment.
running back into the hot flask, which
would make the flask crack. Nb:
ii. The common drying agents such as i. The solution of ammonia which is a base
concentrated sulphuric acid and calcium is called aqueous ammonia.
chloride are not used because they react ii. In aqueous ammonia, the molecules of
with the gas. Reactions is reversible ammonia continuously interact with
2NH3 (g) + H2S04 (l) (NH4)2S04 (l) water molecules to produce ammonium
8NH3 (g) + CaCI2(s) CaCI2.8NH3(s) ions (NH4+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-).
iii. Ammonia is collected by upward delivery Reaction is reversible
or downward displacement of air. This is NH3 (g) + H20 (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
because it is less dense than air. iii. Ammonium hydroxide does not exist as a
iv.Ammonia is an alkaline gas and turns wet molecule. Instead it exists as NH4+ and 0H-
red litmus paper blue. ions.
v. When sodium hydroxide or potassium iv.The presence of the hydroxyl ions in
hydroxide is used, they are used in aqueous ammonia, OH-, makes the
solution form because they are very solution alkaline.
reactive in solid form
Chemical Properties of Ammonia

Reaction with concentrated hydrochloric Carbon
acid Carbon is a Group IV and Period 2 element.
When a glass rod dipped in concentrated It usually forms covalent bonds when
hydrochloric acid is placed at the mouth of combining with other elements. Carbon is
a gas jar containing ammonia, dense white found in a variety of natural substances.
fumes of ammonium chloride are formed. These include shells, coal, diamond, and
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) NH4Cl(s) graphite. It is also found in compounds of
This is used as a test for ammonia gas. carbonates such as chalk (CaCO3).
Oxidation of ammonia Allotropes of Carbon

Oxidizing agents, such as copper (II) oxide, Carbon exists in three main forms include
oxidize ammonia gas to nitrogen. i. Graphite Carbon
ii. Diamond Carbon
iii. Amorphous Carbon
Graphite Carbon
Each carbon atom is bonded to three other
carbon atoms, giving it a trigonal structure.
Three out of the four valence electrons of
When ammonia gas is passed over heated each carbon atom are used in bond
copper (II) oxide, the gas is oxidized to formation. The fourth electron is referred to
nitrogen while the copper (II) oxide is as a delocalized electron, and is free to
reduced to copper. move in the graphite structure. The trigonal
3CuO(s) + 2NH3 (g) 3Cu(s) +3H20(l) +N2 units come together to form a hexagonal
(g) ring. These rings form flat parallel layers, one
over the other. The layers can slide over one
The liquid collected in the test tube is water. another. This makes graphite soft and
The liquid changes white anhydrous copper slippery.
(II) Sulphate to blue or blue cobalt (II) Diagram:
chloride paper to pink.
Uses of Ammonia
The following are some of the uses of
ammonia
1. Manufacture of fertilizers
Ammonia is used in the manufacture of
nitrogenous fertilizers such as ammonium
Bond formation in a graphite carbon
sulphate nitrate (ASN), ammonium sulphate
(AS), di-ammonium phosphate (DAP),
calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) and
ammonium nitrate (AN).
2. Cleaning
Ammonia softens water and neutralizes acid
stains caused by perspiration, thus making
washing easier.
3. Refrigeration Graphite structure

Liquid ammonia can be used as a
refrigerant because it is highly volatile. Physical Properties of Graphite Carbon
i. It has a low density
4. Manufacture of nitric acid ii. It is soft and greasy.
Nitric acid is manufactured by the catalytic iii. Good conduct of heat and electricity
oxidation of ammonia due to the delocalized of electrons.
iv.It has relatively low melting and boiling dispersion of light, making it suitable for
points (compared to diamond). use in jewellery
Uses of Graphite Carbon Uses of Diamond Carbon

i. It is used as a lubricant in high i. It is used in making jewellery
temperature processes because of its ii. It is used to make glass cutters and rock
slippery nature and high boiling point. borers because of its hardness.
ii. It is used to make electrodes due to its
good electrical conductivity Amorphous Carbon
iii. It is mixed with clay to make the lead in Amorphous carbon is carbon that does not
pencils. have any clear shape, form or crystalline
structure. Amorphous carbon is made up of
Diamond Carbon tiny bits of graphite with varying amounts of
In diamond, all the four valence electrons of other elements considered as impurities. It is
a carbon atom are used in bonding, formed when a material containing carbon
forming four strong covalent bonds in each is burned in limited supply of oxygen,
carbon atom. The electrons form a resulting in incomplete combustion.
tetrahedral shape.
Diagram: Example of Amorphous Carbon
i. Sugar charcoal -made by dehydrating
sugar
ii. Wood charcoal - made by heating
wood in a limited supply of air
iii. Coal
Uses of Amorphous Carbon

i. it used to make ink, paint and rubber
Bond formation in a diamond carbon products.
ii. It is also pressed into shapes and used to
form cores of dry batteries.
iii. Used as fuel for cooking example wood
charcoal and coal
Chemical Properties of Carbon

The following are some chemical properties
of carbon.
1. Carbon burns in excess oxygen to form
carbon dioxide gas.
2. C(s) + 02(g) C02 (g)
In insufficient oxygen, carbon monoxide
Diamond structure gas is formed.
2C(s) + 02(g) 2C0 (g)
Physical Properties of Diamond Carbon 2. Carbon has a high affinity for oxygen and
i. It has a high density compared to thus acts as a reducing agent.
graphite. Carbon reduces oxides of less reactive
ii. It is the hardest natural substance known. metals to their respective metals.
iii. It is a bad conductor of electricity and ZnO(s) + C(s) Zn(s) + CO (g)
heat. PbO(s) + C(s) Pb(s) + CO (g)
iv.It has a high melting point of 3,550°C and
a high boiling point of 4,289°C. Carbon reduces hot concentrated nitric
v. It has a high refractive index of 2.45. The acid and concentrated sulphuric acid.
high refractive index results in high 4HN03 (l) + C(s) 4N02 (g) + C02 (g)
+2H20(l)
2H2S04 (l) + C(s) 2S02 (g) + C02 (g) + result, it may not have any observable
2H20(l) effect on a litmus paper.
Carbon Dioxide Reaction of carbon dioxide with lime water

Carbon dioxide is the covalent compound Carbon dioxide react with Lime water
formed between carbon and oxygen (calcium hydroxide) a white precipitate of
calcium carbonate is formed.
Preparation of Carbon Dioxide Ca(OH)2(aq) + C02(g) CaCO3(s) +
Carbon dioxide can be prepared in the H2O(l)
laboratory by the action of dilute
hydrochloric acid on marble chips (calcium When excess carbon dioxide is bubbled into
carbonate). the lime water, the white precipitate
Diagram: dissolves due to the formation of soluble
calcium hydrogen carbonate.
CaCO3(s) +H20 (l) + CO2 (g)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Reaction of carbon dioxide with barium

hydroxide
Carbon dioxide react with Barium hydroxide
to forms a precipitate of barium carbonate.
Ba(OH)(aq) + C02(g) BaCO3(s) + H20(l)
Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with marble Reaction of carbon dioxide with metals
chips to give calcium chloride, water and Generally, carbon dioxide does not react
carbon dioxide. with metals, except under special
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H20 conditions.
(l) + C02 (g)
The potassium hydrogen carbonate solution When a burning magnesium ribbon is
absorbs any traces of hydrochloric acid lowered into a gas jar containing carbon
from the carbon dioxide. The gas is then dioxide, it continues to burn for a short time
dried by passing it through anhydrous with a spluttering flame. A white ash of
calcium chloride. Carbon dioxide is magnesium oxide and black specks of
collected by downward delivery because it carbon are formed.
is denser than air. 2Mg(s) + C02 (g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)
Nb: Reaction with water

Other carbonates, such as magnesium Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form
carbonate can also be used to prepare weak carbonic acid. The reaction is
carbon dioxide gas. reversible.
H20(l) + C02(g) H2C03(aq)
Physical Properties of Carbon Dioxide Gas
i. Carbon dioxide is a colourless and Test for Carbon Dioxide
odourless gas. By using lime water
ii. It has a melting point of -199°C and a When a little carbon dioxide is bubbled into
boiling point of -91.5°C. lime water a white precipitate of calcium
iii. The gas is denser than air. carbonate is formed.
iv.Solid carbon dioxide is referred to as dry
ice. Dry ice sublimes means changing By using Barium hydroxide
directly to gas at atmospheric pressure. When a little carbon dioxide is bubbled into
Barium hydroxide a white precipitate of
Chemical Properties barium carbonate is formed.
Carbon dioxide does not support
combustion. The gas is slightly acidic. As a Uses of Carbon Dioxide
The following are some of the uses of
carbon dioxide.
1. Fire extinguisher
Carbon dioxide gas is used as a fire
extinguishing agent because it does not
support combustion and is denser than air.
This means it displaces oxygen from the
burning site, thus stopping the fire.
2. Manufacture of fizzy drinks

Carbon dioxide is used in making fizzy drinks
and mineral salts. A solution of the gas in
water has a pleasant taste.
3. Refrigeration
Carbon dioxide is used as a refrigerant. The
gas sublimes at -78°C to form dry ice. Dry ice
is a good refrigerant because it leaves no
residue after sublimation
4. Manufacture of sodium carbonate

Carbon dioxide is used in the manufacture
of anhydrous sodium carbonate in the
Solvay process. Sodium carbonate is used in
the manufacture of glass.
5. Manufacture of baking soda

Carbon dioxide is used in making baking
powder (sodium hydrogen carbonate).
Baking soda is prepared by passing carbon
dioxide into cold concentrated sodium
carbonate
6. Photosynthesis
Plants make use of carbon dioxide to
manufacture food through the process of
photosynthesis
7. Cloud seeding
Carbon dioxide is used in cloud seeding.
Cloud seeding is a method of increasing the
amount of rainfall received in an area by
dispersing substances that help in cloud
formation into the air

Introduction to Organic Chemistry
By Defn: Organic chemistry is the study of Prehistoric sources
the preparation, structure, properties, Prehistoric sources of organic compounds
composition and reactions of organic include coal, petroleum and natural gas.
compounds
Living organisms
Nb: Living organisms include plants and animals.
Organic compound because most of them
are found in animal and plant matter, both Synthetic compounds
living and dead Synthetic organic compounds are prepared
in factories and laboratories through various
Importance of Organic Chemistry processes.
Organic chemistry is important both in
industrial and in life processes Synthetic Organic With Its Uses
Substance Uses
Life Polyester Making cloth items
All living organisms are made of millions of Making clothing,
organic compounds. Polyvinyl cyanide
blankets and carpets
Used as a substitute for
Medicine Perspex glass in aircraft and in
Organic compounds are also used in buildings
making medicines for treating various Making packaging
illnesses. Polythene materials, baskets, cups,
bowls and a wide range
Textile industries of kitchenware.
Clothes are made from organic compounds Commonly referred to
called fibres. as polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), used to make
Energy Polychloroethene
water pipes, crates,
All fossils fuels such as coal, petroleum and electrical appliances
natural gas are derived from organic and as a substitute for
compounds. leather
Neoprene Used as a substitute for
Plastic products natural rubber
Organic compounds are used to
manufacture plastic items. Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
By Defn: fractional distillation of crude oil is
Harmful Effects of Organic Compounds the process of separating a mixture of
These include the following component of crude oil by using their
i. Some insecticides such as difference in boiling point
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
have harmful effects on life processes in Nb:
animals, especially birds The crude oil contains a mixture of different
ii. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) contribute to types of organic compounds.
global warming
iii. Plastic materials such as polythenes do Fractional Process
not decompose easily i. In primary fractional distillation, the crude
oil is heated to about 400°C and vapours
Origin of Organic Compounds are passed into fractionating column. The
Organic compounds are derived from three column contains trays and bubble caps.
major sources, include the follows The more volatile components go up the
i. Prehistoric sources tower. Those with highest boiling points
ii. Living organisms condense in trays
iii. Synthetic compounds
ii. This separation is followed by secondary Diesel oil Diesel engine
fractional distillation. Secondary fractional Lubricating Lubricating oil
distillation may be used to obtain oil
individual hydrocarbons by further Bitumen Make bitumen
distillation Fuel in ships
Diagram: Lubricant oil
Making waxes etc
Cracking
By Defn: Cracking is the conversion of large
molecule organic compounds into
compounds with smaller molecules.
Methods of Crack Organic Compound

i. Thermal cracking
ii. Catalytic cracking
Thermal cracking
Heat energy used to cracking large
molecule of organic compound to smaller
molecules of organic compound
Catalytic cracking
Catalyst used to speed up the crack large
molecule of organic compound to smaller
molecules of organic compound
Terms Commonly Used

