Manual - Physics Vibration and Waves

Solutions Manual for
The Physics of Vibrations and Waves –

6th Edition
Compiled by
Dr Youfang Hu
Optoelectronics Research Centre (ORC), University of Southampton, UK
In association with the author
H. J. Pain
Formerly of Department of Physics, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, UK
© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 1
1.1
In Figure 1.1(a), the restoring force is given by:
F = −mg sinθ
By substitution of relation sinθ = x l into the above equation, we have:
F = −mg x l
so the stiffness is given by:
s = − F x = mg l
so we have the frequency given by:
ω2 = s m = g l
Since θ is a very small angle, i.e. θ = sinθ = x l , or x = lθ , we have the restoring force given
by:
F = −mgθ
Now, the equation of motion using angular displacement θ can by derived from Newton’s second
law:
F = m&x&
&&
i.e. − mgθ = mlθ
&& g
i.e. θ+ l θ=0
which shows the frequency is given by:
ω2 = g l
In Figure 1.1(b), restoring couple is given by − Cθ , which has relation to moment of inertia I
given by:
&&
− Cθ = Iθ
&& C
i.e. θ +I θ = 0
ω2= C I

In Figure 1.1(d), the restoring force is given by:
F = −2T x l
so Newton’s second law gives:
F = m&x& = − 2Tx l
i.e. &x& + 2Tx lm = 0

ω2 = 2T
lm
In Figure 1.1(e), the displacement for liquid with a height of x has a displacement of x 2 and a
mass of ρAx , so the stiffness is given by:
G 2ρAxg
s= = = 2ρAg
x2 x
Newton’s second law gives:
− G = m&x&
i.e. − 2ρAxg = ρAl&x&
i.e. &x& +
2g x = 0
l
which show the frequency is given by:
ω2 = 2g l
In Figure 1.1(f), by taking logarithms of equation pV γ = constant , we have:
ln p + γ lnV = constant
so we have: dp + γ dV = 0
p V
i.e. dp = −γp dV
V
The change of volume is given by dV = Ax , so we have:
Ax
dp = −γp
V
The gas in the flask neck has a mass of ρAl , so Newton’s second law gives:
Adp = m&x&

A2 x
i.e. − γp = ρAl&x&
V
i.e. &x& +
γpA x = 0
lρV
which show the frequency is given by:
ω 2 = γpA
lρV
In Figure 1.1 (g), the volume of liquid displaced is Ax , so the restoring force is − ρgAx . Then,
F = −ρgAx = m&x&
gρA
i.e. &x& + m x = 0
ω 2
= gρA m
1.2
Write solution x = a cos(ωt + φ) in form: x = a cosφ cosωt − a sinφ sinωt and
compare with equation (1.2) we find: A = a cosφ and B = −a sinφ . We can also
find, with the same analysis, that the values of A and B for solution
x = a sin(ωt −φ) are given by: A = −a sinφ and B = a cosφ , and for solution
x = a cos(ωt − φ) are given by: A = a cosφ and B = a sinφ .
Try solution x = a cos(ωt + φ) in expression &x& + ω2 x , we have:
&x& + ω2 x = −aω2 cos(ωt + φ) + ω2a cos(ωt + φ) = 0
Try solution x = a sin(ωt −φ) in expression &x& + ω2 x , we have:
&x& + ω2 x = −aω2 sin(ωt −φ) + ω2a sin(ωt −φ) = 0
Try solution x = a cos(ωt −φ) in expression &x& + ω2 x , we have:
&x& + ω2 x = −aω2 cos(ωt −φ) + ω2a cos(ωt −φ) = 0

