8.

Boundary Layer theory (3 hours)

8.1 Boundary layer concept and definition.
8.2 Boundary layer concept along a thin plate (laminar zone, turbulent zone, transition zone as well as
laminar sub layer)
8.3 Application of this concept (hydraulically smooth and rough boundary)
8.4 Boundary layer thickness (Boundary layer thickness, momentum thickness, and is placement
thickness)

8.1 Boundary layer concept and definition.

The concept of a boundary layer within which viscosity is important, and outside of which friction is
unimportant and the fluid may be considered as ideal, was originated in 1904 by Ludwig Prandtl (1875-
1953), a German engineering professor. Perhaps the single most significant contribution to fluid
mechanics, this concept is particularly important with turbulent flow.

Two types of flows that occur in nature are external and internal flow or bounded flow. When bodies are
completely surrounded by a flowing fluid such flow is known as external flows, for example airplanes,
automobiles, flow of wind around the building or flow around the bridge piers. Fluid flows guided by the
boundary such as pipe flow, open channel flow are the examples of internal or bounded flow. In both the
cases no slip condition takes places i.e. the velocity in contact with the boundary will have the same
velocity as that of boundary.

Knowledge of flow phenomena near a solid boundary is of great value in engineering problems because,
in practice, flow is always affected to some extent by the solid boundaries over which it passes. Because
of the no slip condition, it is clear that the velocity of the fluid layer adjacent to the surface of boundary is
the same as that of boundary.

Furthermore, when the real fluid flows past a solid surface, the velocity of the fluid at the solid surface must
be the same as that of solid surface. If the solid surface is stationary, the velocity of the fluid at the surface
must be zero. As a result, there is a region close to the surface through which the velocity increases from
the zero velocity at the solid surface to the velocity of the mainstream. This region in the vicinity of the solid
surface is generally a narrow region where the velocity gradients are large. The origin of the large
velocity gradient is the viscous action and the large shear stress in that region.

The narrow region, near the solid surface, over which velocity gradients and shear stresses are
large, is known as boundary layer.
The subject concerned with the study of velocity gradients, shear stresses, forces and energy loss in the
boundary layer is called boundary layer theory.

Consider the fluid moving with a free stream velocity U as shown in Figure 7.1. Now, the velocity of fluid
varies from zero at the solid surface to the velocity of free stream flow at a certain distance X away form the
solid surface. At this section the velocity is disturbed for a distance δ (depth normal to the boundary) from the
boundary (see Figure 7.1). This layer of fluid within which the velocity variation takes place is known as
boundary layer. As the velocity variation takes place in a short distance, the large value of velocity gradient
will set up. Hence, in the boundary layer the entire viscous or frictional resistance between the moving fluid
and the solid boundary surface occurs.
 U
Unditurbed flow
U

Boundry layer 
y


x
Figure-7.1: Growth of a boundary layer along a smooth plate
As mentioned above that the boundary layer is a thin layer of fluid adjacent to a surface, in which
viscosity diminishes. While outside this thin layer the fluid behaves as if it would an ideal fluid. And
therefore, the solution can be sought by the potential flow theory. It means that the mathematical
theory of ideal fluid flow can actually be used to determine the streamlines in the real fluid at a short
distance from solid boundary. The type of flow within the boundary layer may be stream line (viscous)
flow or turbulent flow conditions.

8.2 Boundary layer concept along a thin plate (laminar zone, turbulent
zone, transition zone as well as laminar sub layer)
A thin plate is an example of a streamlined object. Consider a stream of fluid flowing with a uniform
velocity U. When the stream is interrupted by the plate (see Figure 7.2), the boundary layer forms on
both sides. The Figure 7.2 shows what happens on one side only.

The boundary layer starts at the leading edge of a solid surface and the boundary layer thickness
increases with the distance X along the surface. Figure 7.2 shows uniform flow past a flat plate where,
resulting from the action of viscosity, a thin layer develops, within which the velocity varies from the
no-slip value u = 0 at the wall to the uniform flow velocity u = U at the edge of the layer. The velocity
 du 
gradient will be set up and this gradient develops shear resistant  0    which retards the
 dy 
fluid, so boundary layer regions begins at the leading edge. Very important and interesting changes
take place in the nature of flow as the boundary layer grows.
Near the leading edge of the solid surface, where the thickness is small, the flow in the boundary
layer can be laminar and the layer is said to be laminar boundary layer as shown in Figure 7.2. The
velocity profile in the laminar layer is approximated by a parabola. As the thickness of boundary layer
increases the downstream direction, the laminar layer becomes unstable and the motion within it is
disturbed and irregular which leads to a transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer (see Figure
7.2). This zone is called a transition zone.

Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent and continues to grow in
thickness. The velocity profile in the turbulent boundary layer is not parabolic but follows a logarithmic
law. The velocity profile is nearly uniform in a turbulent boundary layer than in a laminar layer. The
velocity gradient at the wall in turbulent layer is larger then that in a laminar layer. The shearing
stresses at the wall is related to the velocity gradient, hence this stress at the wall in turbulent
boundary layer is generally larger than that in laminar layer.
 Laminar Transition Turbulent
U x U

U

u u ' Viscous
 sublayer

Figure-7.2: Laminar and turbulent boundary layers along a smooth flat plate
At low Reynolds number, the boundary layer may be laminar throughout the entire thickness. At
higher Reynolds numbers, it is turbulent. This means that that at some distance from the leading edge
the flow within boundary layer becomes turbulent. The turbulent boundary layer is very unsteady and
the streamlines do not remain parallel. There is a region between the laminar and turbulent section
where transition takes place.
The turbulent boundary layer exists on top of a thin laminar layer called the laminar sub-layer or
viscous sub-layer. The velocity gradient within this layer is linear. A deeper analysis would reveal
that for the long surfaces, the boundary layer is turbulent over most of the length. Many equations
have been developed to describe the shape of the laminar and turbulent boundary layers and these
may be used to estimate the skin friction drag (see next Chapter).
As shown in figure 7.2, the thickness of the layer increases in the streamwise direction x (the direction
along the main flow). At a critical local Reynolds number based on the distance from upstream edge
of the plate X, Re x  3 to 5 x 10 5 , the flow undergoes a transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
Eventually for Re x  10 6 the flow becomes fully developed turbulent flow.

The distance for laminar boundary layer can be obtained from lower critical Reynolds’ number Rex equal
to 3 to 3.2 * 105, whereas the position for transition zone (length from leading edge to the transition
zone) corresponds to the upper critical Reynolds number which is about to 5.5 *105. The Reynolds
number Re x is based upon the distance X from the leading edge as the characteristics length,

UX UX
Re   7-1
 
Where Rex is the local Reynolds’ number, U is the free stream velocity,  is the kinematic viscosity
UX
and X is the distance from the leading edge. By using 3 to 3.2  10 5  , distance X for laminar

boundary layer can be calculated. If the length of the plate is more than distance X calculated from above
equation, thickness of boundary layer will go on increasing and laminar layer becomes unstable, then
started transition zone and turbulent boundary layer see Figure 7.2.

8.3 Application of this concept (hydraulically smooth and rough

boundary)
As mentioned before that there can no sharp lines of demarcation separating these three zones of
boundary layers, inasmuch as one must merge gradually into the other. By plotting a velocity profile
from the wall on the assumption that the flow is entirely laminar and plotting another velocity profile on
the assumption that the flow is entirely turbulent, the two will intersect, as shown in Figure 7.5. It is
obvious that there can be no abrupt change in profile at this point of intersection, but that one curve
must merge gradually into the other with some kind of transition, as shown by the experiments.

Turbulent
zone

Transition
zone
b

a
Viscous
y1 zone

u
Figure 7.5: Velocity profile near a solid wall

When studying such velocity profiles, the quantity 0 /  frequently occurs. Because it has the
dimension of velocity, it has been named the shear stress velocity (or friction velocity) u *,
although it is not a flow velocity.
When the flow in a circular pipe is entirely laminar, the velocity profile would be parabolic. But, when
there is only an extremely thin film closest to the wall where viscous shear dominates, the velocity
profile in it can scarcely be distinguished from a straight line. If we ignore the momentary fluctuations
in this viscous sublayer, with such a linear velocity profile shear stress at the wall becomes

u  u 
0   or 0  , (  ) 7-5
y  y 

Putting the value of shear velocity u*   0 /  or u

*2
  0 /  in the equation 7.5 we obtain

2 u u y u*
u*  Or  7-6
y u* 
Here u is the shear velocity, u is the velocity at any particular depth y, and  is the kinematic
*

viscosity. This linear relation for u(y) has been found to approximate experimental data well in the
range

y u*
0 5 7-7

In this case the thickness of viscous sublayer  ' is given as (with this limitation of depth)
5
 ' 7-8
u*
The transition zone may be said to extend from a to c in figure 7.5. For the latter point, the value of y
70 
has been estimated to be about or 14  ' . Beyond this, the flow is so turbulent that viscous
u*
shear is negligible. For circular pipe the shear stress can also be given by

f U 2
0  7-9
8
Equation 7.9 is also known as Darcy’s law for friction factor, where f is the friction factor. Comparing
this equation with the expression for the shear velocity u*   0 /  and putting the value of shear
stress results:

0 f
u*  U 7-10
 8

DU u*
And Reynolds number Re  , we see that when y  5 or y   ' ,
 
u* U f
y ' 5
  8

14.14 14.14 D
'  7-11
U f Re f

From the equation 7.11, we see that the higher the velocity or lower the kinematic viscosity, the
thinner the viscous sublayer. This indicates that for a given constant pipe diameter, the
thickness of viscous sublayer decreases as the Reynolds number increases. Now we can
consider what is meant by smooth and rough boundary or wall.
Viscous sublayer thickness is important factor to evaluate the hydraulically smooth and rough
boundary of surface. There is no such thing in reality as mathematically smooth surface. But if the
irregularities “e” (absolute roughness height of boundary, see Figure 7.6a and 7.6b) on any actual
surface are such that the effects of the projections do not pierce (penetrate) through the viscous
sublayer, the surface is hydraulically smooth from the fluid-mechanics viewpoint. Figure 7.6a and
7.6b shows the hydraulically smooth and rough boundaries
 Flow
Flow e
' e

'
Figure-7.6a : Smooth boundary Figure-7.6b: Rough boundary

Further, if the effects of the projections extend beyond the viscous sublayer, the laminar layer is
broken up and the surface is no longer hydraulically smooth. If the surface roughness projections are
large enough to protrude (to project) right through the transition layer, it is totally broken up. The
resulting flow is completely turbulent, known as fully rough boundary, and friction is independent of
Reynolds number. If the roughness projections protrude (to project) only partially into the transition
layer, the flow is said to be transitionally rough, and there is a moderate Reynolds number effect.
To be more specific, if “e” is the equivalent height of the roughness projections then for

e u*
< 5 (or e <  ' ) 7-12

The surface roughness is completely buried in the viscous sublayer (see Figure 7.6a), the roughness
has no effect on friction, and the pipe is hydraulically

e u*
For > 70 (or e > 14  ' ), the pipe will behave as fully rough. 7-13

Between these ranges, i.e., when the roughness projections are such that

e u*
5  70 , (or  ' < e < 14  ' ) 7-14

The pipe will behave in a transitional mode, neither hydraulically smooth nor fully rough.
The thickness of the viscous layer in a given pipe will decrease with an increase in Reynolds number
(see Equation 7.11); hence, same pipe may be hydraulically smooth at low Reynolds numbers and
rough at high Reynolds number. Thus, even a relatively smooth pipe may behave as rough pipe if the
Reynolds number is high enough. It is also apparent that, with increasing Reynolds number, there is a
gradual transition from smooth to rough pipe flow.
8.4 Boundary layer thickness (Boundary layer thickness, momentum
thickness, and is Displacement thickness)
Boundary layer parameters
For practical purposes, the boundary layer region is defined in the following four parameters. They are
boundary layer thickness, displacement thickness, momentum thickness and energy thickness.
Boundary layer thickness (δ)
Boundary layer thickness  (delta) may be considered equal to the distance (normal from the
boundary) from the boundary surface at which the velocity of the fluid is approximately equal to 0.99
times the free stream velocity U of the fluid (see Figure 7.9). This definition just provides an
approximate value of the boundary layer thickness and hence  is generally termed as nominal
thickness of boundary layer.

0.99u

Figure-7.9: Thickness of boundary layer

For more accuracy the boundary layer thickness is defined in terms of certain mathematical
expressions which are the measures of the effect of boundary layer on the flow. These three
expressions of the boundary layer thickness which are commonly adopted are the displacement,
momentum and energy thicknesses.

Displacement thickness *
The displacement thickness * is defined as that distance by which the boundary surface
would have to be displaced (in normal direction of boundary) outward so that the total actual
discharge would be same as that of an ideal fluid past the displaced boundary.
(The displacement thickness, δ* or δ1 is the distance by which a surface would have to be
moved in the direction perpendicular to its normal vector away from the reference plane in an
inviscid fluid stream of velocity U0 to give the same flow rate as occurs between the surface
and the reference plane in a real fluid.)
Figure 7.10a and 7.10b shows the velocity profile for an ideal and real fluid flows.

V V

V V

Figure-7.10b: Velocity profile for real fluid

Figure-7.10a :Velocity profile for an ideal flow
flow

Let the liquid is flowing with free stream velocity U approaching a flat plate at rest as shown in Figure
7.11.

U U

boundary
layer

 y dy
u
Leading x Trailing
edge edge
l
Figure-7.11: Fluid moving over a flat plate

Consider elemental area of thickness dy in y direction having velocity u. Taking unit width of the plate,
mass of fluid flowing through element per second is the product of its density, velocity and flow area
i.e. ρ u dy
Mass of the fluid following per second through the same element, if the plate had not been present is equal
to ρ U dy. Reduction of mass per second flowing through elemental strip.