Components of Crude Oil i. Molecular Formula: molecular formula is a
Carbon chemical formula indicating the types
Fraction Boiling Point
Number and number of atoms in a molecule
Fuel gas -160°C - 20°C 1-4
ii. Structural Formula: structural formula is a
Petrol 20°C - 70°C 5 - 10 chemical formula which shows the
arrangement of atoms in a molecule. The
Naphtha or structural formula can be shown in
70°C - 120°C 8 - 12
gasoline condensed/closed formula (without
Paraffin shows bond) or in opened formula (with
120°C - 240°C 10 - 16
(kerosene) bond)
Diesel oil 240°C - 350°C 15 - 70
iii. Isomers: Isomers are organic compounds
Lubricating with the same molecular formula but
240°C - 350°C 15 - 70
oil different structural formulae
Bitumen or More than
above 350°C
residual 70 iv. General Formula: general formula is a
general rule that can be used to
Uses of Major Components of Crude Oil calculate the number of each type of
Fraction Derivative/Uses atom in a molecule
Fuel gas Cooking
lighting chemicals etc v. Homologous Series: homologous series is
Petrol Vehicles and solvent an arrangement of the members of a
Naphtha chemicals family of organic compounds in order of
Paraffin Jet engine and kerosene increasing molecular masses
lamp
Characteristics Of A Homologous Series Unsaturated hydrocarbons have a double
i. All the members of a particular series can bond (C=C) or a triple bond (C≡C)
be represented by the same general between any of the carbon atoms
formula
ii. The molecular formula of each member Families/Groups Of Hydrocarbons
of a particular series differs from the There are three main groups of
member above or below it by one hydrocarbons.
structural unit i. Alkanes
By Defn: structural unit is made up of one ii. Alkenes
carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms iii. Alkynes
that is CH2. The molecular mass of two
adjacent members therefore differs by Nb: Each family has unique physical and
14 since the mass of CH2 is 12 + (2x1) = 14 chemical properties
iii. Compounds that are members of a
homologous series prepared by using the Naming of Hydrocarbons
same general methods The IUPAC system works for naming organic.
iv. The physical properties such as melting The names given to a hydrocarbon have
point, boiling point and density show a two parts. These are the root name and the
gradual change with the increase of the primary suffix.
formula or molecular mass
v. Members of a given series have similar Root Name
chemical properties A root word/name indicates the nature of
vi. Functional Group: functional group is an the basic carbon chain making up the
atom or group of atoms attached to an hydrocarbon.
organic molecule which enable the
molecule to react in specific ways. The Root Names for Hydrocarbons
functional group determines the Number Of Carbon Atoms Root Name
chemical properties of the organic 1 Meth-
compound 2 Eth-
Examples of functional groups include 3 Prop-
(a) -C-CH3 (alkanes) 4 But-
(b) -CH=CH3 (alkenes 5 Pent-
(c) -C≡CH3 (alkynes) 6 Hex-
(d) -OH (alcohols) 7 Hept-
(e) -COOH (carboxylic acids) 8 Oct-
9 Non-
Hydrocarbons 10 Dec-
By Defn: Hydrocarbons are organic
compounds made up of carbon and Primary Suffixes
hydrogen only Primary suffixes are added to the root name
to show whether the hydrocarbon is
Types/Groups of Hydrocarbon saturated or not and the degree of
There are two main groups of hydrocarbons. unsaturation
i. Saturated hydrocarbons
ii. unsaturated hydrocarbons Primary Suffixes for Hydrocarbons
Family Type Of Bond Suffix
Saturated Hydrocarbons
alkanes Single(C-C) -ane
Saturated hydrocarbons are formed if all
alkenes Double(C=C) -ene
the four bonds of every carbon atom are
alkynes Triple (C≡C) -yne
joined using a single bond to another
carbon atom or a hydrogen atom
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Alkanes bonded/attached to the longest
By Defn: Alkanes is the saturated continuous carbon chain
hydrocarbons that contain only single
covalent bonds between the carbon Nb:
atoms. It has single bond i. The branches or side groups are called
Diagram: substituents
ii. The most common substituents are alkyl
groups
Alkyl Group
Alkyl group is the alkane which lost one
hydrogen atom. They have a general
formula of C2H2n+I. The name of the alkyl
group is obtained by replacing the suffix -
ane in a corresponding alkane with -yl.
General Formulae
It has a general formula of CnH(2n + 2) Names and Formulae of Some Alkyl
Where: Number Of Name Of Molecular
n = number of carbon atoms Carbon Substituent Formula
1 Methyl CH43
Homologous Series of Alkanes 2 Ethyl C2H5
n Name Molecular Formula 3 Propyl C3H7
1 Methane CH4 4 Butyl C4H19
2 Ethane C2H6 5 Pentyl C5H11
3 Propane C3H8 6 Hexyl C6H10
4 Butane C4H10 7 Heptyl C7H15
5 Pentane C5H12 8 Octyl C8H17
6 Hexane C6H14 9 Nonyl C9H19
7 Heptane C7H16 10 Decyl C10H21
8 Octane C8H18
9 Nonane C9H20 Rules for Naming Alkane
10 Decane C10H22 The following rules must be followed when
naming alkanes.
Structural Formulae i. Identify the longest continuous carbon
Consider the open and condensed chain. This becomes the parent chain.
formulae of ethane and Butane
The longest continuous carbon chain has

six carbon atoms. The parent name of the
alkane is hexane.
Note: the ethyl group (C2H5-) can be
expanded to CH3CH2-
ii. Identify the position and the name of the

substituent attached to the longest
The condensed structural formulae can be continuous carbon chain if present and
simplified further. Example CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 read to the smallest possible number of
become CH3 (CH2)2CH3 carbon attached. Consider the example
above, from left methyl bonded to third
Branched-Chain Alkanes carbon and from right methyl is attached
By Defn: Branch of alkane is any atom or to forth carbon. Therefore is 3-methyl
group of atoms, except hydrogen, which is

Nb: the carbon that the loCation of Types of Isomerism
substituent is called locant i. structural isomerism
ii. stereoisomerism
iii. Write down the name of the alkane,
starting with the locant, followed by the Structural Isomerism
name of the substituent and then the It divided into three types include,
name of the parent chain i. chain or branched isomerism
Name of the alkane is 3-methyihexane ii. functional group isomerism
iii. positional isomerism
Nb:
i. Use a hyphen (-) to separate the locant Stereoisomerism
from the name of the substituent It divided into two types include,
ii. The name should be continuous with no i. geometric isomerism
spaces between ii. optical isomerism
iii. The name which follows after the locant
should start with a small letter Nb:
i. Methane, ethane and propane do not
When more than one substituent is attached have isomers
Consider the alkane below contain more ii. Butane has two isomers
than one substituent is attached to the iii. As the number of carbon atoms
parent chain. increases, the number of possible isomers
also increases
Isomers of Butane
i. The parent chain is therefore pentane
ii. First branch is 2-methyl
iii. Second branch is 3-methyl
Nb: the prefix like di, tri, tetra etc may be
used
iv. Arrange with alphabetical order
v. A comma is used to separate the locants
vi. Therefore The name of the alkane is 2,3-
dimethylpentane
When two or more different substituents are

attached to the parent chain
The name of the substituents is written in an
alphabetical order Isomers of Pentane
i. The parent chain is therefore heptane

ii. First branch is 2-methyl
iii. Second branch is 4-ethyl
iv. Therefore The name of the alkane is 4-
ethyl-2-methyl heptane
Isomerism in Alkanes
By Defn: Isomerism is the property of two or
more compounds having the same
molecular formula but different structural
formulae Preparation of Alkanes

All alkane is prepared in the same way but ii. Alkanes with five to ten carbon atoms
let us see the preparation of methane and (pentane to decane) are liquids at room
ethane temperature and pressure
NB: The change in physical state is due to
Preparation of Methane increase in molecular mass. This in turn
Methane gas can be prepared in the increases intermolecular attractions
laboratory by reacting sodium Ethanoate iii. boiling points of alkanes increase
with soda lime methane to decane
Diagram: iv. melting points of alkanes increase
methane to decane
v. density of alkanes increase methane to
decane
Physical Properties of the Alkanes

B.P M.P Density
Alkane
(oC) (oC) (g/cm3)
Methane -162 -183 0.466
Ethane -89 -772 0.572
Propane -42 -188 0.585
Soda lime is a mixture of sodium and Butane -0.5 -135 0.601
calcium hydroxide. The sodium hydroxide in
Pentane 36 -130 0.626
the mixture reacts with sodium Ethanoate to
Hexane 69 -95 0.659
produce methane gas.
Heptane 98 -91 0.684
CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s) CH4(g) +
Octane 126 -57 0.703
Na2CO3(g)
Nonane 151 -54 0.718
Decane 174 -30 0.730
Nb:
i. Methane gas is colourless and odourless
ii. It is insoluble in water. This is the reason Chemical Properties of Alkanes
why it is collected over water Reactions with air (oxygen)
Alkane burn in air to give carbon dioxide
Preparation of Ethane and water
It prepared like methane, sodium For example, Methane burns in air as shown
propanoate react with soda lime to in the following equation.
produce Ethane CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H20(l)
CH3CH2COONa(s) + NaOH C2H6 (g) +
Na2CO3(s) Nb:
The combustion of alkanes is a highly
Nb: exothermic reaction; most alkanes are
i. Ethane is a constituent of natural gas but actually used as fuels.
it is of a lower percentage compared to
methane Alkanes undergo Substitution reaction
ii. It is a colourless and odourless gas Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. They
iii. It is insoluble in water and this is why it is only take part in substitution reactions.
collected over water
By Defn: A substitution reaction is one in
Physical Properties of Alkanes which an atom or a group of atoms is
The trend in physical properties of the replaced by another atom or group of
straight-chain alkanes changes gradually atoms.
from methane to decane.
i. The first four alkanes, that is methane, NB:
ethane, propane and butane, are gases i. Substitution reactions of alkanes mainly
at room temperature and pressure. involve halogens such as bromine and
chlorine.

ii. Substitution reaction can be used to test Alkenes
whether the hydrocarbon is saturated By Defn: Alkenes are hydrocarbons which
iii. In the presence of sunlight alkane contain at least one double bond (-C=C-)
decolorized potassium permanganate between two carbon atoms.
and bromide water, this two reagent is Diagram:
used to test for saturated hydrocarbon
Bromine reacts with methane in the

presence of sunlight in a substitution
reaction to form tetrabromoethane
CH4 (g) + 4Br2 (g) CBr4 (g) + 4HBr (g)
General Formula
Chlorine also reacts with methane in the Alkenes have the general formula C2H2n
same way
CH4 (g) + 4Cl2 (g) CCI4 (g) + 4HCl (g) Homologous Series of Alkenes
Molecula
The reaction takes place in stages, with one n Name Structure Formula
r Formula
chlorine atom replacing a hydrogen atom 2 Ethene C2H4 CH2=CH2
in methane at each stage. 3 Propene C3H6 CH3CH=CH2
(i) Formation of chloromethane
4 Butene C4H8 CH3CH2CH=CH2
CH4 (g) +Cl2 (g) CH3C1 (g) +HC1 (g)
5 Pentene C5H10 CH3(CH2)2CH=CH
2
(ii) Formation of dichloromethane
6 Hexene C6H12 CH3(CH2)3CH=CH
CH3CI (g) + Cl2 (g) CH2Cl2(g) +
2
HCl(g)
7 Heptene C7H14 CH3(CH2)4CH=CH
2
(iii) Formation trichloromethane
8 Octene C8H16 CH3(CH2)5CH=CH
CH2CI2 (g) + Cl2 (g) CHCl3 (g) + HCl
2
(g)
9 Nonene C9H18 CH3(CH2)6CH=CH
2
(iv)Formation of tetrachloromethane
CHCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) CCl4 (g) + HCl 1 Decene C10H20 CH3(CH2)7CH=CH
(g) 0 2
NB: methane not exist
Nb:
i. The reaction between methane and Naming Alkenes
bromine also takes place in a similar way. The rules used in naming alkenes are
ii. Substitution reactions are characteristic of applied the same way as those for naming
saturated hydrocarbons alkanes. In alkene the position of double
bond added to the root word followed by
the suffix -p-ene
Where:
p is the position of double bond of smallest
number
Example
Name the compound below
CH3CH2CH=CH2
Answer
Parent chain is butene
Smallest number Position of double bond is 1
The name of compound is but-1-ene

Example: NECTA 2006 Qn 08 (c) roman B Answer:
Name the systematic IUPAC name of the CH3CH2CH=CH2 (but-1-ene)
compound CH2=CH2 CH3CH=CHCH3 (but-2-ene)
Answer CH3-C=CH2 (2-methylprop-1-ene)
Parent chain is ethene I
Smallest number Position of double bond is 1 CH3
The name of compound is eth-1-ene Nb:
i. Isomers due to the position of the double
Example: bond. They are usually referred to as
Name the systematic IUPAC name of the positional isomers
compound A, B, C and D ii. Isomer due to the presence of a
substituent. It is usually referred to as a
branch isomer
Preparation of Ethene
Ethene can be prepared in the laboratory
by heating a mixture of ethanol and
concentrated sulphuric acid
Answer for Compound A Diagram:
Parent chain is pentene
The name of compound is pent-2-ene
Answer for Compound B

Parent chain is pentene
Branch chain is 4-methyl
The name of compound is 4-methylpent-2-
ene
Answer for Compound C Concentrated sulphuric acid dehydrates