1.3
(a) If the solution x = a sin(ωt + φ) satisfies x = a at t = 0 , then, x = asinφ = a
i.e. φ = π 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position x = + a 2 for the first
time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum solution of equation
a sin(ωt + π 2) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = π 4 . Similarly, we can find: for x=a2,
ωt = π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .
If the solution x = a cos(ωt + φ) satisfies x = a at t = 0 , then, x = a cosφ = a
i.e. φ = 0 . When the pendulum swings to the position x=+a 2 for the first
time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum solution of equation
a cosωt = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = π 4 . Similarly, we can find: for x = a 2 , ωt = π 3
and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .
If the solution x = a sin(ωt −φ) satisfies x=a at t=0 , then,
x = a sin(−φ) = a i.e. φ = − π 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position
x=+a 2 for the first time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum
solution of equation asin(ωt + π 2) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = π 4 . Similarly, we can
find: for x = a 2 , ωt = π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .
If the solution x = a cos(ωt −φ) satisfies x=a at t=0 , then,
x = a cos(−φ) = a i.e. φ = 0 . When the pendulum swings to the position
solution of equation a cosωt = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = π 4 . Similarly, we can find: for
x = a 2 , ωt = π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .
(b) If the solution x = a sin(ωt +φ) satisfies x = −a at t=0 , then,
x = a sinφ = −a i.e. φ = − π 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation asin(ωt − π 2) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = 3π 4 . Similarly, we can
find: for x = a 2 , ωt = 2π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .
If the solution x = a cos(ωt + φ) satisfies x = −a at t=0 , then,
x = a cosφ = −a i.e. φ = π . When the pendulum swings to the position
solution of equation a cos(ωt + π ) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = 3π 4 . Similarly, we can
If the solution x = a sin(ωt −φ) satisfies x = −a at t=0 , then,
x = a sin(−φ) = −a i.e. φ = π 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position
solution of equation asin(ωt − π 2) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = 3π 4 . Similarly, we can
If the solution x = a cos(ωt −φ) satisfies x = −a at t=0 , then,
x = a cos(−φ) = −a i.e. φ = π . When the pendulum swings to the position
solution of equation a cos(ωt − π ) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = 3π 4 . Similarly, we can
1.4
The frequency of such a simple harmonic motion is given by:
s e2 (1.6×10−19 )2 16 −1
ω0 = m = 4πε r3m = 4×π ×8.85×10−12 × (0.05×10−9 )3 ×9.1×10−31 ≈ 4.5×10 [rad ⋅ s ]

e 0 e
Its radiation generates an electromagnetic wave with a wavelength λ given by:

λ = 2πc = 2×π × 3×108 ≈ 4.2×10−8[m] = 42[nm]
ω04.5×1016
Therefore such a radiation is found in X-ray region of electromagnetic spectrum.
1.5
(a) If the mass m is displaced a distance of x from its equilibrium position, either the
upper or the lower string has an extension of x 2 . So, the restoring force of
the mass is given by: F = −sx 2 and the stiffness of the system is given by:
s′ = − F x = s 2 . Hence the frequency is given by ωa2 = s′ m = s 2m .
(b) The frequency of the system is given by: ωb2 = s m

(c) If the mass m is displaced a distance of x from its equilibrium position, the
restoring force of the mass is given by: F = −sx − sx = −2sx and the stiffness of
the system is given by: s′ = − F x = 2s . Hence the frequency is given by
ωc2 = s′ m = 2s m .
Therefore, we have the relation: ωa2 : ωb2 : ωc2 = s 2m : s m : 2s m = 1: 2 : 4
1.6
At time t = 0 , x = x0 gives:
a sinφ = x0 (1.6.1)
x& = v0 gives:
aω cosφ = v0 (1.6.2)
From (1.6.1) and (1.6.2), we have
tanφ = ωx v and a = (x 2 + v2 ω2 ) 1 2
0 0 0 0
1.7
The equation of this simple harmonic motion can be written as: x = a sin(ωt +φ) .
The time spent in moving from x to x + dx is given by: dt = dx vt , where vt is
the velocity of the particle at time t and is given by: vt = x& = aω cos(ωt + φ) .

