FABRICATION PROCESS

The fabrication processes involved in the fabrication of HANDICPPED TRI

CYCLE are easy to do activities. They include :

 Welding
 Drilling
 Cutting
 Bending
 Machining
 Turning
 Facing

DRILLING

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the workpiece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

In rock drilling, the hole is usually not made through a circular cutting motion,
though the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is usually made by hammering a
drill bit into the hole with quickly repeated short movements. The hammering
action can be performed from outside of the hole (top-hammer drill) or within the
hole (down-the-hole drill, DTH). Drills used for horizontal drilling are
called drifter drills.

In rare cases, specially-shaped bits are used to cut holes of non-circular cross-
section; a square cross-section is possible.

Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side and the
presence of burrs on the exit side (unless they have been removed). Also, the inside
of the hole usually has helical feed marks.

Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the work piece by creating
low residual stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of
highly stressed and disturbed material on the newly formed surface. This causes
the work piece to become more susceptible to corrosion and crack propagation at
the stressed surface. A finish operation may be done to avoid these detrimental
conditions.

For fluted drill bits, any chips are removed via the flutes. Chips may form long
spirals (undesirable)or small flakes, depending on the material, and process
parameters. The type of chips formed can be an indicator of the machinability of
the material, with long chips suggesting poor material machinability.

When possible drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the workpiece

surface. This minimizes the drill bit's tendency to "walk", that is, to
be deflected from the intended center-line of the bore, causing the hole to be
misplaced. The higher the length-to-diameter ratio of the drill bit, the greater the
tendency to walk. The tendency to walk is also preempted in various other ways,
which include:
 Establishing a centering mark or feature before drilling, such as by:
 Casting, molding, or forging a mark into the workpiece
 Center punching
 Spot drilling (i.e., center drilling)
 Spot facing, which is machining a certain area on a casting or forging to
establish an accurately located face on an otherwise rough surface.
 Constraining the position of the drill bit using a drill jig with drill bushings

Surface finish produced by drilling may range from 32 to 500 microinches. Finish
cuts will generate surfaces near 32 microinches, and roughing will be near 500
microinches.

Cutting fluid is commonly used to cool the drill bit, increase tool life,
increase speeds and feeds, increase the surface finish, and aid in ejecting chips.
Application of these fluids is usually done by flooding the workpiece with coolant
and lubricant or by applying a spray mist.

In deciding which drill(s) to use it is important to consider the task at hand and
evaluate which drill would best accomplish the task. There are a variety of drill
styles that each serve a different purpose. The subland drill is capable of drilling
more than one diameter. The spade drill is used to drill larger hole sizes. The
indexable drill is useful in managing chips.

Spot drilling

The purpose of spot drilling is to drill a hole that will act as a guide for drilling the
final hole. The hole is only drilled part way into the workpiece because it is only
used to guide the beginning of the next drilling process.
Center drilling

Center drill is A two-fluted tool consisting of a twist drill with a 60° countersink;
used to drill countersink center holes in a work piece to be mounted between
centers for turning or grinding.

Deep hole drilling

Deep hole drilling is defined as a hole depth greater than ten times the diameter of
the hole. These types of holes require special equipment to maintain the
straightness and tolerances. Other considerations are roundness and surface finish.

Deep hole drilling is generally achievable with a few tooling methods, usually gun
drilling or BTA drilling. These are differentiated due to the coolant entry method
(internal or external) and chip removal method (internal or external). Using
methods such as a rotating tool and counter-rotating workpiece are common
techniques to achieve required straightness tolerances. Secondary tooling methods
include trepanning, skiving and burnishing, pull boring, or bottle boring. Finally a
new kind of drilling technology is available to face this issue: vibration drilling.
This technology breaks up the chips by a small controlled axial vibration of the
drill. The small chips are easily removed by the flutes of the drill.

A high tech monitoring system is used to control force, torque, vibrations, and
acoustic emission. Vibration is considered a major defect in deep hole drilling
which can often cause the drill to break. A special coolant is usually used to aid in
this type of drilling.

Gun drilling
Gun drilling was originally developed to drill out gun barrels and is used
commonly for drilling smaller diameter deep holes. The depth-to-diameter ratio
can be even greater than 300:1. The key feature of gun drilling is that the bits are
self-centering; this is what allows for such deep accurate holes. The bits use a
rotary motion similar to a twist drill; however, the bits are designed with bearing
pads that slide along the surface of the hole keeping the drill bit on center. Gun
drilling is usually done at high speeds and low feed rates.