Parent chain is hexene ethanol at 160 - 180°C to give ethene.
Branch chain is 4-methyl and 5-ethyl CH3CH2OH (l) CH2CH2 (g) + H20 (l)
The name of compound is 5-ethyl,4- Ethene can also be prepared in the
methylhex-1-ene laboratory by dehydrating ethanol using
aluminium oxide.
Answer for Compound D
CH3CH2OH (l) CH2CH2 (g) + H20 (l)
Parent chain is octene
Branch chain is 6-methyl and 4-propyl
NB:
i. Ethene is a colourless gas with a faint
The name of compound is 6-methyl,4-
smell
propyloct-2-ene
ii. It is slightly soluble in water
Isomerism in Alkenes
Physical Properties of Alkenes
Alkenes form different isomers due to the
i. The first three alkenes, that ethene,
changing position of the double bond as
propene and butene, are gases at room
well as the presence and position of
temperature and pressure.
substituents.
ii. The four ten alkenes are liquids at room
temperature and pressure
NB: Ethene and propene have not isomers.
NB: The change in physical state is due to
increase in molecular mass. This in turn
Example
increases intermolecular attractions
Write the possible isomers of butene

iii. boiling points of alkenes increase ethene
to decene Hydrogenation of alkenes
iv. melting points of alkenes increase ethene The reaction takes place in the presence of
to decene nickel which acts as a catalyst.
v. density of alkenes increase ethene to CH2=CH2 (g) + H2 (g) CH3CH3 (g
decene
NB:
Physical properties of the alkenes i. Hydrogenation is an addition reaction.
Alkene B.P M.P Density ii. Hydrogenation is an important industrial
(oC) (oC) (g/cm3) process in the manufacture of margarine
Ethene -169.0 -104.0 0.501 from vegetable oils such as corn oil and
Propene -185.0 -48.0 0.519 sunflower oil. These oils are unsaturated
But-1-ene 185.0 -6.5 0.595 and contain one or more double bonds.
Pent-1-ene 138.0 30.0 0.641 iii. Hydrogenation converts the oils into solid
Hex-1-ene 140 63.0 0.673 fats such as margarine. Margarines are
left partially unsaturated because
Chemical Properties of Alkenes unsaturated fats are healthier than
Chemical reactions involving alkenes are completely saturated ones.
addition reactions.
By Defn: an addition reaction is one in which Reaction with hydrogen halides
one molecule is added to another. Halides are binary compounds that contain
halogens. Alkenes react with hydrogen
Reaction with oxygen halides such as hydrogen bromide and
Alkenes burn in air to give water and hydrogen iodide, in addition reactions.
carbon dioxide CH2= CH2 (g) + HBr (g) CH3CH2Br (l)
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2C02 (g) + 2H20(l) (Bromoethane)
CH2= CH2 (g) + HI (g) CH3CH2I (l)
Halogenation of ethene (Iodoethane)
By Defn: Halogenation of alkenes is the
process through which halogen groups such NB:
as bromine and chlorine are added across i. During these reactions the alkenes
the carbon-carbon double bond. become saturated.
The bromine decolorized by alkenes, for ii. Hydrogen chloride does not react with
example eth-1-ene react with bromine in alkenes at room temperature
absence/presence of light to produce 1, 2- iii. The reaction with ethene requires heat
dibromoethane (colourless) and a catalyst.
CH2 = CH2 (g) + Br2 (g) CH2BrCH2Br (g)
Reaction with sulphuric acid
NB: Ethene takes part in an addition reaction
i. Light is not necessary for the reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid to form
between bromine and ethene, ethyl hydrogensulphate
ii. The reaction between bromine and CH2CH2 (g) + H2S04 (l) CH3CH2OSO3H
ethene is an addition reaction, in which
bromine takes the place of the double
bond in ethene.
iii. Addition reactions are characteristic of
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
iv.Bromine is used to test for unsaturation in
hydrocarbons.
Chlorine will react in a similar way with

ethene in presence of silica (Si02) to form
1,2-dichloroethane (colourless)
CH2CH2 (g) + Cl2 (g) CH2ClCH2Cl (g)
Alkynes ii. The number of possible isomers of alkynes
Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons increases with the increase in molecular
which contain at least one triple bond (- mass
C≡C-)
Example
General Formula Write the possible isomers of butyne (C4H6)
The general formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2 Answer:
CH3CH2C≡CH (but-1-yne)
Homologous Series of Alkynes CH3CHC≡CH3 (but-2-yne)
Molecula Structure CH3-C≡CH (2-methylprop-1-yne)
n Name
r Formula Formula I
2 Ethyne C2H2 CH≡CH CH3
3 Propyne C3H4 CHC≡CH
4 But-1-y ne C4H6 CH3CH2C≡CH Preparation of Alkynes
5 Pent-1-y C5H8 CH3(CH2)2C≡C Ethyne can be prepared in the laboratory
ne H by the action of water on calcium carbide
6 Hex-1-y C6H10 CH3(CH2)3C≡C (CaC2).
ne H Diagram:
7 Hept-1-y C7H12 CH3(CH2)4C≡C
ne H
8 Oct-1-y C8H14 CH3(CH2)5C≡C
ne H
9 Non-1-y C9H16 CH3(CH2)6C≡C
ne H
1 Dec-1-yne C10H18 CH3(CH2)7C≡C
0 H
Naming Alkynes
The rules used in naming alkynes are Calcium carbide is hydrolysed by water to
applied the same way as those for naming give ethyne and calcium hydroxide.
alkenes. CaC2(s) + 2H2O (l) C2H2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (s)
In alkene the position of triple bond added
to the root word followed by the suffix -p- NB:
yne. The reaction is exothermic and this is why
sand is put into the round-bottomed flask to
Where: prevent it from cracking.
p is the position of triple bond of smallest
number of alkyne Physical Properties of Alkynes
i. The first three alkynes are all gases at
Nb: room temperature.
i. The position of the triple bond in the first ii. Melting points of alkynes increase with the
two alkynes, that is ethyne and propyne, increase in molecular mass.
cannot change. iii. Boiling points of alkynes increase with the
ii. methyne not exist increase in molecular mass.
iv. Density of alkynes increase with the
Isomerism in Alkynes increase in molecular mass.
Alkynes form different isomers due to the
changing position of the triple bond as well Physical Properties of the Alkynes
as the presence and position of substituents. B.P M.P Density
Alkyne
( C) ( C) (g/cm3)
o o
Nb: Ethyne -75 -82 0.62
i. Ethyne and propyne have not isomers. Propyne -23 -102 0.67
But-1-y ne 9 -122 0.69
Pent-1-y ne 40 -98 0.72 HC≡CH (g) + HBr (aq) H2C=CHBr (g)
Hex-1-y ne 72 -124 0.712 Stage II:
Hept-1-y 100 -80 0.73 H2C=CHBr (g) + HBr (aq) H3CCHBr2 (g)
ne The overall equation is:
Oct-1-y ne 126 -70 0.75 HC≡CH (g) + 2HBr (aq) H3CCHBr2 (g)
Non-1-y ne 151 -65 0.76
Dec-1-yne 182 -36 0.77
Chemical Properties of Alkynes

Just like alkenes, alkynes take part in
addition reactions. However, alkynes are
less reactive than corresponding alkenes.
Reaction with oxygen

The Alkynes burn in air with a luminous
smoky flame (due to the high proportion of
carbon compared with hydrogen in
alkynes) to produce carbon dioxide and
water
2C2H2 (g) + 502(g) 4C02 (g) + 2H2O (g)
In limited supply of air carbon monoxide is

formed due to incomplete combustion.
2C2H2 (g) + 302(g) 4C0 (g) + 2H20(g)
Halogenation of alkynes
Bromine is decolourized by ethyne as we
see from Halogenation of alkene. For
example when ethyne react with bromine
form 1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane which is
colourless
HC≡CH+2Br2 CHBr2-CHBr2
Nb:
i. Alkynes react with halogens in the same
way as alkenes.
ii. The reaction between alkynes and
bromine is used as a test for unsaturation
of alkynes.
Hydrogenation of alkynes
Like in alkynes, this reaction takes place in
presence of a nickel catalyst at 1500C. The
hydrogenation of alkynes first gives alkenes.
CH≡CH (g) + H2 (g) H2C=CH2 (g)
Further hydrogenation gives alkanes.

H2C=CH2 (g) + H2 (g) CH3CH3 (g)
Reaction with hydrogen halides

Alkynes react with hydrogen halides at
room temperature in stages as shown
below.
Stage I:
Alcohols/ Alkanols Nb: The condensed structural formula of
Alcohols are organic compounds with an - butanol (CH3CH2CH2CH2OH) can be
OH (hydroxyl) as a functional group which is simplified further to be CH3(CH2)2CH2OH.
attached to a saturated carbon. The
systematic name for alcohols is alkanols. Naming of Alcohols
The rules used in naming Alcohols are
General Formulae applied the same way as those for naming
Alcohols can be represented as R-OH. hydrocarbons. In Alcohols the position of -
OH (hydroxyl) added to the root word
Where: followed by the suffix -p-ol.
R is the alkyl group (CnH2n+1)
Where:
Therefore the general formula of alcohols P is the position of -OH (hydroxyl) of smallest
CnH2n+1OH number of alkyne
Where: Example
n = number of carbon atoms Write the IUPAC name of the follows
compounds
Homologous Series of Alkanes i. CH3OH
N Name Molecular Formula ii. CH3CH2OH
1 Methanol CH3OH iii. CH3CH2CH2OH
2 Ethanol C2H5OH iv. CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
3 Propan-1-ol C3H7OH v. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
4 Butan-1-ol C4H9OH Answer:
5 Pentan-1-ol C5H11OH i. CH3OH - Methanol
6 Hexan-1-ol C6H13OH ii. CH3CH2OH - Ethanol
7 Heptan-1-ol C7H15OH iii. CH3CH2CH2OH - Propan-1-ol
8 Octan-1-ol C8H17OH iv. CH3CH2CH2CH2OH - Butan-1-ol
9 Nonan-1-ol C9H19OH v. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH - Pentan-1-ol
10 Decan-1-ol C10H21OH
Isomerism in Alcohols
Like alkenes, alcohols form positional isomers
Structural Formulae
by changing the position of the -OH
The figure below shows the structural
functional groups
formulae of some alcohols.
Nb:
i. As the number of carbon atoms increases
the number of possible isomers of the
alcohols also increases.
ii. methanol and ethanol have no isomers
iii. Propanol have two isomers
iv. butanol have three isomers
Example
Write the possible isomers of Propanol and
butanol
Answer:
For Propanol
CH3CH2CH2OH – propan-1-ol
CH3CHCH3 – propan-2-ol
I
OH
For butanol
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH – Butan-1-ol
OH
CH3CH2CHCH3 – Butan-2-ol I
I CH3CH2CCH3 - 2-methylbutan-2-ol
OH I
CH3
CH3CHCH2OH – 2-methylpropan-1-ol
I Preparation of Ethanol
CH3 Ethanol is produced through the
fermentation of carbohydrates
CH3
I Fermentation of carbohydrates
CH3CCH3 – 2-methylpropan-2-ol By Defn: Fermentation is the process in
I which carbohydrates, are broken down into
OH alcohol with the help of living organisms
(bacteria, yeasts, moulds and fungi)
Classification of Alcohols Diagram:
Alcohols are classified into three main
groups depending on the position of the -
OH group in the main carbon chain include;
i. Primary alcohols
ii. secondary alcohols
iii. Tertiary alcohols
Primary Alcohols
In primary alcohols, the carbon atom
carrying the -OH group is attached to only
one other carbon atom. Examples
CH3CHCH2OH – 2-methylpropan-1-ol The following reactions take place during
I the fermentation of sucrose. First, the
CH3 sucrose (C12H22O11) is converted to glucose
CH3CH2CH2OH – propan-1-ol (C6H1206) and fructose (C6H1206):
i. C12H22O11(s) + H20(1) C6H1206(aq) +
Secondary Alcohols C6H1206(aq)
In secondary alcohols, the carbon atom ii. The glucose and fructose produced are
carrying the -OH group is attached to two then converted to ethanol and carbon
other carbon atoms. dioxide.
CH3CHCH3 - propan-2-ol iii. C6H1206 (aq) + C6H1206 (aq) 4C2H50H
I (aq) + 4C02 (g)
OH
Nb:
CH3CH2CHCH2CH3 - pentan-3-ol i. Lime water turn milky due to the carbon
I dioxide produced
OH ii. Fructose is an isomer of glucose. The two
compounds therefore have the same
Tertiary Alcohols molecular formula.
In tertiary alcohols, the carbon atom iii. The optimum temperature for yeast to
carrying the -OH group is attached to three catalyze the process is 37°C.
other carbon atoms. Example iv. Ethanol can also be prepared by the
OH hydrolysis of ethene using concentrated
I sulphuric acid.
CH3CCH3 - 2-methylpropan-2-ol CH2=CH2 (g) + H20 (l) CH3CH2OH
I (aq)
CH3