Noting that the particle will appear twice between x and x + dx within one period
of oscillation. We have the probability η of finding it between x to x + dx given
2dt 2π
by: η = where the period is given by: T = , so we have:
T ω
η = 2dt = 2ωdx = dx = dx = dx
T 2πaω cos(ωt + φ) πa cos(ωt + φ) πa 1 − sin2 (ωt + φ) π a 2 − x2
1.8
Since the displacements of the equally spaced oscillators in y direction is a sine curve,
the phase difference δφ between two oscillators a distance x apart given is
proportional to the phase difference 2π between two oscillators a distance λ apart by:
δφ 2π = x λ , i.e. δφ = 2πx λ .
1.9
The mass loses contact with the platform when the system is moving downwards and
the acceleration of the platform equals the acceleration of gravity. The acceleration of
a simple harmonic vibration can be written as: a = Aω2 sin(ωt + φ) , where A is the
amplitude, ω is the angular frequency and φ is the initial phase. So we have:
Aω2 sin(ωt + φ) = g
g
i.e. A=
2
ω sin(ωt + φ)
Therefore, the minimum amplitude, which makes the mass lose contact with the
platform, is given by:
A =g = g = 9.8 ≈ 0.01[m]
min ω2 4π 2 f 2 4×π 2 × 52
1.10
The mass of the element dy is given by: m′ = mdy l . The velocity of an element
dy of its length is proportional to its distance y from the fixed end of the spring, and
is given by: v′ = yv l . where v is the velocity of the element at the other end of the
spring, i.e. the velocity of the suspended mass M . Hence we have the kinetic energy

of this element given by:
2
1 ′ ′2 1 m y
KEdy = mv = dy v
2 2 l l
The total kinetic energy of the spring is given by:
l l 1m y 2 mv2 l 2 1 2
KE = KE dy = dy v = y dy = mv
spring ∫ l
0 dyl ∫2
2l3 ∫0
0 6
The total kinetic energy of the system is the sum of kinetic energies of the spring and
the suspended mass, and is given by:
1 1 1
KEtot = 6 mv2 + 2 Mv2 = 2 ( M + m 3)v2
which shows the system is equivalent to a spring with zero mass with a mass of M +
m 3 suspended at the end. Therefore, the frequency of the oscillation system is
given by:
s
ω2 =
M+m3
1.11
In Figure 1.1(a), the restoring force of the simple pendulum is − mg sinθ , then, the
stiffness is given by: s = mg sinθ x = mg l . So the energy is given by:
1 1 1 1 mg
E= 2 mv2 + 2 sx2 = 2 mx&2 + 2 l x2
The equation of motion is by setting dE dt = 0 , i.e.:
d 1 mx& 2 + 1 mg x 2 = 0
dt 2 2 l
i.e. &x& +
g x=0
l
In Figure 1.1(b), the displacement is the rotation angle θ , the mass is replaced by the
moment of inertia I of the disc and the stiffness by the restoring couple C of the wire.
So the energy is given by:
1 & 1
E= 2 Iθ 2 + 2 Cθ 2
d 1 I θ &2 + 1 C θ 2 = 0
dt 2 2
&& C
i.e. θ+I θ=0
In Figure 1.1(c), the energy is directly given by:

1 1
E= 2 mv2 + 2 sx2
d 1 mx& 2 + 1 sx 2 = 0
dt 2 2
s
i.e. &x& + x=0
m
In Figure 1.1(c), the restoring force is given by: − 2Tx l , then the stiffness is given
by: s = 2T l . So the energy is given by:
1 1 1 1 2T 1 T
E= 2 mv2 + 2 sx2 = 2 mx&2 + 2 l x2 = 2 mx&2 + l x2
d 1 mx& 2 + T x 2
=0
dt 2 l
2T
i.e. &x& + x=0
lm
In Figure 1.1(e), the liquid of a volume of ρAl is displaced from equilibrium
position by a distance of l 2 , so the stiffness of the system is given by
s = 2ρgAl l = 2ρgA . So the energy is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
E= 2 mv2 + 2 sx2 = 2 ρAlx&2 + 2 2ρgAx2 = 2 ρAlx&2 + ρgAx2
d 1 ρAlx& 2 + ρgAx 2
=0
dt 2
i.e. &x& + 2g x = 0
l

In Figure 1.1(f), the gas of a mass of ρAl is displaced from equilibrium position by
a distance of x and causes a pressure change of dp = − γpAx V , then, the stiffness of
the system is given by s = − Adp x = γpA2 V . So the energy is given by:
E = 1 mv2 + 1 sx2 = 1 ρAlx&2 + 1 γpA2 x2