Trepanning
Trepanning is commonly used for creating larger diameter holes (up to 915 mm
(36.0 in)) where a standard drill bit is not feasible or economical. Trepanning
removes the desired diameter by cutting out a solid disk similar to the workings of
a drafting compass. Trepanning is performed on flat products such as sheet metal,
granite (curling stone), plates, or structural members like I-beams. Trepanning can
also be useful to make grooves for inserting seals, such as O-rings.

Microdrilling

Microdrilling refers to the drilling of holes less than 0.5 mm (0.020 in). Drilling of
holes at this small diameter presents greater problems since coolant fed drills
cannot be used and high spindle speeds are required. High spindle speeds that
exceed 10,000 RPM also require the use of balanced tool holders.

Vibration drilling

The first studies into vibration drilling began in the 1950s (Pr. V.N. Poduraev,
Moscow Bauman University). The main principle consists in generating axial
vibrations or oscillations in addition to the feed movement of the drill so that the
chips break up and are then easily removed from the cutting zone.

There are two main technologies of vibration drilling: self-maintained vibration

systems and forced vibration systems. Most vibration drilling technologies are still
at a research stage. It is the case of the self-maintained vibrations drilling: the eigen
frequency of the tool is used in order to make it naturally vibrate while cutting;
vibrations are self-maintained by a mass-spring system included in the tool
holder.[ Other works use a piezoelectric system to generate and control the
vibrations. These systems allow high vibration frequencies (up to 2 kHz) for small
magnitude (about a few micrometers); they are particularly suitable for drilling
small holes. Finally, vibrations can be generated by mechanical systems:[7] the
frequency is given by the combination of the rotation speed and the number of
oscillation per rotation (a few oscillations per rotation), the magnitude is about
0.1 mm.

This last technology is a fully industrial one (example: SineHoling® technology of

MITIS). Vibration drilling is a preferred solution in situations like deep hole
drilling, multi-material stack drilling (aeronautics) and dry drilling (without
lubrication). Generally it provides improved reliability and greater control of the
drilling operation.

Circle interpolating

Circle interpolating, also known as orbital drilling, is a process for creating holes
using machine cutters.

Orbital drilling is based on rotating a cutting tool around its own axis and
simultaneously about a centre axis which is off-set from the axis of the cutting tool.
The cutting tool can then be moved simultaneously in an axial direction to drill or
machine a hole – and/or combined with an arbitrary sidewards motion to machine
an opening or cavity.

By adjusting the offset, a cutting tool of a specific diameter can be used to drill
holes of different diameters as illustrated. This implies that the cutting tool
inventory can be substantially reduced.

The term orbital drilling comes from that the cutting tool “orbits” around the hole
center. The mechanically forced, dynamic offset in orbital drilling has several
advantages compared to conventional drilling that drastically increases the hole
precision. The lower thrust force results in a burr-less hole when drilling in metals.
When drilling in composite materials the problem with delamination is eliminated.

CUTTING

Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through
the application of an acutely directed force.

Implements commonly used for cutting are the knife and saw, or in medicine and
science the scalpel and microtome. However, any sufficiently sharp object is
capable of cutting if it has a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut,
and if it is applied with sufficient force. Even liquids can be used to cut things
when applied with sufficient force (see water jet cutter).

Cutting is a compressive and shearing phenomenon, and occurs only when the
total stress generated by the cutting implement exceeds the ultimate strength of the
material of the object being cut. The simplest applicable equation is stress =
force/area: The stress generated by a cutting implement is directly proportional to
the force with which it is applied, and inversely proportional to the area of
contact. Hence, the smaller the area (i.e., the sharper the cutting implement), the
less force is needed to cut something. It is generally seen that cutting edges are
thinner for cutting soft materials and thicker for harder materials. This progression
is seen from kitchen knife, to cleaver, to axe, and is a balance between the easy
cutting action of a thin blade vs strength and edge durability of a thicker blade.

Cutting has been at the core of manufacturing throughout history. For metals many
methods are used and can be grouped by the physical phenomenon used.

 Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.

 Shearing - punching, stamping, scissoring.
 Abrading - grinding, lapping, polishing; water-jet.
 Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting.
 Electrochemical - etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM).