A solution of ethanol in water is produced. i. The alcohols are first partially oxidized to a
This solution contains only a small amount of group of compounds known as aldehydes.
ethanol. A more concentrated solution is For example, ethanol is first oxidized to
obtained by distillation. ethanal, which is an aldehyde.
Diagram: CH3CH2OH (aq) + [0] CH3CHO + H20(l)
Nb:
Aldehydes are named by replacing the -ol
in the alcohol with -al
ii. The aldehydes (ethanal) are then

oxidized to carboxylic acids (Ethanoic
acid).
CH3CHO + [0] CH3COOH
Nb:
The full equation for the complete oxidation
is:
Chemical Properties of Alcohols CH3CH2OH (aq) +2 [O] CH3COOH +
Combustion of alcohols H2O(l)
Alcohols burn in air to give carbon dioxide The [0] represents the oxygen from the
and water oxidizing agent
CH3CH2OH (aq) + 3O2 (g) 2C02 (g) +
3H20(l) Esterification Reactions
By Defn: Esterification reactions(Reaction
Nb: between alcohol and carboxylic acid)are
i. Chemical reactions Takes part due to the neutralization reactions in which a salt
presence of the -OH functional group. (alkanoate) and water are formed
ii. It burns in air with a blue flame
Alcohols react with carboxylic acids to form
Reaction with sodium metal sweet-smelling compounds known as esters.
Sodium reacts with ethanol to give sodium For example, ethanol reacts with Ethanoic
ethoxide and hydrogen gas. acid to form ethylethanoate, which is an
2Na(s) + 2C2H50H (aq) 2C2H5ONa (aq) ester.
+ H2 (g) CH3CH2OH (aq) + CH3COOH
CH3COOCH2CH3 + H20 (l)
Nb:
The reaction between sodium and ethanol Nb:
is similar to that between sodium and water. i. The first part of the name of an ester is
However, the reaction with water is faster derived by replacing the -ol in alcohol
and more vigorous with -yl
ii. The second part is derived by replacing
Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid the -oic in the carboxylic acid with -oate
When concentrated sulphuric acid is In general:
heated together with ethanol at Alkanol + alkanoic acid
temperatures between 169° and 180°C, it alkylalkanoate + water
dehydrates ethanol to give ethene and
water. For example
C2H5OH (aq) CH2=CH2 (g) + H20 (1) Ethanol + propanoic acid
ethylpropanoate + water
Oxidation of alcohols C2H5OH (aq) + C2H5COOH
Acidified potassium dichromate (VI) oxidizes C2H5COOC2H5 +H20(l)
primary alcohols to carboxylic acids. The
oxidation takes place in stages. Harmful Effects of Alcohol
Excessive consumption of alcohol leads to iv. 2-hydroxypropanoic (lactic) acid is found
addiction. A person who is addicted to in sour milk and in animal muscles.
alcohol is known as an alcoholic v. 2-hydroxypropan-1,2,3-tricarboxylic
(citric) acid is found in citrus fruits such as
Negative Effects in the Society lemons, oranges and lime fruits.
i. Neglecting families and other vi. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is found in citrus
relationships. fruits and tomatoes.
ii. Children from neglected families can also
get involved in criminal activities. General Formula
iii. Alcoholics are sometimes violent and Carboxylic acids can be represented by a
may cause injuries to other people. general formula of CnH2n02 or CnH2n+1COOH
Harmful Effects on the Human Body Nb:

i. Damage of the liver The formulae of carboxylic acids with more
ii. Damage of the brain cells than one carbon atom can be represented
iii. Damage to the heart as R-COOH, where R represents an alkyl
iv. The alcoholic may develop anaemia group.
v. Alcohol interferes with the production of
testosterone and may lead to impotence Homologous Series of Carboxylic Acids
and male feminization Name Molecular Formula
By Defn: Feminisation is a situation in Methanoic acid CH202 or HCOOH
which males develop female Ethanoic acid C2H402 or CH3COOH
characteristics and behaviour Propanoic acid C3H602 or C2H5COOH
vi. Excessive consumption of alcohol by Butanoic acid C4H802 or C3H7COOH
pregnant women may lead to defects in Pentanoic acid C5H1002 or C4H9COOH
an unborn baby
vii. Alcohol is a diuretic, that is, it stimulates Structural formulae
production of urine The following are the structural formulae of
the first four carboxylic acids
Carboxylic Acids Methanoic acid
Carboxylic acids are organic acids derived
by replacing one or two hydrogen atoms of
the alkanes with a carboxyl group (-COOH).
Its functional group is –COOH with structure
formula shown below
Diagram Ethanoic acid
Propanoic acid
Carboxylic acids occur naturally but can
also be manufactured
Natural Sources of Organic Acids

Natural sources of organic acids are;
i. Methanoic (formic) acid is found in bees Butanoic acid
and ants which use it as a defence
against the enemy. It is also found in the
stinging nettle plant.
ii. Ethanoic (acetic) acid is found in rotting
fruits.
iii. Octadecanoic (stearic) acid is found in Naming Of Carboxylic Acids
many natural fats and oils.
The rules used in naming carboxylic acids
are applied the same way as those for Solubility
naming alkanes In vapour form, alkanoic acids dissolve in
organic solvents and form dimers.
Nb:
i. Carboxylic acids are named by replacing By Defn: dimers are pairs of molecules
the suffix -ane in a corresponding alkane, bridged by hydrogen bonds
with -anoic Diagram:
ii. The functional group can only be at the
end of the carbon chain
iii. The position of the carboxylic group (R-
COOH) is therefore not indicated in the
name
Names of First Five Carboxylic Acids

Old Name Iupac Name Carboxylic acids of lower molecular mass
Formic acid Methanoic acid dissolve completely in water. The dimers
Acetic acid Ethanoic acid dissociate to form single molecules which
Propionoic acid Propanoic acid form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
Butyric acid Butanoic acid Diagram:
valeric acid Pentatonic acid
Nb:
The use of old names is discouraged
because they do not aid in the drawing of
structural formulae. Boiling and melting points
Carboxylic acids have higher melting and
Isomerism of Carboxylic Acids boiling points compared to the
Like many organic compounds, carboxylic corresponding alcohols due to dimer. The
acids also have isomers. dimers have double the mass of the
individual molecule.
Nb:
i. The first three carboxylic acids that is, Anhydrous ethanoic acid freezes at 17°C,
methanoic acid, ethanoic acid and which is also its melting point, and is often
propanoic acid, have no isomers. called glacial acetic acid
ii. Butanoic acid has two isomers which is
butanoic acid and 2-methylbutonoic Boiling and Melting Points
acid Alkanoic Acid B.P (°C) M.P (°C)
Methanoic acid 101 08
Physical Properties Ethanoic acid 118 17
Physical state Propanoic acid 141 21
The first four members of the homologous
series are liquids. Chemical Properties
Reaction with sodium hydroxide
pH value Carboxylic acids react with sodium
They have a pH value of 4 and above, hydroxide in a neutralization reaction to
therefore its weak acid form a salt and water.
Example Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium
Smell hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate, which
Methanoic, ethanoic and propanoic acids is a white crystalline salt.
have sharp smells similar to that of vinegar. CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq)
Carboxylic acids with four or more carbon CH3COONa (aq) + H20 (l)
atoms have unpleasant smells. An example
is butanoic acid found in human sweat.
Reaction with sodium carbonate Material required
Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium i. Fat oil
carbonate and sodium hydrogen ii. 4M Sodium hydroxide
carbonate to give a salt (sodium iii. Brine (NaCl)
ethanoate), water and carbon dioxide. iv. Distilled water
2CH3COOH (aq) + Na2CO3(s)
2CH3COONa (aq) + H20 (l) + C02 (g) Procedure
i. Put 25 cm3 of fat oil into 250 cm3 beaker
CH3COOH (aq) + NaHCO3(s) ii. Add 100 cm3 of 4m NaOH solution
CH3COONa (aq) + H20 (l) + C02 (g) iii. Heat the mixture gently over a Bunsen
burner for 30 minutes
The reaction between ethanoic acid and iv. Continue heating and stirring
sodium hydroxide is a neutralization reaction continuously. Keep adding distilled water
in which a salt and water are formed. from time to time until no more solid
CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) separates out
CH3COONa (aq) + H20 (l) v. Allow the mixture to cool and then add
brine to precipitate solution. Stir the
Oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid mixture continuous for 5 minutes
During fermentation, ethanol is formed. vi. Dry liquid soap to form solid soap by cool
When fermentation goes beyond 14%, it
stops and the ethanol formed is oxidized to Nb:
ethanoic acid. i. Soap is a precipitated out of the mixture
by adding (brine) salt solution
Preparation of soap from animal fats or ii. The process of making soap is called
vegetable oils saponification
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long- iii. Do not put any soap you made on skin or
chain alkanoic acids (fatty acids) such as in eye if it still contain sodium hydroxide
octadecanoic acid (stearic acid),
C17H35COOH
Soap making
Liquid Soaps are made from natural fats
and oils, e.g. lard animal fat, castor oil, palm
oil, etc which boiled with sodium or
potassium hydroxide
Fat + sodium hydroxide → soap + glycerol
Solid soap made from reaction between

liquid soap and brine (salt solution)
Liquid soap + Brine → solid soap
Procedure to make soap

Apparatus
i. 250 cm3
ii. Beaker
iii. 50 cm3 measuring cylinder
iv. Glass rod
v. Bunsen burner
vi. Wash bottle
vii. Tripod stand
viii. Spatula
ix. Stop watch
x. Filter paper