2 2 2 2 V
2
d 1 ρAlx&2 + 1 γpA
x 2
=0
dt 2 2 V
i.e. &x& + γpA x = 0
lρV
In Figure 1.1(g), the restoring force of the hydrometer is − ρgAx , then the stiffness
of the system is given by s = ρgAx x = ρgA . So the energy is given by:

1 1 1 1
E= mv2 + sx2 = mx&2 + ρgAx2
2 2 2 2
d 1 mx& 2 + 1 ρgAx 2 = 0
dt 2 2
i.e. &x& +
Aρg x = 0
m
1.12
The displacement of the simple harmonic oscillator is given by:
x = a sin ωt (1.12.1)
so the velocity is given by:
x& = aω cosωt (1.12.2)
From (1.12.1) and (1.12.2), we can eliminate t and get:
x2 + x&2
= sin2 ωt + cos2 ωt = 1 (1.12.3)
2 2 2
a aω
which is an ellipse equation of points (x, x&) .
The energy of the simple harmonic oscillator is given by:

1 1
E= mx&2 + sx2 (1.12.4)
2 2
Write (1.12.3) in form x&2 = ω2 (a2 − x2 ) and substitute into (1.12.4), then we have:
1 1 1 1
E= 2 mx&2 + 2 sx2 = 2 mω2 (a2 − x2 ) + 2 sx2
Noting that the frequency ω is given by: ω2 = s m , we have:
1 1 1
E= 2 s(a2 − x2 ) + 2 sx2 = 2 sa2
which is a constant value.
1.13
The equations of the two simple harmonic oscillations can be written as:
y1 = a sin(ωt + φ) and y2 = a sin(ωt + φ + δ )
The resulting superposition amplitude is given by:

R = y1 + y2 = a[sin(ωt + φ) + sin(ωt + φ + δ )] = 2a sin(ωt + φ + δ 2)
cos(δ 2) and the intensity is given by:
I = R2 = 4a2 cos2 (δ 2)sin2 (ωt + φ + δ 2)
i.e. I ∝ 4a2 cos2 (δ 2)
Noting that sin2 (ωt + φ + δ 2) varies between 0 and 1, we have:
0 ≤ I ≤ 4a2 cos2 (δ 2)
1.14
2 2
x y y x
sinφ − + cosφ − cosφ
a 2 a sinφ1 a 1 a 2
1 2 2 1
x2 2 y2 2xy y2 x2 2xy
= sin φ2 +sin2 φ1 − sinφ1 sinφ2 + cos2 φ1 + cos2 φ2 − cosφ1 cosφ2
a12a22a1a2a22a12a1a2
x2 y2 2xy
= (sin2 φ2 + cos2 φ2 ) + (sin2 φ1 + cos2 φ1 ) − (sinφ1 sinφ2 + cosφ1 cosφ2 )
a12a22a1a2
x2 y2 2xy
= + − cos(φ1 −φ2 )
2
a1 a22 a1a2
On the other hand, by substitution of :
x
= sinωt cosφ1 + cosωt sinφ1
a
1

y
= sinωt cosφ2 + cosωt sinφ2
a2
2
2
x −a
y y x
cosφ1 − a
into expression a sinφ2 sinφ1 + a cosφ2 , we have:
1 2 2 1
2 2
x y y x
sinφ − + cosφ −
a 2 a sinφ1 a 1 a cosφ2
1 2 2 1
= sin ωt(sinφ2 cosφ1 − sinφ1 cosφ2 ) + cos2 ωt(cosφ1 sinφ2 − cosφ2 sinφ1 )2
2 2
= (sin2 ωt + cos2 ωt)sin2 (φ2 −φ1 )

= sin2 (φ2 −φ1 )
From the above derivation, we have:
x2+ y22 − 2xy cos(φ −φ ) = sin 2(φ −φ )