 U dy -  u dy   U  u dy 7-15

Total reduction in mass flowing per second due to the plate is:


  U  u dy
0
7-16

Let the plate is displaced by a distance * and velocity of flow for the distance * is equal to the free
stream velocity U. Mass of the fluid per second flowing through the distance * will be:
Density * velocity * area   U * 7-17

Equaling equations 7.16 and 7.17 we get



  U  u dy   U
*
7-18
0

1 
* 
U 
0
(U  u )dy , here density is considered as constant

 u
 *   (1  )dy 7-19
0 U
The expression 7.19 represents the expression for displacement thickness.
Displacement thickness *  δ/3 for laminar flow profile and *  δ/8 for a turbulent flow profile.

Momentum thickness ()

It is defined as the distance measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by
which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum of the
flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.
(The momentum thickness, θ or δ2, is the distance by which a surface would have to be moved
parallel to itself towards the reference plane in an inviscid fluid stream of velocity U 0 to give
the same total momentum as exists between the surface and the reference plane in a real
fluid.)
The condition is same as previous case.
As derived for displacement thickness, the reduction in mass per second flowing through element strip
= ρ(U-u) dy. Reduction in momentum per second through elemental strip is the product of reduction is
mass and its velocity i.e.

 U  u u dy 7-20

Total reduction in momentum



  uU  u dy
0
7-21

Let  is the distance by which the plate is displaced when the fluid is flowing with mean stream
velocity U. Loss of momentum per second of flowing fluid through distance θ with free stream velocity
U is equal to

 U 2 7-22

Now equaling the equations 7.21 and 7.22 we will reach:


U   u U  u dy
2

 u u
  1   dy 7-23
0 U U
The expression 7.23 represents the expression for momentum thickness. The momentum thickness θ
7
is about δ/8 for laminar flow profile and θ   for a turbulent flow profile.
72
Energy thickness (δ**)
The energy thickness, δ**, is the distance by which a surface would have to be moved
parallel to itself towards the reference plane in an inviscid fluid stream of velocity U0
to give the same total kinetic energy as exists between the surface and the reference
plane in a real fluid.

Similar expression can be developed for the energy thickness, which is due to loss of kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy of flowing mass through the strip is equal to:

1 1
(  u dy ) u 2   u 3 dy .
2 2
Kinetic energy of this quantity in the absence of the boundary layer would be

1
 U 3 dy
2
Total loss of kinetic energy is then equal to the difference of these energies as


 2 uU 
1 2
 u 2 dy 7-24
0

Let us suppose δ** be the depth of flow with uniform velocity U so as to have kinetic energy equal to
the loss of kinetic energy due to the boundary layer.

1
2

  ** U U 2 =  1
 
0 2 u U  u dy
2 2
7-25


1 u  u2 
 **
1  dy
2 U  U 2 
7-26
0

Expression 7.26 represents the expression for energy thickness.

Turbulent boundary layers
When a fluid flows at high velocities, the boundary layer becomes turbulent and the gradient at the
wall becomes smaller so the wall shear stress is large and the drag created on the surface increases.
Prandtl found that a law fits the turbulent case well for Reynolds numbers below 107 is:
1/ 7
 y
u U   7-27
 
This is called the 1/7th law. The gradient of the boundary layer is:

du y 6 / 7
 U x  1/ 7 7-28
dy 7
This indicates that at the wall where the depth y = 0, the gradient is infinite (horizontal). This is
obviously incorrect and is explained by the existence of a laminar sub-layer next to the wall (see
Figure 7.4). In this layer the velocity grows very quickly from zero and merges with the turbulent layer.
The gradient is the same for both at the interface of laminar and turbulent flow. The drag on the
surface is due to the wall shear stress in the laminar sub-layer.

Boundary layer laws

The velocity at any distance y above a surface is a function of the wall shear stress, dynamic viscosity
and the density, i.e. u  f ( y, 0 ,  ,  ) . Generally the law governing the growth of a boundary layer
from u = f(y) and the limits must be that u = 0 at the wall and u = U in the fully developed flow. The
important boundary conditions that are used in the formulation of boundary layers laws are:

1. The velocity is zero at the wall (u = 0 @ y =0)

2. The velocity is maximum at the top of the layer (u = U @ y = δ)
3. The gradient of the boundary layer is zero a he top of the boundary layer (du/dy = 0 @ y = δ)

4. The gradient is constant at the wall (du/dy = constant @ y = 0)

5. Following from above (4) d2u/dy2 = 0 @ y = 0)

Assumptions:

1. All the viscous effects of the flow field are confined to the boundary layer, adjacent to the wall

Outside the boundary layer, the viscous effects are not important, so that the flow can be
determined by in viscid solutions such as potential flow or Euler Equations.

2. The viscous sub layer is thin compared to the wall.

3. The boundary conditions of the boundary layer region are the no-slip conditions at the wall, and
the free-stream condition at infinity.