Soil Chemistry iv. Plants and animal
By defn: Soil chemistry is the study of various v. Temperature changes
chemical nutrients present in the soil and vi. Humans activities
their influence on the properties of the soil
such as acidity and alkalinity Types of weathering
There are two main types of weathering
Nb: namely
Chemical reactions in the soil determine the i. Physical weathering
availability of important nutrients in the soil ii. Chemical weathering
required for growth of healthy crops
Physical weathering
Soil By defn: Physical weathering is disintegration
By defn: soil is the top layer of the land of rock material without change its
covering the earth’s surface chemical composition
Or
By defn: soil is the medium/layer in which Nb:
plants grow and derive moisture and i. Physical weathering involves breakdown
nutrients of big rocks to form small rocks
ii. Physical weathering is more effective in
Composition of soil areas which have
It made from broken down rock particles, (a) little vegetation
rotten plant material, water and air (b) large diurnal (each day) temperature
range
Soil formation (c) temperature falling as low as 0 ℃
Soil is formed by weathering process
Ways physical weathering takes places
Weathering The follows ways are physical weathering
By defn: Weathering is the physical and takes places, includes
chemical breakdown of the rock material i. Pressure release
near the earth’s surface ii. Exfoliation
Or iii. Frost shattering
By defn: Weathering is a combination of iv. Crystallization
disintegration (breaking down) and synthesis v. Biological weathering
(building up) process
Pressure release
Nb: Pressure occurs over overlying rocks which
i. Weathering involves series of complex removed by erosion which release pressure
changes that alter the form, colour, cause rock to expands, which result stress
texture and composition of the rock within the rock. Crack is formed parallel to
particles the rock surface. Over a period of time, the
ii. The rock is first broken down into smaller outer layers of the rock break away in
fragments and eventually into individual sheets
constituent minerals
iii. The weathered rock materials combine Exfoliation
with decomposing organic matter to form Exfoliation occurs in hot deserts where a
soil layers temperature rises to over 40℃ and night fall
iv. The processes are continuous to below 10℃. Repeation of this cause
expansion and contraction of rock, This
Agents of weathering create stress in the rock causing it to crack
Include the factors that facilitate the and final the outer layer of the rock peel off
weathering process as
i. Water Frost shattering
ii. Gravity Frost shattering occurs in cold regions and
iii. Air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) mountain tops, where temperature is just
above or below freezing point. Water fills the ii. Hydrolysis
cracks or joints in the rock and freezes at iii. oxidation
night or during winter. Repeating of this
cause expansion and contraction of rock, Dissolution
this create stress in the rock causing it to The mineral (rocks) is dissolved in water. For
crack and final the broken materials example calcite rock (CaCO3) dissolved in
collected at the foot of the slope acidic rain to form calcium bicarbonate
(CA(HCO3)2)
Crystallization CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) ⟶ CA(HCO3)2(aq)
Crystallization is the weathering by growth CA(HCO3)2(aq)⟶ Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq)
of salt crystal. In hottest region (desert) The dissolved rocks are washed down
evaporation draws ground water from through the soil
dissolved water upward into the pores of
the rock. When the water evaporates, the Hydrolysis
salts are left behind as crystal. Salts crystal Hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-)
creates stress in the rock, weakens it and replace other ions in a mineral. Hydrolysis
breaks it down into grains takes place in the presence of water. For
example orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) react with
Biological weathering hydrogen ions in presence of water to form
Biological weathering involves potassium ion clay mineral (Al 4Si4O10(OH)8)
i. Roots growing into the cracks and joint in and silica (SiO2)
the rocks KAlSi3O8(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 4K+(aq) +
ii. Burrowing animals such as a moles, Al4Si4O10(OH)8(s) + 8SiO2((s)
earthworms and termites making
hole/tunnel in the ground Oxidation
iii. Human activities, such as building roads Oxygen reacts with other minerals,
and cultivating land changing the oxidation state of ions. For
example pyroxene (FeSiO3) reacts with
Chemical weathering oxygen to form magnetite (Fe3O4) and silica
By defn: chemical weathering is (SiO2)
disintegration of rock materials whereby 6FeSiO3(s) + O2(g) → 2Fe3O4(aq) + 6SiO2(s)
chemical constituent of minerals changed
Nb:
Nb: i. Oxidation is common in iron-bearing
i. chemical weathering destroy (change) mineral
internal structure of minerals ii. Oxidation state of iron is +2 and +3 in
ii. chemical weathering occur common in Fe3O4
warm and wet areas
Factors Influencing Soil Formation
Agent of chemical weathering Follows are Factors determine the kind of soil
There are two main agent of chemical which is formed in a particular area, include
weathering includes i. Parent rock material
i. Water ii. Climate change
ii. Weak acids (Carbonic acid) iii. Living organisms
Rain + carbon dioxide ⟶ Carbonic acid iv. Topography of the area
H2O(l) + CO2(g) ⟶ H2CO3(aq) v. Time
H2CO3(aq) ⟶ H+(aq) + CO3 2-(aq)
H+ can easily enter crystals structure Parent rock material
results release other ions into the water The following factors that parent rock
determine the type of soil formed
Ways chemical weathering takes places i. Basic rocks such as limestone are easily
The follows ways are chemical weathering weathered unlick acidic rock which
takes places, includes contain silicate
i. Dissolution
ii. Rock contain Porous provide large The deep soils are found in place whereby
surface area for chemicals to act on it process of soil formation has been going on
which easily weathered by chemical for a long time and vice versa
weathered
Soil Nutrients
Nb: By defn: Soil Nutrient is the dilute solution
(a) Parent rock also affect the soil texture released into soil from parent rock during
(b) Soil texture is the relative proportions of weathering needed by the growing plants
the different size in the soil
(c) Soil texture influence the water Nb:
permeability of the soil i. Essential plant nutrients include elements
such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
Climate change nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
Climate change such as rainfall, magnesium, zinc, chloride and cobalt
temperature, sunshine, relative humidity and ii. A soil contain all essential element
wind influence soil formation required by plant in their proportion is
i. Rainfall provides water, which is the main called complete culture solution
agent of weathering iii. A solution contain all essential element
ii. Temperature change cause alternate required by plant in their proportion is
expansion and contraction of rock which called complete culture soil
result the breakdown of rock into smaller iv. A water contain all essential element
particles required by plant in their proportion is
iii. High temperature speed up the rate of called water culture
chemical reactions , rate of weathering
and activity of micro-organism and vice Essential nutrients
versa Chemical Form taken up
Element
iv. Wind acts as a transportation agent and symbol by plant
carries weathered materials from one to Carbon C CO2
another Hydrogen H H2O
Oxygen O H2O
Living organisms
Living organisms such as plant and animals Classification of essential plant nutrients
contribute towards the organic matter It categorised into two, includes
present in the soil i. Macronutrients (Major nutrients)
i. Soil formatted in area of a lot of ii. Micronutrients (Trace elements)
vegetation cover
ii. Plants root and burrowing animal help in Macronutrients
breaking the rock into smaller particle By defn: Macronutrients is the nutrient
required by plant in large quantity
Topography of the area
The appearance of the landscape Classification of Macronutrients
influence soil formation It categorised into two, includes
i. Soil on the top of hilly area are heavily i. Primary Macronutrients
leached ii. Secondary Macronutrients
ii. Soil found in flat land and low lying area
tend to be more fertile and deep mainly Primary Macronutrients
because of deposition of materials By defn: Primary Macronutrients is the
iii. Lower and flatter areas tend to be darker nutrient required by plant in relatively large
in colour because they have more quantity. They are Nitrogen, Phosphorous
organic matter and Potassium
Time Essential Primary Macronutrients

Chemical Form taken up
Element
symbol by plant
Nitrogen N NH4+ , NO3- v. Regulate osmosis in cells
Phosphorous P H2PO4 , HPO42- vi. Improve tissue formation
Potassium K K+ vii. Assists in protein synthesis
viii. Strengthens plant stall, hence prevent
Function of primary macronutrient lodging and microbial attack
The following are the function of
macronutrients in plant growth Effects of potassium deficiency
i. Leaf curling
Function of Nitrogen ii. Leaf surface lose chlorophyll and
i. It is constituent element of protoplasm of become yellow
all plant cell iii. Premature leaf fall
ii. It is constituent element of protein iv. Leaf margins become scorched while
iii. It forms part of the chlorophyll molecule central part remains green
which gives plants the green colour v. Stunted growth
Nb: Chlorophyll is necessary for
photosynthesis Function of Phosphorous
iv. Nitrogen promote vegetative growth in i. Helps in root nodule formation in
crops it important in crops whereby leguminous plants such as beans and
leaves are harvested e.g. cabbages groundnuts
v. Essential element in cell division ii. Strengthens plant stem, thus prevent
Nb: Need for plant growth lodging
vi. Control the availability of phosphorous iii. It is a constituent of nucleoproteins,
and potassium in plant which are required during cell division
vii. Increase grain size and protein content iv. Essential in flowering and fruit and seed
in cereals formation
viii. Helps in manufacture of enzymes and v. Important in protein, fat and
plant hormones carbohydrate synthesis
ix. Promote root growth vi. Promote resistance to the disease in
plants
Effects of nitrogen deficiency vii. Increase grain yield in cereals
i. Plant leaves turn yellow and fall viii. Hastens plant maturity
prematurely
ii. Stunted growth in plants Nb:
iii. Plant become chlorosis Micro-organism in the soil convert
Nb: Chlorosis is situation whereby leaves inorganic/organic phosphorous into
lose chlorophyll and turn yellow or phosphates which insoluble in water and
yellowish green there are not easily leached
iv. Cause production of pigment such as
anthocyanin (purplish colouration) Effects of Phosphorous deficiency
Instead of chlorophyll i. Stunted growth
Nb: This lowers the efficiency of plant to ii. Increase production of anthocyanin
photosynthesize Poor development of roots, barks, flower
and seeds
Function of Potassium
It the second most essential element after Secondary Macronutrients
nitrogen, the following is the function of By defn: Secondary Macronutrients is the
potassium nutrient required by plant in small quantity.
i. Important in carbohydrate formation They include Calcium, Magnesium and
and translocation of food Sulphur
ii. Useful in neutralization organic acids in
plants Essential Secondary Macronutrients
iii. Regulate nitrogen and phosphorous Chemical Form taken up
Element
uptake symbol by plant
iv. Component of chlorophyll molecule Calcium Ca Ca 2+

Magnesium Mg Mg2+ Practice of grazing animals on the same
Sulphur S SO42- piece of land repeatedly to the point of
leaving the land bare cause exposition the
Micronutrients top soil of agents of erosion
By defn: Micronutrients is the nutrient
required by plant in small quantity. They Overstocking
include Manganese, Molybdenum, Iron, Keeping too many animals on the piece of
Cobalt, Zinc, Boron, Copper and Chlorine land than it can support, animals eat most
vegetation, leaving the land bare cause
Essential Micronutrients exposes the top soil of agents of erosion
Chemical Form taken up
Element Deforestation
symbol by plant
Iron Fe Fe , Fe3+
2+ Cutting down trees without planting other
Manganese Mn Mn2+ leaves soil unprotected against agent of soil
Boron B H3BO3
Chlorine Cl Cl- Burning of vegetation
Zinc Zn Zn2+ Burning vegetation exposes the top soil of
Copper Cu Cu2+ agents of erosion
Molybdenum Mo MoO42-
Leaching
Loss of plant nutrients from the soil When soluble plant nutrients are washed
into the lower layer of soil and beyond the
Unmanaged soil loses their fertility (ability to
root zone makes the nutrients unavailable to
provide crops). If nutrients are not supplied
plants
in the correct quantity, the plants and their
yields are affected
Poor farming methods
Destroy or exhaust plant nutrients in the soil
How soil loses nutrients
like monoculture, overgrazing, overstock
Soil may lose its nutrients in any of the
and burning of vegetation lose soil nutrients
following ways
i. Soil erosion
Managing of soil nutrients
ii. Monocropping
Soil can be managing by the following
iii. Overgrazing
methods
iv. Overstocking
i. Prevention of soil erosion
v. Deforestation
ii. Crop rotation
vi. Burning of vegetation
iii. Good harvesting practices
vii. Leaching
iv. Controlled grazing
viii. Poor farming methods
v. Intercropping (Mixed cropping)
vi. Uses of manures
Soil erosion
vii. Minimum tillage
Removal and carrying away of top fertile
viii. Agroforestry
soil (organic matter and plant nutrients)
ix. Mulching
leading to the loss of soil nutrients
Prevention of soil erosion
Monocropping
The soil erosion can be prevented by the
Growing one type of crop repeatedly one
following ways
the same piece of land, exhausts the soil
nutrients and leaves it bare after harvest. i. Terracing
ii. Contour farming
This make easy for the top soil be carried
away by agent of erosion, leading to loss of iii. Strip cropping
iv. Planting windbreakers
soil nutrients
Terracing
Overgrazing
By defn: Terracing is the levelled section of
cultivated hilly area designed to check the
speed of water flowing on the surface. They Keeping right number of animals on a piece
are constructed to follow the contour of the of land and rotational grazing does not
land to keep rain water on the land rather leaves the land bare
than run down the slope
Intercropping (Mixed cropping)
Types of terracing Growing different crops on the same land at
There are two main types, include same times with legumes, it prevent soil
i. Level terracing erosion and legumes fix nitrogen into soil
ii. Drain terracing
Uses of manures
Level terracing Manure (decomposing organic water such
By defn: Level terracing is the kind of as plant remains and animal waste) can
terracing whereby soil removed from both manage soil by the follows way
sided of the terrace line to control water i. Manure bind the soil particles which help
run-off to prevent soil erosion
ii. Manure increase water holding capacity
Drain terracing of the soil
By defn: Drain terracing is the kind of iii. Manure Regulate pH
terracing whereby channels are made iv. Manure Improve soil structure
across the slope to control water run-off v. Manure Release nutrients into soil
vi. Manure Prevents leaching of essential
Contour farming nutrients
By defn: Contour farming Is the cultivation
across the slope by slows down the speed of Minimum tillage
surface run-off and traps any eroded soil Prepare and cultivate for crops at minimum
level avoid over cultivation which destroy
Strip cropping soil structure and lead to soil erosion and
Alternative strips of crops can be planted on leaching. Minimum tillage achieved by
the contour to protect the soil erosion using alternative methods such as fallowing,
uprooting and slashing of weed
Planting windbreakers
When trees and tall grasses planted in strip, Agroforestry
it reduce the speed and intensity of wind so Planting trees together with agricultural
reduce soil erosion crops protect the soil erosion
Crop rotation Mulching

Growing different crops on the same field at Covering the bare soil with a layer of
different times in an orderly sequence, organic matter such as straw, grasses,
involves a leguminous crop. It helps to leaves and rice husks protect the soil erosion
manage soil
Advantage of mulching
Important of Crop rotation i. Mulching help to conserve soil moisture
i. it improve nitrogen content of the soil and suppresses the growth of weeds
ii. balance utilizing of the soil nutrients ii. Mulching keep the soil cool and adds to
iii. helps to control pests and diseases the organic matter in the soil
Good harvesting practices

Leaving plant remains to rot in the soil
instead of removing them help to restore soil
fertility by returning the nutrients back into
the soil
Controlled grazing