2
a a aa 12 2 1
1 2 1 2
1.15
By elimination of t from equation x = a sin ωt and y = b cosωt , we have:
x2 + y2 =1
2 2
a b
which shows the particle follows an elliptical path. The energy at any position of x ,
y on the ellipse is given by:
1 1 1 1
E= 2 mx&2 + 2 sx2 + 2 my&2 + 2 sy2
1 1 1 1
= 2 ma2ω2 cos2 ωt + 2 ma2ω2 sin2 ωt + 2 mb2ω2 sin2 ωt + 2 mb2ω2 cos2 ωt
1 1
= 2 ma2ω2 + 2 mb2ω2
1
= 2 mω2 (a2 + b2 )
The value of the energy shows it is a constant and equal to the sum of the separate
1
energies of the simple harmonic vibrations in x direction given by mω2a2 and in
2
1
y direction given by mω2b2 .
2
At any position of x , y on the ellipse, the expression of m(xy& − yx&) can be
written as:

is the angular momentum of the particle.
m(xy& − yx&) = m(−abω sin2 ωt − abω cos2 ωt) = −abmω(sin2
ωt + cos2 ωt) = −abmω which is a constant. The quantity abmω
1.16
All possible paths described by equation 1.3 fall within a rectangle of 2a1 wide and
2a2 high, where a1 = xmax and a2 = ymax , see Figure 1.8.
When x = 0 in equation (1.3) the positive value of y = a2 sin(φ2 −φ1 ) . The value of
ymax = a2 . So yx=0 ymax = sin(φ2 −φ1 ) which defines φ2 −φ1 .
1.17
In the range 0 ≤ φ ≤ π , the values of cosφi are −1 ≤ cosφi ≤ +1 . For n random
values of φi , statistically there will be n 2 values −1 ≤ cosφi ≤ 0 and n 2 values
0 ≤ cosφi ≤ 1. The positive and negative values will tend to cancel each other and the
n n
sum of the n values: ∑cosφi → 0 , similarly ∑cosφ j → 0 . i.e.

i=1 j=1
i≠ j
n n
∑ cosφi ∑cosφ j → 0
i=1 j=1
i≠ j
1.18
The exponential form of the expression:
a sin ωt + a sin(ωt + δ ) + a sin(ωt + 2δ ) + L + a sin[ωt + (n −1)δ ]
is given by:
aeiωt + aei(ωt+δ ) + aei(ωt+2δ ) +L + aei[ωt+(n−1)δ ]

From the analysis in page 28, the above expression can be rearranged as:
n−1
i ωt+ δ sin nδ 2
ae 2 sin δ 2
with the imaginary part:

n −1 sin nδ 2
a sin ωt + δ
2 sin δ 2
which is the value of the original expression in sine term.
1.19
From the analysis in page 28, the expression of z can be rearranged as:
z = aeiωt (1+ eiδ + ei 2δ +Lei(n−1)δ ) = aeiωt sin nδ

2 sinδ 2
The conjugate of z is given by:
z* = ae−iωt sin nδ 2
sinδ 2
so we have:
sin nδ 2 sin nδ 2 sin2 nδ 2

*
zz = ae iωt ⋅ ae−iωt =a2
sinδ 2 sinδ 2 sin2 δ 2

2.1
The system is released from rest, so we know its initial velocity is zero, i.e.
dx
=0
dt t=0
(2.1.1)
Now, rearrange the expression for the displacement in the form:
x = F + G e(− p+q)t + F − G e(− p−q)t
2 2
(2.1.2)
Then, substitute (2.1.2) into (2.1.1), we have
dx F+G (− p+q)t F−G (− p−q)t

= (− p + q) e + (− p − q ) e =0
dt t=0 2 2 t=0
i.e.
qG = pF
(2.1.3)
By substitution of the expressions of q and p into equation (2.1.3), we have the ratio given by:
G r
F = (r 2 − 4ms)1 2
2.2
The first and second derivatives of x are given by:
x& = B − r ( A + Bt) e−rt 2m

2m
rB r2 −rt 2m
&x& = − + 2 ( A + Bt) e
m 4m
We can verify the solution by substitution of x , x& and &x& into equation:
m&x& + rx& + sx = 0
then we have equation:
r2
s− (A + Bt) = 0
4m
which is true for all t, provided the first bracketed term of the above equation is zero, i.e.