Every method has its limitations in accuracy, cost, and effect on the material. For
example, heat may damage the quality of heat treated alloys, and laser cutting is
less suitable for highly reflective materials such as aluminum. Laser cutting sheet
metal produces flat parts and etches and engraves parts from complex or simple
designs. It is used over other cutting options for its quick process and customizable
abilities.

WELDING
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials,
usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower
temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do
not melt the base metal. In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is
typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that
cools to form a joint that is usually stronger than the base material. Pressure may
also be used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce a weld.

Although less common, there are also solid state welding processes such as friction
welding or shielded active gas welding in which metal does not melt.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame,
an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an
industrial process, welding may be performed in many different environments,
including in open air, under water, and in outer space. Welding is a hazardous
undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision
damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure to intense
ultraviolet radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding,
which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron and steel by heating and
hammering. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to
develop late in the century, and electric resistance welding followed soon after.
Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as the world
wars drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following
the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed, including manual
methods like SMAW, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as
semi-automatic and automatic processes such as GMAW, SAW, FCAW and ESW.
Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding, electron beam
welding, magnetic pulse welding (MPW), and friction stir welding in the latter half
of the century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is
commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new
welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality.
Some of the best known welding methods include:

 Oxy-fuel welding - also known as oxyacetylene welding or oxy welding, uses

fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals.
 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) – also known as "stick welding or electric
welding", uses an electrode that has flux around it to protect the weld puddle.
The electrode holder holds the electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag protects
the weld puddle from atmospheric contamination.
 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) – also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas),
uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area
is protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas such
as argon or helium.
 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) – commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas),
uses a wire feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed and flows an
argon-based shielding gas or a mix of argon and carbon dioxide (CO2) over the
weld puddle to protect it from atmospheric contamination.
 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) – almost identical to MIG welding except it
uses a special tubular wire filled with flux; it can be used with or without
shielding gas, depending on the filler.
 Submerged arc welding (SAW) – uses an automatically fed consumable
electrode and a blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc
zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by being "submerged"
under the flux blanket.
 Electroslag welding (ESW) – a highly productive, single pass welding process
for thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a
vertical or close to vertical position.
 Electric resistance welding (ERW) - a welding process that produces
coalescence of laying surfaces where heat to form the weld is generated by the
electrical resistance of the material. In general, an efficient method, but limited
to relatively thin material.

ARC WELDING

These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point.
They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or
non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some
type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and filler material is
sometimes used as well.

Gas welding

The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding, also known as
oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes,
but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still
widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair work.

The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the

combustion of acetylene in oxygen to produce a welding flame temperature of
about 3100 °C.The flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes
slower weld cooling, which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld
distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels. A similar process,
generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals.

Resistancewelding

Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the
resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces. Small pools
of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current (1000–100,000 A) is
passed through the metal. In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and
cause little pollution, but their applications are somewhat limited and the
equipment cost can be high

Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping

metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick. Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp
the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of
the method include efficient energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high
production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength
is significantly lower than with other welding methods, making the process
suitable for only certain applications. It is used extensively in the automotive
industry—ordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds made by industrial
robots. A specialized process, called shot welding, can be used to spot weld
stainless steel.

Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and
current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped
electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it possible to make long
continuous welds. In the past, this process was used in the manufacture of beverage
cans, but now its uses are more limited. Other resistance welding methods
include butt welding, flash welding, projection welding, and upset welding.

Energy beam welding

Energy beam welding methods, namely laser beam welding and electron beam
welding, are relatively new processes that have become quite popular in high
production applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most
notably in their source of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused
laser beam, while electron beam welding is done in a vacuum and uses an electron
beam. Both have a very high energy density, making deep weld penetration
possible and minimizing the size of the weld area. Both processes are extremely
fast, and are easily automated, making them highly productive. The primary
disadvantages are their very high equipment costs (though these are decreasing)
and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in this area include laser-
hybrid welding, which uses principles from both laser beam welding and arc
welding for even better weld properties, laser cladding, and x-ray welding.