Manures ii. Direction of the prevailing wind
By defn: Manure is decomposed organic iii. Size of the farm
substance derived from animal waste and iv. Accessibility
plant residues contain one or more plant
nutrients Drainage
It should be placed in drainage (cause the
Types of manure liquid to run out, leaving it empty or dry)
There are three main types of manures, which prevent leaching of nutrients and to
includes ensure good aeration (introduce air into
i. Farmyard manure manure)
ii. Compost manure
iii. Green manure Direction of the prevailing wind
Compost manure preparation should not
Farmyard manure place in the place where wind blow from
Made from the waste of farm animals such compost manure to the settlements
as cattle, horse, sheep, pigs, rabbits and Reason: prevents bad odour to settlements
chicken
Size of the farm
Nb: Compost manure should located at centre
i. Manure Contain varies nutrient due to of the farm where compost manure is to be
food eaten and its storage before used used
ii. Manure Stored in optimum air and water Reason: easily in transport around the farm
to prevent oxidation, which cause heat
that loss nitrogen as a gas Accessibility
iii. Too much water cause Manure leaching The site should easily accessible for easy
iv. Manure Stored in a closed system to transportation on of the material used
avoid any factors that can harm it
Preparation methods
Green manure Compost manure can prepared by using
Made from ploughing green plant material two methods, includes
into the soil, most plants used are legumes i. Preparation by using pit method
which have nitrogen contents ii. Preparation by using stack method or
heap method
Advantage of using green manure
i. It maintain and improve the organic Preparation by using pit method
matter of soil The following procedure is used to prepare
ii. It conserve plants nutrients compost manure by using pit method
iii. Compost manure i. Dig the compost pit
It should be about 1m deep, (1.5 – 2) m
Compost manure wide and of a suitable length
Made from different types of decayed
organic matter such animal waste and ii. Fill the pit with material
plant residue or plant material only, it has Material filled in layers of (10 – 15) cm,
high nutrient content always
(a) Start with the fibrous material such as
Preparation of compost manure maize stalks to make foundation of
It involves two main stages, includes compost
i. Site selection (b) Pack the next layer with glass, leaves
ii. Preparation methods or any refuse material
(c) Add some well decomposed manure
Site selection to provide nutrients to micro organism
The place compost can be prepared can (d) Add a layer of wood ash to improve
be selected the following factors the level of phosphorus and potassium
i. Drainage in the resulting manure
(e) Add a layer of top soil to supply the i. Turning help air circulation for proper
micro-organism necessary for the decomposition
organic decomposition of the manure ii. Prepared during rainy season
iii. Material used are crop residue, animal
iii. Repeat step 2 until the pit is full waste, farmyard, compost manure,
inorganic fertilizer and top soil
iv. Cover the pit with a layer of top soil iv. Usually used after about six months
Diagram:
Advantage of manure
i. It improve soil structure
ii. Humus from manure bind soil particle
together
iii. Humus (black) from manure absorb more
heat which moderate soil temperature
iv. Humus from manure improve soil aeration
and drainage
v. It not readily lashed out
Preparation using heap method Reason: takes long time to be soluble
The following procedure we used to vi. It food and shelter for soil micro organism
prepare compost by using stack method vii. Do not change the pH soil
i. Scrape off surface vegetation and top viii. Improve soil fertility by release wide
soil from the selected site. Level the range of nutrients over a long period
ground
ii. Fix pegs at a distance of 2m apart to form Disadvantage of manure
the four corners of the heap. The heap i. It have a low nutrient content, they used
should be about 105m high in large quantity to supply the required
iii. Start the heap with a 20 cm layer of amount of nutrients
fibrous material such as leaves, hay, straw ii. Manure spreading pests, diseases or
or any other refuse materials weed seeds when infested material used
iv. Cover the layer of fibrous material with a iii. Manure release nutrients slowly over a
10 cm layer of nitrogenous material such long time
as fresh grass, weeds, fresh or dry manure iv. Manure can easily lose nutrients if poorly
or digested(disintegrate) sewage sludge stores
v. Repeat the pattern of 20cm of fibrous v. Manure have high moisture content
material and 10 cm nitrogenous material which makes difficult to store and
until hep height is achieved transport
vi. Wet the heap after each layer
vii. Cover the heap with soil or hay to retain
heat
viii. Turn the heap at intervals of 6 and 12
weeks, until complete decomposition of
the compost has occurred
Diagram:
Nb:

Fertilizers
By defn: Fertilizers is inorganic substance Properties of Nitrogenous fertilizers
which added to soil to supply one or more Fertilizer Characteristics
plant nutrients i. Mixture of ammonium nitrate
and calcium carbonate
Classification of Fertilizers ii. Contain 21% of nitrogen
Fertilizers are classified on basis of iii. Neutral fertilizer
i. Nutrients content CAN iv. Improve soil structure
ii. Time of application v. High hygrospic and non-
iii. Effects on soil pH corrosive
vi. Applied as atop dress
Nutrients content vii. Greyish granules
It the fertilizer contain two or more of i. Mixture of ammonia nitrate and
primary macronutrients ammonium sulphate
ii. Contain 261% nitrogen
Classification of Nutrients content ASN iii. Less acidic compare to CAN
It divided into two categories, includes iv. Brownish orange or yellows
i. Straight Fertilizers granules
ii. Compound Fertilizers v. High corrosive
i. Contain 20 to 21% nitrogen in
Straight Fertilizers ammonium form
Straight fertilizers contains only one of the SA ii. Acid forming fertilizer
primary macronutrients iii. White crystals almost like sugar
High volatile
Classes of Straight fertilizers i. Contain 45 to 46% nitrogen
There three classes of Straight fertilizers, ii. Easily lost by evaporation and
includes leaching
i. Nitrogenous fertilizers Urea iii. Prefer to high absorption
ii. Phosphatic fertilizers capacity like sugar cane
iii. potassic fertilizers
iv. Has scorching effect
v. soluble
Nitrogenous fertilizers
It contains nitrogen as only primary
Phosphatic fertilizers
macronutrients. Example
It contains Phosphorus as only primary
i. Calcium nitrate (CAN)
macronutrients. Example
[NH4NO3 + CaCO3]
Single superphosphate (SSP)
ii. Ammonium sulphate nitrate (ASN)
[Ca(H2PO4)CaSO4]
[NH4NO3 + (NH4)2SO4]
Double superphosphate (DSP)
iii. Sulphate of Ammonia (SA)
Triple superphosphate (TSP)
(NH4)2SO4]
iv. Urea - [CO(NH2)2]
Properties of Phosphatic fertilizers
i. Remain in the soil for a long time
Properties of Nitrogenous fertilizers
ii. Sparingly soluble in water
i. Highly soluble in soil water
iii. They are not easily leached and usual
ii. Easily leached to lower soil horizons
uses at planting time
beyond the root zone of most crops
iv. Slight scorching affect and usual mixed
iii. They applied to growing crops
with other to minimize scorching effect
iv. Do not remain in the soil for the long time
v. Scorching the plant parts
Properties of Phosphatic fertilizers
vi. Highly volatile under hot weather
Fertilizer Characteristics
condition
vii. They hygroscopic (absorb moisture from i. Contain 20 to 21% of
the atmosphere) SSP phosphorous pentaoxide (P2O5)
viii. Most have corrosive effect ii. Do not induce acidity to soil

iii. Supplies phosphorous, calcium ii. It has same characteristics of
and sulphur DAP
iv. Soluble in water
v. White creamy granules Time of application
i. Contain 43 to 52% of (P2O5) There are fertilizers that are applied during
DSP
ii. Greyish granules smaller than i. During planting
CAN ii. During crop is actively growing
TSP
iii. Slightly acidic
During planting
Potassic fertilizers Phosphate and compound fertilizers are
It contains potassium as only primary usually applied. They called planting
macronutrients. They include fertilizer
i. Potassium chloride (chloride of potash)
(KCl) During crop is actively growing
ii. Potassium sulphate (K2SO4) Nitrogenous or potassic fertilizers are usually
applied. They called top-dressing fertilizers
Nb:
Potassic fertilizer are not commonly used in Effects on soil pH
Tanzania because the soil are rich in Fertilizer can be acidic or neutral
potassium i. Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) is a
neutral to sparingly basic
Properties of potassic fertilizers ii. All others fertilizers are acidic
i. Have moderate scorching effect
ii. Moderate soluble in water Fertilizer analysis (grade)
iii. More soluble than phosphatic fertilizer By defn: Fertilizer analysis Is the percentage
and less soluble than nitrogenous fertilizer amount of each primary macronutrient
Mathematically
𝑁
Compound Fertilizers p = 𝐹𝑡 x 100%
A compound fertilizer contains two or more 𝑵 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
of primary macronutrients. They include p=
i. Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 𝑭𝒕
[(NH4)2PO4]
Where
ii. Nitrophos
Percentage of nutrients = P
iii. Monoammonium phosphate (MAP)
Nutrient = N
Total weight of fertilizer= Ft
Nb:
i. They made by mixing two or more straight
Nb:
fertilizers
i. Fertilizer grade usually indicated on the
ii. Fertilizer contains all the three primary
fertilizer bag
macronutrients called Complete fertilizer
ii. Fertilizer Bag indicated as NPK, means P
stand for P2O and K stand for K2O
Properties of Compound Fertilizers
iii. Usually Percentage given as a ratio. For
Fertilizer Characteristics example 100Kg of fertilizer of grade
i. Has fertile grade of 18:46:0 20:20:20 contains 20 Kg of N, 20 Kg of P
ii. Moderate acidic and 20 Kg of K
iii. Contain both nitrogen and
DAP
phosphorus Fertilizer ratio
iv. Applied at planting time By defn: Fertilizer ratio is the simple ratio of
v. Has fertile grade of 20:20:20 the nutrients relative to each other
i. Moderate acidic
Nitrophos ii. Contain both nitrogen and Nb:
phosphorus i. For example a fertilizer of grade 20:20:20
MAP i. Moderate acidic has a 1:1:1 ration of N:P:K

ii. Fertilizer ratio is calculated by dividing The following are some of the methods used
smallest number in the fertilizer grade in applying fertilizers
i. Broadcasting methods
Determining the amount of fertilizer to apply ii. Placement methods
The amount of fertilizer to apply per hectare iii. Side dressing
depends on the amount of nutrient required iv. Foliar spraying
and the fertilizer grade available v. Drip application
vi. Banding
Example
Piece of land requires 120 kg of N, 60kg of P Broadcasting methods
and 80kg of K to be applied per hectare. Involves the random scattering of fertilizers
What amount of each fertilizer will need to on the farm either manually or fertilizer
be applied per hectare on a piece of land if spreads
following fertilizer is available?
(a) Sulphate of ammonia (21% N) Nb:
(b) Single superphosphate (18% P) i. It used with nitrogenous and potassium
(c) Nitrate of potash (60% K) fertilizers
ii. It used when soil is moist
(a) Data
N = 120 kg Placement methods
p = 21% Fertilizer is put in the planting holes or drills,
Ft = ? and then fertilizer mixed thoroughly with the
Solution soil before the placement of seeds
𝑁 x 100%
From: p = 𝐹𝑡 – make Ft subject
𝑁 x 100% 120 x 100% Nb:
Ft = =
𝑃 21 Method used when applying phosphatic
120 x 100%
Ft = = 571.43 fertilizers
21
Ft =571.43 Kg
Side dressing
(b) Data This is placement of Nitrogenous fertilizers at
N = 60 kg the side of the crop or around the growing
p = 18% crop
Ft = ?
Solution Nb:
𝑁 x 100%
From: p = 𝐹𝑡 – make Ft subject It mainly used on perennial crops like coffee
𝑁 x 100% 60 x 100%
Ft = = Foliar spraying
𝑃 18
60 x 100%
Ft = = 333.33 Involves the putting of fertilizers solution on
18
the leaves of crop which absorbed by
Ft =333.3 Kg
leaves
(c) Data
N = 80 kg Nb:
i. Applied when condition do not allow the
p = 60%
use of soil-applied fertilizer
Ft = ?
Solution ii. It applied to avoid formation of complex
𝑁 x 100% compound which reduce the availability
From: p = 𝐹𝑡 – make Ft subject
of plant nutrients
𝑁 x 100% 80 x 100%
Ft = =
𝑃 60
Ft =
80 x 100%
= 133.33 Drip application
60 Fertilizer is dissolved in water and applied to
Ft =133.3 Kg individual plants through pipes or bottles
Methods of fertilizer application Nb:
i. It is uneconomical method
ii. It is commonly used in horticultural vi. When concentration of H+ is equal to the
(practice of garden cultivation and concentration of OH-, the soil reaction is
management) crop fields neutral
Banding Soil pH
Fertilizer placed either below or on the side By defn: soil pH refers to the measure of
of the seed or plant usual at a distance of acidic or alkalinity of the soil. It expresses as
(6-9) cm from the seed or plant the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion
concentration
Advantage of inorganic (artificial) fertilizers Mathematically
i. They are not bulky and can be
transported easily
pH = -log[H+]
ii. They contain readily available nutrients
Where:
for plant growth
[H+] = concentration of hydrogen ions
iii. They are relatively easy to apply
compared to manures
Nb:
iv. They allows the regulation of specific
i. pH value ranges from 0 to 14
nutrients to required level for the growth
of specific crops
Disadvantage of inorganic fertilizers