r2
s− =0
4m
i.e. r2 4m2 = s m
2.3
The initial displacement of the system is given by:
′ ′
x=e −rt 2m
(C1e iω t
+ C2 e −iω t
)= Acosφ at t=0
So:
C1 + C2 = Acosφ
(2.3.1)
Now let the initial velocity of the system to be:
r ( −r 2m+iω′)t r ( −r 2m−iω′)t
x& = − + iω′ C1e +− − iω′ C2e = −ω′Asinφ at t=0
2m 2m
r ′ ′
i.e. − 2m Acosφ + iω (C1 − C2 ) = −ω Asinφ
If r m is very small orφ ≈ π 2 , the first term of the above equation approximately equals zero,
so we have:
C1 − C2 = iAsinφ
(2.3.2)
From (2.3.1) and (2.3.2), C1 and C2 are given by:
C = A(cosφ + i sinφ ) = A eiφ

1 2 2
A(cosφ − i sinφ ) A e−iφ
C2 = =
2 2
2.4
Use the relation between current and charge, I = q& , and the voltage equation:
q C + IR = 0
we have the equation:
Rq& + q C = 0
solve the above equation, we get:
q = C1e−t RC

where C1 is arbitrary in value. Use initial condition, we get C1 = q0 ,
i.e. q = q0e−t RC
which shows the relaxation time of the process is RC s.
2.5
(a) ω02 - ω′2 = 10-6ω02 = r2 4m2 => ω0m r = 500
The condition also shows ω′ ≈ ω0 , so:
Q = ω′m r ≈ω0m r = 500
2 π
Use τ ′ = ω ′ , we have:
r πr π π
δ= τ′= = =
2mmω′ Q 500
(b) The stiffness of the system is given by:
s = ω02m = 1012 ×10−10 = 100[Nm−1]

and the resistive constant is given by:
ω0m 106 ×10−10
r= = = 2 ×10−7[N ⋅ sm−1]
Q500
(c) At t = 0 and maximum displacement, x& = 0 , energy is given by:
1 1 1 1
E= 2 mx&2 + 2 sx2 = 2 sxmax2 = 2 ×100 ×10−4 = 5 ×10−3[J ]
Time for energy to decay to e−1 of initial value is given by:
t=
m
=
10−10 = 0.5[ms]
r 2 ×10−7
(d) Use definition of Q factor:
E
Q = 2π
− E
where, E is energy stored in system, and − E is energy lost per cycle, so energy loss in the
first cycle, − E1 , is given by:
−3
− E = − E = 2π E = 2π × 5 ×10 = 2π ×10−5[J ]
1
Q 500
2.6

The frequency of a damped simple harmonic oscillation is given by:
′2 2 r2 ′2 2 r2 ′ r2
= ω0 − 4m2 => ω − ω0 = 4m2 => ω = ω - ω0 = 4m2 (ω′ + ω0 )
ω
′ ω0m
Use ω ≈ ω and Q = r we find fractional change in the resonant frequency is given by:
ω = ω′ − ω0 ≈
ω0 ω0
r2
8m ω0
= (8Q2 )−1
2 2
2.7
See page 71 of text. Analysis is the same as that in the text for the mechanical case except that
inductance L replaces mass m , resistance R replaces r and stiffness s is replaced by
1 C , where C is the capacitance. A large Q value requires a small R .
2.8
Electrons per unit area of the plasma slab is given by:
q = −nle
When all the electrons are displaced a distance x , giving a restoring electric field:
E = nex / ε0 ，the restoring force per unit area is given by:
= = − xn2e2l
F qE
ε0
restoring force per unit area = electrons mass per unit area × electrons acceleration
i.e.
xn2e2l
F = − ε = nlme × &x&
0
ne2
i.e. x=0 &x& + mε0
From the above equation, we can see the displacement distance of electrons, x , oscillates with
angular frequency:
ω2 = ne2 e
meε0
2.9
As the string is shortened work is done against: (a) gravity (mg cosθ ) and (b) the centrifugal
&
force (mv2 r = mlθ 2 ) along the time of shortening. Assume that during shortening there are
many swings of constant amplitude so work done is:
&2
A = −(mgcosθ + mlθ )l
where the bar denotes the average value. For small θ , cosθ = 1−θ 2 2 so:
2 &2
A = −mg l + (mgθ 2 − mlθ )
The term − mg l is the elevation of the equilibrium position and does not affect the energy of
motion so the energy change is:
&2
E = (mgθ 2 2 − mlθ )l
Now the pendulum motion has energy:
m 2 &2
E= 2 l θ + mgl(1− cosθ ) ,
that is, kinetic energy plus the potential energy related to the rest position, for small θ this
becomes:
&
E = ml2θ 2 + mglθ 2
22
which is that of a simple harmonic oscillation with linear amplitude lθ0 .
Taking the solution θ = θ0 cosωt which gives θ 2 = θ02 2 and θ&2 = ω2 θ02 2 with
ω = g l we may write:
E = ml2ω2θ02 = mglθ02
2 2
and mlω θ
0 mlω θ0 mlω θ0
2 2 2 2 2 2
E= − l=− ⋅l
4 2 4
so:
E= − 1 l
E 2 l
Now ω = 2πν = g l so the frequency ν varies with l−1 2 and