Solid-statewelding

Like the first welding process, forge welding, some modern welding methods do
not involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most
popular, ultrasonic welding, is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal
or thermoplastic by vibrating them at high frequency and under high pressure The
equipment and methods involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but
instead of electric current, vibration provides energy input. Welding metals with
this process does not involve melting the materials; instead, the weld is formed by
introducing mechanical vibrations horizontally under pressure. When welding
plastics, the materials should have similar melting temperatures, and the vibrations
are introduced vertically. Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making
electrical connections out of aluminum or copper, and it is also a very common
polymer welding process.

Another common process, explosion welding, involves the joining of materials by

pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact
plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of
heat is generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials,
such as the welding of aluminum with steel in ship hulls or compound plates. Other
solid-state welding processes include friction welding (including friction stir
welding),magnetic pulse welding, co-extrusion welding, cold welding, diffusion
bonding, exothermic welding, high frequency welding, hot pressure
welding, induction welding, and roll welding.

BENDING
In applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior
of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied
perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element.

The structural element is assumed to be such that at least one of its dimensions is a
small fraction, typically 1/10 or less, of the other two. When the length is
considerably longer than the width and the thickness, the element is called a beam.
For example, a closet rod sagging under the weight of clothes on clothes hangers is
an example of a beam experiencing bending. On the other hand, a shell is a
structure of any geometric form where the length and the width are of the same
order of magnitude but the thickness of the structure (known as the 'wall') is
considerably smaller. A large diameter, but thin-walled, short tube supported at its
ends and loaded laterally is an example of a shell experiencing bending.

In the absence of a qualifier, the term bending is ambiguous because bending can
occur locally in all objects. Therefore, to make the usage of the term more precise,
engineers refer to a specific object such as; the bending of rods, the bending of
beams, the bending of plates, the bending of shells and so on.

MACHINING

Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into
a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. The
processes that have this common theme, controlled material removal, are today
collectively known as subtractive manufacturing, in distinction from processes
of controlled material addition, which are known as additive manufacturing.
Exactly what the "controlled" part of the definition implies can vary, but it almost
always implies the use of machine tools (in addition to just power tools and hand
tools).

Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also be
used on materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites.[2] A person who
specializes in machining is called a machinist. A room, building, or company
where machining is done is called a machine shop. Machining can be a business,
a hobby, or both. Much of modern-day machining is carried out by computer
numerical control (CNC), in which computers are used to control the movement
and operation of the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines.

Machining operations

There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of

generating a certain part geometry and surface texture.

In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from
a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. The primary motion is
provided by rotating the workpiece, and the feed motion is achieved by moving the
cutting tool slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.

Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that

typically has two or four helical cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel
to its axis of rotation into the workpiece to form the round hole.

In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a roughly made
hole in a spinning workpiece to slightly enlarge the hole and improve its accuracy.
It is a fine finishing operation used in the final stages of product manufacture.

Reaming is one of the sizing operations that removes a small amount of metal from
a hole already drilled.

In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative to
the material to generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed
motion is perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided
by the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are:

 Peripheral milling
 Face milling.

Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching and

sawing. Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are often included within
the category of machining.

TURNING

Turning is a machining process in which a cutting tool, typically a non-rotary tool

bit, describes a helix toolpath by moving more or less linearly while the
workpiece rotates. The tool's axes of movement may be literally a straight line, or
they may be along some set of curves or angles, but they are essentially linear (in
the non-mathematical sense). Usually the term "turning" is reserved for the
generation of external surfaces by this cutting action, whereas this same essential
cutting action when applied to internal surfaces (that is, holes, of one kind or
another) is called "boring". Thus the phrase "turning and boring" categorizes the
larger family of (essentially similar) processes. The cutting of faces on the
workpiece (that is, surfaces perpendicular to its rotating axis), whether with a
turning or boring tool, is called "facing", and may be lumped into either category
as a subset.

Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, which frequently

requires continuous supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe
which does not. Today the most common type of such automation is computer
numerical control, better known as CNC. (CNC is also commonly used with many
other types of machining besides turning.)

When turning, a piece of relatively rigid material (such as wood, metal, plastic, or
stone) is rotated and a cutting tool is traversed along 1, 2, or 3 axes of motion to
produce precise diameters and depths. Turning can be either on the outside of the
cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring) to produce tubular components to
various geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes could even be used to
produce complex geometric figures, even the platonic solids; although since the
advent of CNC it has become unusual to use non-computerized toolpath control for
this purpose.