i. They expensive to buy ii. pH value below 7 are acidic
ii. They cause rapid chemical changes in iii. pH value above 7 are basic
the soil, hence affect soil pH iv. pH value of 7 are neutral
iii. They not improve physical properties of v. pH of most soil range from 3.5 to 11
soil, such as soil structure vi. Most plants grow well in soil having a pH
iv. Nutrients from inorganic fertilizer are easily range of between 6 and 8
released, hence can be easily leached vii. Tolerance to acidity or alkalinity varies
v. They have scorching (burning) effect on from plant to plant
some crop parts such as leaves and viii. Some plant such as tea do well in acidic
stems soil
vi. They do not promote the activities of ix. Nutrients such as Nitrogen, phosphorous,
micro organisms potassium and manganese available
within the pH range of 6.5 to 7.5
Soil Reaction x. Nutrients such as iron, Chorine, Copper,
By defn: Soil reaction refers to the acidity or Manganese and Zinc favoured by acid
alkalinity of the soil soils
xi. Very acidic soil or very alkaline soil do not
Nb: support micro-organism activities
i. Soils that are acidic are said to have an
acid reaction Importance of soil pH
ii. Soils that are alkaline are said to have an i. Enable us to select crop to plant
alkaline reaction associate with pH value
iii. Soil reaction are determined by ii. Enable us to determine kind of some
concentration of hydrogen ion (H ) and
+ nutrients available in soil
hydroxyl ions (OH-) iii. Enable us to determine the micro-
iv. When concentration of OH- is greater organism activities
than concentration of H+, the soil has an
alkaline reaction Factors affect soil pH
v. When concentration of H+ is greater than The pH of a soil is affected by the following
concentration of OH-, the soil has an factors, includes
acidic reaction i. Parent rock
ii. Rainfall
iii. Human activities
iv. Application of fertilizers
Parent rock
Soil formed from basic rocks has higher pH
value than those formed from acidic rocks
Rainfall
Soils formed under high rainfall (acidic rain)
conditions are more acidic than those Nb:
formed under dry conditions
i. Avoid taking sample from old manure
heaps and along paths
Human activities
ii. Soil sample is measures using pH meter or
Pollution alter the pH of the soil such as colour indicator dyes
harmful gases releases by vehicles
Managing soil pH
Application of fertilizers By defn: Managing soil pH is the adjust/
Fertilizers contain ammonium or urea lower
modifying soil PH to a required range using
the pH value of the soil by increase acidity an appropriate method
of the soil. Manure also add acidity to the
soil
Method of modifying soil pH
Common methods of modifying soil pH
Testing soil pH includes
Soil pH is measured in order to assess soil
i. Addition of amendment (liming) material
nutrients that may be lacking and crop ii. Use of fertilizers
suitable
iii. Tillage practices
iv. Using organic matter
Methods of testing soil pH v. Improving drainage
There two main methods used to obtain soil
samples for pH test, include Nb: method chosen depends on whether
i. Transverse method
the soil is acidic or alkaline
ii. Zigzag method
Method of modifying soil pH of alkaline soils
Transverse method
i. A common amendment used to acidify
It involves collecting samples diagonally alkaline soil is sulphur. Sulphur is oxidized
within the farm
by micro-organisms to produce sulphate
Diagram ions (SO42-) and hydrogen ion (H+). The
hydrogen ions lower the pH of the soil
ii. Iron (II) sulphate (FeSO4) and aluminium
sulphate [Al2(SO4)3] used to lower the pH
of the soil
Reason: contain acidic Cations (Fe2+ and
Al3+)
iii. Ammonium-based fertilizer such as
urea(46-0-0) and ammonium
phosphate(11-52-0) or (18-46-0), are
Zigzag method oxidized by soil micro-organism producing
It involves collecting samples zigzag pattern hydrogen ions (H+)
within the farm iv. Manure are used to lower soil pH are
Diagram oxidized by soil micro-organism producing
hydrogen ions (H+)
Nb:

The amount of the amendment applied iii. Water holding capacity
depend on properties of the product and iv. Soil pH
soil conditions v. Pests and diseases
Liming Soil depth

By defn: liming is application of calcium in Soil depth gives plant roots greater volume
various forms to soil in order to increase the to obtain plant nutrients and provide strong
soil pH value anchorage
Liming material Drainage

By defn: liming material is application of Good drainage is important for proper
calcium compound to increase the soil pH aeration of the soil, hence root healthy
value. Includes development
i. Calcium carbonate (Lime stone)–CaCO3
ii. Calcium oxide (Quicklime) - CaO Water holding capacity
iii. Calcium hydroxide (Slaked lime)–Ca(OH)2 Water holding capacity keeps enough
water for plant use
Method of modifying soil pH of Acidic soils
i. The most common methods of increase Soil pH
the soil pH is liming materials. It react with Correct soil pH is important since different
carbon dioxide and water in the soil to crops grow well under different soil pH
form hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3-)
which neutralize acid in the soil Pests and diseases
ii. Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) also Productive and fertile soils are free from
used to raise the soil pH pests and diseases
iii. Wood ash can also use as liming material
Causes of loss of soil fertility
Soil fertility The following are ways through which
By defn: Soil fertility Is the ability of the soil to human activities and natural process which
provide nutrients in proper quantity and in a soil fertility may be lost
balance way for the growth of plants i. Leaching
ii. Soil capping
Soil productivity iii. Soil erosion
By defn: Soil productivity is the capacity of iv. Monocropping
the soil in its normal environment to support v. Continuous cropping without nutrient
plant growth replacement
vi. Accumulation of salts
Factors affect Soil productivity vii. Change in soil pH
i. Presence of weeds lower Soil productivity viii. Burning of vegetation
ii. Farming method used lower Soil
productivity Leaching
Nutrient soluble such as nitrogen carried to
Nb: lower levels far from soil makes soil infertile
i. Fertile soil have the correct proportion of
plant nutrients and optimum PH Soil capping
ii. Fertile soil affect soil product When soil covered with materials not
iii. Fertile soil always leads to high soil allowing water to pass through into soil
productivity makes soil infertile
Factors affect Soil fertility and productivity Soil erosion

The following are factors affect Soil fertility Soil erosion carries away fertile soil which
and productivity makes soil infertile
i. Soil depth
ii. Drainage Monocropping
Monocropping uses all nutrient and left
unused nutrient which makes soil infertile
Cropping without nutrient replacement

If the nutrients are not replaced the soil
become deficiency in the particular
nutrients
Accumulation of salts
Salt cause deficiency of water in plants
since salt have a tendency to absorb water
so the soil become infertility
Change in soil pH
Change in pH affect micro-organism
activities and availability of some nutrients
so soil become infertility
Burning of vegetation
Burning of vegetation destroy organic
matter which is the medium of micro-
organism activities, also soil remain bare
which soil erosion can happen

Pollution i. Agricultural chemicals, such as fertilizers,
By defn: Pollution is the introduction of pesticides and herbicides
(pollutant) harmful substance into the ii. Poor irrigation methods, which cause
environment leaching of chemicals and minerals into
soil
Types of pollution iii. Collected manure which leaches into the
i. Terrestrial (land) pollution nearby land areas
ii. Water pollution iv. Oil spillages that seep into soil
iii. Air pollution
Effect of land pollution
Land pollution The follows is the effect of land pollution to
By defn: land pollution is the degration of our environment
earth’s land surface through human i. Biodegradable remain for long pose a
activities health threat to people and other living
organism
Causes of Land pollution ii. Radiation from Nuclear waste causes
There are two causes of land pollution, deformities and cancers
include iii. Land pollution Makes environment ugly
i. Solid waste iv. Decaying wastes makes environment
ii. Soil pollution unhealthy, dirty and unpleasant place to
resin in
Solid waste v. Damage terrestrial life especially plants
The following are some sources of solid vi. Reduce the amount of land available for
waste in the environment useful purpose, such as agriculture and
i. Agriculture settlement
Waste matter produced by crops,
animal manure and farm residue and Methods of preventing land pollution
mismanagement they pollute land Land pollution is preventing by
ii. Mining i. Recycling and re-use materials
Mining waste in form of overburden, Recycling: Waste material such as metals,
waste rock and tailing pollute land glass and plastics should collected, sorted
iii. Industries and reprocessed into usable raw material
Solid chemical waste comes from instead of discarding them as waste
industries they pollute land Re-use: packaging materials such as
iv. Sewage treatment plants plastic bag can also be re-used
Waste in form of Biomass sludge and
settled solid pollute land ii. Using biodegradable plastics materials
v. Solid fuels We should use biodegradable plastics
Waste from solid fuel like wood, coal etc which can be decomposed or decayed,
produce ashes which pollute land for example
vi. Nuclear plants a. Biopolymers such as plastics used to
Waste form nuclear reactors, nuclear make surgical sutures
research project and nuclear bomb b. Photodegradable plastics which
production they pollute land break down when exposed to light
vii. Garbage disposal c. Soluble plastics which broken down
Degradable Waste like food, cloth, by water
wood etc and waste that not
degradable like glass, plastic etc they iii. Using designated dumping sites
pollute land Waste in Designated dumping sites are
treated by recycling or burning until it is
Soil pollution destroyed completely in an incinerator
The following are some sources of soil
pollution in the environment iv. Formulation and enacting policies and
laws
Laws and regulation should put to surface run-off or drain down into ground
prevent and control land pollution in all water
avenues that contribute land pollution
Nb:
v. Creating awareness i. Contaminates water affect living
Education should be provided to the organism in the water
public on keeping environment clean ii. Contaminates water is Unsafe for drink
Water pollution Fertilizers

By defn: water pollution is the introduction Fertilizer contain nutrients such as nitrate
of a substance that lowers the quality of and phosphates when carried into local
water into the water bodies stream and rivers by surface run-off or drain
down into ground water
Sources of water pollution
There are two categories of sources of Nb:
water pollution, includes i. Excess level nutrient cause excessive
i. Point sources growth of aquatic plants and algae. This
ii. Non point sources situation called Eutrophication
ii. Eutrophication clogs waterways and
Point sources blocks light in the deeper water
Point sources are those that release harmful iii. When aquatic plants and algae die, they
substance directly into a water body. For use up dissolved oxygen as they
example decomposed which lower the amount of
i. Oil spills directly into water body oxygen for aquatic organism
ii. Release of industrial effluent (liquid waste iv. Area of died aquatic plants and algae is
or sewage discharged into water body) called dead zones
v. Nutrient pollution is a particular problem
Non point sources in estuaries and deltas where watersheds
Non point sources are those that release dumped at mouth of major rivers
harmful substance indirectly into a water
body. For example Oil spills
i. Fertilizer from a field carried into stream Oil spills in the water bodies from land-based
by surface run-off petroleum, vehicle etc cause major water
ii. pesticides applied to crops and certain pollution
animals drip into stream by surface run-off
Nb:
Causes of water pollution Spill for a thin layer of oil on surface water
The following are some of the main causes which prevent gas exchange between
of water pollution water and atmosphere
i. Pesticides
ii. Fertilizers (Nutrients) Mining
iii. Oil spills Mining cause water pollution in number
iv. Mining ways, includes
v. Sediment i. Buried of heavy metals and sulphur in the
vi. Industrial processes earth which later leaches
vii. Sewage ii. Action of rain water on piles of mining
viii. Marine debris waste (tailing)
ix. Poisonous gases and metals iii. Pile of cyanide from gold extraction
x. Heat iv. If a dam of mining waste leaks or bursts
xi. Noise v. Dump mining waste directly into rivers
Pesticides Sediment
Pesticides from animals drip into soil when
carried into local stream and rivers by
When soil erosion happen the roots of dead i. It cause marine organism fail to
plants are deposited in nearby stream, rivers communicate since they used sound to
and lakes communicate
ii. Sonar may give wrong measurement
Nb: iii. Aquatic organism can fail to navigate
i. Sediment affects aquatic life properly
ii. Poor farming practices contribute
sediment pollution in water Effect of water pollution
The follows is the effect of water pollution to
Industrial processes our environment
When water used for production process i. Waterborne diseases
discharged into ware body, tend to cause ii. Nutrient pollution
water pollution since may contain chemical iii. Industrial chemicals
substance which harm aquatic life iv. Oil spills
v. Mercury
Sewage vi. Marine debris
When swage contains waste water for vii. Thermal pollution
treatment leaking septic tanks can cause
ground ware and stream water Waterborne diseases
contamination When micro-organism which contaminated
with water can cause
Marine debris i. Diseases like typhoid, cholera and
Debrides comes from urban and garbage dysentery
thrown from ships and boats they pollute ii. Vacillate the spread of internal parasites
ocean water such as roundworms and hookworms
iii. Around the beach cause rashes,
Poisonous gases and metals respiratory infection, diarrhea, vomiting
Pollutants like mercury, sulphur dioxide, and stomach aches
nitrogen oxide and ammonia can get into
water bodies from air Nutrient pollution
i. Waterweeds pollutant reduce water
Nb: clarity(makes hard for water animals to
i. Most pollutants comes from coal-fired find food)
power plants, vehicle exhaust fumes and ii. Waterweeds also block the sunlight
industrial emissions needed by sea grasses which serve a
ii. pollutants It cause Contamination in fish nursery for many important fish species
iii. pollutants It cause Acidification of lakes iii. Decomposition of Waterweeds takes a lot
iv. pollutants It cause Eutrophication of oxygen out of the water
iv. Nutrient pollution also trigger unusual
Heat outbreaks of fish diseases
Heat is caused by global warming and
discharge of heat water by factories and Industrial chemicals
power plants i. Chemical spills and leaks into water
bodies kill aquatic life such as fish
Nb: ii. Presence of pesticides in drink water and
Increases water temperature result the in food chain can result in damage to the
death of many aquatic organism nervous, endocrine and reproductive
systems and the liver
Noise iii. It can cause cancerous diseases
Noise caused by ship and boats cause
pollution in the water bodies Oil spills
Oil alter the ecology of aquatic habitats
Nb: and the physiology of marine organisms