ν = −1 l = E
ν 2l E
so:
E
ν = constant

3.1
The solution of the vector form of the equation of motion for the forced oscillator:
m&x& + rx& + sx = F0eiωt
is given by:
x= iF ei(ωt−φ )
m
ωZ
0
= − iF cos(ωt −φ) + F sin(ωt −φ)
m
ωZ ωZ m
Since F eiωt represents its imaginary part: F sinωt , the value of x is given by the
0 0
imaginary part of the solution, i.e.:

F
x=−ω Zm cos(ωt −φ)
The velocity is given by:
F
v = x& = sin(ωt − φ)
Zm
3.2
The transient term of a forced oscillator decay with e−rt 2m to e-k at time t , i.e.:
− rt 2m = −k
so, we have the resistance of the system given by:
r = 2mk t (3.2.1)
For small damping, we have
ω ≈ ω0 = s m (3.2.2)
We also have steady state displacement given by:
x = x0 sin(ωt − φ)
where the maximum displacement is:

F0
x0 = (3.2.3)
ω r2 + (ωm − s m)2
By substitution of (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) into (3.2.3), we can find the average rate of
growth of the oscillations given by:

x0 = F0
t 2kmω0
3.3
Write the equation of an undamped simple harmonic oscillator driven by a force of
frequency ω in the vector form, and use F0eiωt to represent its imaginary part
F0 sinωt , we have:
m&x& + sx = F0eiωt (3.3.1)
We try the steady state solution x = Aeiωt and the velocity is given by:
x& = iωAeiωt = iωx

so that:
&x& = i2ω2x = −ω2x

and equation (3.3.1) becomes:
(−Aω2m + As)eiωt = F0eiωt
which is true for all t when
− Aω2m + As = F0
F0
i.e. A = s − ω2 m
F0 eiωt
i.e. x= s−ω m 2
The value of x is the imaginary part of vector x , given by:

x= 2
s−ω m
sin ωt
F0
i.e. x = F0 sinωt where ω2 = s

m(ω02 − ω2 ) 0 m
Hence, the amplitude of x is given by:
F0
A = m(ω0 − ω2 ) 2

and its behaviour as a function of frequency is shown in the following graph:
A
F0
mω02
ω
0 ω0
By solving the equation:

m&x& + sx = 0
we can easily find the transient term of the equation of the motion of an undamped
simple harmonic oscillator driven by a force of frequency ω is given by:
x = C cosω0t + D sin ω0t
where, ω0 = s m , C and D are constant. Finally, we have the general solution for the
displacement given by the sum of steady term and transient term:
F0 sinωt
x=
m(ω02 − ω2 ) + C cosω0t + D sinω0t (3.3.2)
3.4
In equation (3.3.2), x = 0 at t = 0 gives:
F0 sinωt
x = + Acosω0t + B sinω0t =A=0 (3.4.1)
2 2
m(ω0 − ω )
t=0 t=0
In equation (3.3.2), x& = 0 at t = 0 gives:

dx ωF0 cosωt ωF0
= 2 2 − ω0 Asinω0t + ω0 B cosω0t = 2 2 + ω0 B = 0
dt t=0 m(ω0 − ω ) t=0 m(ω0 − ω )