The turning processes are typically carried out on a lathe, considered to be the
oldest machine tools, and can be of four different types such as straight
turning, taper turning, profiling or external grooving. Those types of turning
processes can produce various shapes of materials such as straight, conical, curved,
or grooved workpiece. In general, turning uses simple single-point cutting tools.
Each group of workpiece materials has an optimum set of tools angles which have
been developed through the years.

The bits of waste metal from turning operations are known as chips (North
America), or swarf (Britain). In some areas they may be known as turnings.

TYPES

Tapered turning
a) from the compound slide b) from taper turning attachment c) using a
hydraulic copy attachment d) using a C.N.C. lathe e) using a form tool f) by
the offsetting of the tailstock - this method more suited for shallow tapers.

Spherical generation
The proper expression for making or turning a shape is to generate as in to
generate a form around a fixed axis of revolution. a) using hydraulic copy
attachment b) C.N.C. (computerised numerically controlled) lathe c) using a
form tool (a rough and ready method) d) using bed jig (need drawing to
explain).

Hard turning
Hard turning is a turning done on materials with a Rockwell C hardness
greater than 45. It is typically performed after the workpiece is heat treated.
The process is intended to replace or limit traditional grinding operations.
Hard turning, when applied for purely stock removal purposes, competes
favorably with rough grinding. However, when it is applied for finishing
where form and dimension are critical, grinding is superior. Grinding
produces higher dimensional accuracy of roundness and cylindricity. In
addition, polished surface finishes of Rz=0.3-0.8z cannot be achieved with
hard turning alone. Hard turning is appropriate for parts requiring roundness
accuracy of 0.5-12 micrometres, and/or surface roughness of Rz 0.8–7.0
micrometres. It is used for gears, injection pump components, hydraulic
components, among other applications.

Parting

This process, also called parting off or cutoff, is used to create deep
grooves which will remove a completed or part-complete component from
its parent stock.

Grooving
Grooving is like parting, except that grooves are cut to a specific
depth instead of severing a completed/part-complete component from the
stock. Grooving can be performed on internal and external surfaces, as well
as on the face of the part (face grooving or trepanning).

Non-specific operations include:

Boring
Enlarging or smoothing an existing hole created by drilling, mouldingetc.i.e.
the machining of internal cylindrical forms (generating) a) by mounting
workpiece to the spindle via a chuck or faceplate b) by mounting workpiece
onto the cross slide and placing cutting tool into the chuck. This work is
suitable for castings that are too awkward to mount in the face plate. On long
bed lathes large workpiece can be bolted to a fixture on the bed and a shaft
passed between two lugs on the workpiece and these lugs can be bored out
to size. A limited application but one that is available to the skilled
turner/machinist.

Knurling
The cutting of a serrated pattern onto the surface of a part to use as a hand
grip using a special purpose knurling tool.

Reaming
The sizing operation that removes a small amount of metal from a hole
already drilled. It is done for making internal holes of very accurate
diameters. For example, a 6mm hole is made by drilling with 5.98 mm drill
bit and then reamed to accurate dimensions.
 Threading
Both standard and non-standard screw threads can be turned on a lathe using
an appropriate cutting tool. (Usually having a 60, or 55° nose angle) Either
externally, or within a bore. Generally referred to as single-point threading.
tapping of threaded nuts and holes a) using hand taps and tailstock centre
b)using a tapping device with a slipping clutch to reduce risk of breakage of
the tap.
threading operations include a)all types of external and internal thread forms
using a single point tool also taper threads, double start threads, multi start
threads, worms as used in worm wheel reduction boxes, leadscrew with
single or multistart threads. b) by the use of threading boxes fitted with 4
form tools, up to 2" diameter threads but it is possible to find larger boxes
than this.

Polygonal turning
in which non-circular forms are machined without interrupting the rotation
of the raw material.

FACING

In machining, facing is the act of cutting a face, which is a planar surface, onto the
workpiece. Within this broadest sense there are various specific types of facing,
with the two most common being facing in the course of turning and boring work
(facing planes perpendicular to the rotating axis of the workpiece) and facing in the
course of milling work (for example, face milling). Other types of machining also
cut faces (for example, planing, shaping, and grinding), although the term "facing"
may not always be employed there.

Spotfacing is the facing of spots (localized areas), such as the bearing surfaces on
which bolt heads or washers will sit.