Mercury industries, combustion of fuels, deforestation
i. Mercury when exposure to unborn babies and chemical substances
result in delaying or incomplete mental
development, autism and brain damage Causes of air pollution
ii. Mercury cause serious nervous system The following are some of the main causes
problems in adults, include Parkinson’s of air pollution
disease, multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer’s i. Carbon dioxide
disease ii. Oxides of nitrogen
iii. Compound of sulphur
Marine debris iv. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
i. When marine animal swallow marine v. Smog
debris cause them to death by blockage
intestinal Carbon dioxide
ii. It can destroy sea grass beds and other Carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas
aquatic habitats which the main sources of carbon dioxide
are burning of fossil fuel and deforestation
Thermal pollution
i. Rise in temperature kill the aquatic life Oxides of nitrogen
ii. Warmer water temperature lower the They include nitrogen monoxide, nitrogen
amount of oxygen dissolved in the water dioxide and Dinitrogen oxide, which
produced from burning of biomass and fossil
Methods of preventing water pollution fuels
Water pollution is preventing by
i. Reducing nutrients and pesticides Nb:
pollution i. They form acidic rain
ii. Treating sewage and industrial waste ii. They form photochemical smog
iii. Stopping deforestation (chemical reaction of sunlight with oxides
iv. Control coastal development of nitrogen and volatile organic matter in
v. Reducing pollution from oil spills the atmosphere)
vi. Reducing mercury emissions iii. The photochemical smog produce
vii. Cleaning up exist and abandoned mines airborne particles and ground-level ozone
viii. Cleaning up chemical pollution iv. Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide
play role in the thinning stratospheric
Air pollution ozone
By defn: Air pollution is the introduction of v. Dinitrogen oxide is a natural component
harmful substance into the earth’s of the atmosphere
atmosphere vi. The oxide of nitrogen produced from
nitrogen-based fertilizers, deforestation
Sources of air pollution and burning vegetation
There are two categories of sources of air vii. Dinitrogen oxide is the greenhouse gas
pollution, includes
i. Natural sources Compound of sulphur
ii. Human-made sources Include sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide and
hydrogen sulphide
Natural sources
Natural sources is the one occurs natural Nb:
especial from volcanic eruption, hot spring i. Sulphur dioxide is produced by
and fumaroles (opening in or near a combustion of sulphur-containing fuels
volcano, through which hot sulphurous such as coal and fuel oil
gases emerge) ii. Sulphur dioxide produced in the process
of produce sulphuric acid and
Human-made sources metallurgical process that involves ores
Human-made sources is the one causes by that contain sulphur
human being such as pollutant from
iii. Sulphur oxide cause health problems in Acid rain damages forest and corrodes
people and damage plants and many ancient building and sculptures made
materials of marble
iv. At high concentration Sulphur dioxide
v. Irritates the upper respiratory tract of Reduced visibility
human beings making breathing difficult Smog reduces visibility, making activities
vi. Sulphur dioxide Cause acid rain such as driving very difficult
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Greenhouse Effect

It is greenhouse gasses made up of carbon, By Defn: Greenhouse effect is the process
chlorine and fluorine atoms which used as whereby radiation reflected by the
solvent in cleaners, coolants in refrigeration atmosphere to warms the earth’s surface
and air condition systems, blowing agents in Or
the production of foam and as propellant in By Defn: greenhouse effect is the trapping
aerosols back of Sun’s energy by a planet from
atmospheres
Nb: Or
i. It destruct the stratosphere (ozone layer) By Defn: Greenhouse effect is the process
ii. One CFC molecule cause loss of 1000,000 whereby radiation reflected by the
ozone molecules atmosphere to warms the planet’s surface
iii. CFC have a lifetime of about 20 – 100
years How Greenhouse Effect Occurs
When a planet’s surface is heated by
Smog sunlight it emits thermal (heat) radiation
Smog made up of ground-level ozone and which is absorbed by the greenhouse gases
fine particles in the atmosphere. The atmosphere reflects
(re-radiates) back thermal radiation in all
Nb: directions to the earth’s surface and lower
i. Ozone cause eye irritations atmosphere. Over time, this increases the
ii. Ozone cause Impaired lung function planet’s temperature due to presence of
iii. Ozone cause damage to trees and crops greenhouse gases
Effect of air pollution Sources of Greenhouse Effect

The follows is the effect of air pollution to our Greenhouse effect is caused by the
environment greenhouse gases includes the follows
i. Health problems i. Water vapor
ii. Acidic rain ii. Ozone layer
iii. Reduced visibility iii. Carbon dioxide
iv. The green house iv. Methane
v. Global warning v. Chlorofluorocarbons
vi. Dinitrogen oxide
Health problems
i. Air pollution cause difficulty in breathing, Carbon Dioxide
wheezing and coughing Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas.
ii. Air pollution cause chronic respiratory The gas contributes over 50% of the
and heart conditions greenhouse effect. The following are some
iii. Air pollution causes illnesses such as of the sources of carbon dioxide includes
asthma, bronchitis, emphysema and i. Clearing and burning of vegetation
other lung and heart diseases and (deforestation)
respiratory allergies ii. Burning of fossil fuels (coal and
petroleum)
Acidic rain
Methane
The main source of methane is;
i. Agricultural activities. It is released from v. Extreme weather events which include
wetlands, such as rice fields and from floods, drought, heat waves, hurricanes
animals, particularly cud-chewing and tornadoes
animals like cows. vi. higher or lower agricultural yields
ii. mining of coal and oil vii. Melting of Arctic ice and snowcaps. This
iii. When vegetation is burnt causes landslides, flash floods and
Note: Methane molecules have a lifetime of glacial lake overflow
10 years in the atmosphere viii. Extinction of some animal and plant
species,
Dinitrogen Oxide ix. Increase in the range of disease vectors
Dinitrogen oxide is produced from both
natural and human-made processes. Solutions to Minimize Global Warming
Human activities includes The major solution is to reduce the
i. combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and greenhouse gases emission into the
power stations atmosphere by:
ii. Use of nitrogenous fertilizers i. Reduce the use of fossil fuels by use of
iii. burning of vegetation public transport which will minimize the
iv. Animal waste number of vehicles in the roads
ii. Use of fuel-efficient cars
Chlorofluorocarbons iii. Use of clearer alternative sources of
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are organic energy such as solar and wind.
compounds made up of chlorine, fluorine iv. Afforestation
and carbon. The sources of CFCs in the v. Countries to make a policy of minimizing
atmosphere include fridges, air the emission of greenhouse gases.
conditioners, sprays and aerosols Example Kyoto protocol
Note: CFCs are extremely effective
greenhouse gases. A CFC molecule is 10 000 Methods of controlling air pollution
times more effective in trapping heat than a Air pollution is controlled by
carbon dioxide molecule i. Reduce over-dependence on fossil fuels
ii. Using fuel-efficient system
Global Warming iii. Modification and replacement of
By Defn: Global warming is the increase of industrial systems
the average temperatures near or on the iv. Use of air pollution control devices
earth’s surface caused by greenhouse v. Enactment of laws
gases
Or Safety measures to protect industrial worked
By Defn: Global warming is the increase in from gaseous pollution
temperature near or on the surface of the The follows is the Safety measures to protect
earth resulting into greenhouse effect industrial worked from gaseous pollution
i. Eliminate hazardous chemicals
Causes of global warming ii. Substituting hazardous chemicals
Global warming is mainly caused by iii. Highly hazardous chemicals should be
greenhouse gases carried out in sealed chambers
iv. Workers should be Use of protective
Effects of Global Warming equipment
The effects of global warming include:
i. Increase the temperature of the oceans Ways workers contaminate gas pollutant
ii. Rise in sea level due to melting land ice. Chemical can get into the workers bodies
This may lead to flooding of the coastal through the following
land i. Inhalation – worker can contaminate
iii. Change in world’s climate patterns through breathing
iv. Acidification of the oceans CO2 dissolves ii. Skin contact - worker can contaminate
in water and forms a weak carbonic through contact with chemical
acid and hence lower of PH of ocean
iii. Ingestion - worker can contaminate These are used in refrigeration and air
through swallow or smoking chemical condition and in aerosols. When reach in
stratosphere they broken up to form chlorine
Ozone Layer atoms
By defn: Ozone layer is a layer in the earth’s
atmosphere which contains relatively high Methyl bromide
concentration of ozone (O3) This used in agriculture as agricultural
Diagram: fumigant. When reach in stratosphere they
broken up to form bromine atoms
Halons
These are compound delivered from
hydrocarbons. All carbon atoms of halons
replaced with halogen (chlorine atom,
bromine atoms and fluorine atoms). Halons
are mainly used in fire extinguishers
Main function of ozone layer Ways of controlling ozone layer depletion

Ozone layer absorbs (97 – 99) % of the sun’s The most effective way of controlling the
high frequency ultraviolet light from the sun depletion of ozone layer is
i. To ban the production of all ozone-
Effect of sun’s high frequency ultraviolet light depleting substance
i. It causes skin cancer in human beings ii. To ban the uses of all ozone-depleting
ii. It causes blindness in human beings substance
iii. It causes skin ailment in human beings iii. To use less harmful substance
Nb: Environmental conservation

i. Over 90% of ozone(O3) is within the ozone By defn: Environmental conservation is the
layer protection and preservation of natural
ii. Ozone layer is spread between (17 – 30) resources from destruction, wastage or loss.
Km in the earth’s atmosphere in the Natural resources includes
Stratosphere i. Minerals
iii. Amount of ozone within the stratosphere ii. Soil
varies according to altitude iii. Water
iv. Ozone concentration are highest iv. Aquatic life
between (19 – 23) Km but Significant v. Air
amount up to 30 Km vi. Forests
vii. Animals (domestic and wild)
Ozone Layer depletion
By defn: Ozone Layer depletion is the Important of Environmental conservation
destruction of ozone layer The following is Important of Environmental
conservation
Ozone-depleting substances i. To protect and preserve all resources
This is the substances contribute to Ozone which Sustain life on the earth
Layer depletion such as Chlorine and ii. To protect and preserve ecological
bromine atoms are main substance that balance in an ecosystem
deplete ozone. The main sources of bromine iii. To keep continuous economic activities
and chlorine atom in the atmosphere are like fishing, hunting etc
Gases such as iv. To making natural resources available for
i. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Future generations
ii. Methyl bromide v. To keep Beauty of environment
iii. Halons
Environmental conservation measures
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
The following are measure being put in
place to conservation the environment
i. Implementations of organization and
institutions responsible for protect and
conserve the natural sources
ii. Formulation of laws which governing
environmental conservation
iii. Provision of Environmental Education
iv. Research on the best way of protect
and conserve the natural sources
v. Pollution should be prevented and
controlled
vi. International agreement aim to protect
and conserve the natural sources
vii. personal involvement to protect and
conserve the natural sources
Ways personal involves in Environmental

conservation
The following are some of the ways which
can take part in environmental
conservation
i. She/he should plant more trees at home
and in school
ii. She/he should place rubbish and any
other waste in designated areas or in
disposal bins
iii. She/he should not start fires near forested
areas
iv. She/he should not harm animal both
domestic and wild
v. She/he should educate other people on
the importance of environmental
conservation
vi. She/he should take part in environmental
conservation programs and tasks

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Table of Contents

FORM ONE NOTES............................................................................................................................ 2

Nanguruwe Secondary school i

The manufacturing industry

Home care products

Chemistry for careers (professional

Nanguruwe Secondary school 3

Nanguruwe Secondary school 8

Nanguruwe Secondary school 10

Nanguruwe Secondary school 11

Keep Away From Water

Nanguruwe Secondary school 12

Source of heat Types of flame

Natural source of heat Luminous flame

Heat sources in the laboratory

Flame Why produce soot?

Non luminous flame

How Bunsen produce luminous flame

Parts of Bunsen burner

Steps of a Scientific Method Data Collection and Analysis

Identify Problem Data Interpretation

Formulation of Hypothesis Draw a Conclusion

Properties of Gas Matter

Nanguruwe Secondary school 16

Different Between Boiling and Evaporation

Freezing Importance of Changes of States of Matter

Nanguruwe Secondary school 18

Changes undergoes chemical changes

Different between Physical Changes and

Nanguruwe Secondary school 19

Nanguruwe Secondary school 22

Methods of separating mixture

Nanguruwe Secondary school 24

Separation Application of Chromatography

Separation Application of Layer separation

Nanguruwe Secondary school 26

Suitable Fire Extinguisher

Suitable Fire Extinguisher

Suitable Fire Extinguisher

Condition for rusting Use of silica gel

Nanguruwe Secondary school 30

ii. Catalyst: Catalyst is the substance speed

v. Oxidation: Oxidation is the addition of

Nanguruwe Secondary school 31

Nanguruwe Secondary school 32

Nanguruwe Secondary school 33

Manufacture of Oxy-hydrogen flame

Nanguruwe Secondary school 36

Mining Use of commercial filters

Water treatment and purification Screening

Domestic water purification Reservoirs

Nanguruwe Secondary school 39

Importance of water treatment

Nanguruwe Secondary school 40

Nanguruwe Secondary school 41

Nb: Composition of coal

Solid fuels Nb:

Types of coal kilns

Structure of Otto Hoffman kiln

Nanguruwe Secondary school 43

Consider the diagram below

Nanguruwe Secondary school 47

When the water comes from dam which