F0 ω
i.e. B = − mω0 (ω02 − ω2 ) (3.4.2)
By substitution of (3.4.1) and (3.4.2) into (3.3.2), we have:
F
0 1 ω
x= 2 2 sin ωt − sin ω0t (3.4.3)
m (ω0 − ω ) ω0
By substitution of ω = ω0 + ω into (3.4.3), we have:

F0 ω
x=− sin ω0t cos ωt + sin ωt cosω0t − sin ω0t (3.4.4)
m(ω0 + ω) ω ω0
Since ω ω0 << 1 and ωt << 1, we have:
ω ≈ ω0 , sin ωt ≈ ωt , and cos ωt ≈ 1

Then, equation (3.4.4) becomes:
F0 ω
x=− sin ω0t + ωt cosω0t − sin ω0t
ω0
2mω0 ω
F
i.e. 0 ω
x=− − sin ω0t + ωt cosω0t
2mω0 ω ω0
F
0
i.e. x=
sin ω0t
− t cosω0t
2mω0 ω0
i.e. x = F0 (sinω t − ω t cosωt)
2mω02 0 0 0
The behaviour of displacement x as a function of ω0t is shown in the following
7F0π
5F π 2mω2
x 0 0
3F π
0
2mω02
Fπ 2mω2
0 0
F0t
2
2mω0
2mω0
0
ω0t
F0t
Fπ
0
− 2mω 0
mω02 2F π 0
mω2 0
3F π 0
mω02
graph:
3.5
The general expression of displacement of a simple damped mechanical oscillator
driven by a force F0 cosωt is the sum of transient term and steady state term, given

by:
−
rt +iω t
i iF ei(ωt −φ )
x = Ce 2m − 0
ωZm
where, C is constant, Z = r2 + (ωm − s ω)2 , ω = s m − r2 4m2 and

m t
φ = tan −1 ωm − s ω
, so the general expression of velocity is given by:
r
rt
r − +iωit F i(ωt −φ )
v = x& = C − + iωt e + e
0
2m
2m Zm
and the general expression of acceleration is given by:
rt +iω t
r2 iωt r − i iωF0
v& = C 2 − ωt2 − e 2m + ei(ωt −φ )
Z
4m m m
r − 2ms
2
iω r − rt +iωit iωF i(ωt −φ )
i.e. v& = C 2 − t
e 2m + 0
e (3.5.1)
2m m Zm
From (3.5.1), we find the amplitude of acceleration at steady state is given by:
ωF0 ωF0
v& = =
Zm r2 + (ωm − s ω)2
d v&
At the frequency of maximum acceleration: d ω =0
i.e. d ωF =0
0
r2 + (ωm − s ω)
dω 2
2s2
i.e. r 2 − 2ms + =0
ω2
2s2
i.e. ω2 =
2sm − r 2
Hence, we find the expression of the frequency of maximum acceleration given by:
2s2
ω= 2sm − r2
The frequency of velocity resonance is given by: ω = s m , so if r = sm , the

acceleration amplitude at the frequency of velocity resonance is given by:
= ωF0 s mF0 F0
r = sm
= =
v&
r2 + (ωm − s ω)2 sm + ( sm − sm) m

The limit of the acceleration amplitude at high frequencies is given by:
lim v& = lim ωF0 = lim F0 = F0

2
ω→∞ω→∞ r2 + (ωm − s ω) ω→∞r2 s 2 m
+ m−
ω2 ω2
So we have:
v& = lim v&
r = sm ω→∞
3.6
The displacement amplitude of a driven mechanical oscillator is given by:
F0
x = ω r2 + (ωm − s ω)2
F0 (3.6.1)
2 2 2 2
i.e. x = ω r + (ω m − s)
The displacement resonance frequency is given by:
s r2
ω= − (3.6.2)
m 2m2
By substitution of (3.6.2) into (3.6.1), we have:
F
0
x=
2 s r2 r2 2
r − 2 +
m
2m 2m
F
0
i.e. x=
− r
s 2
r
m 4m2
which proves the exact amplitude at the displacement resonance of a driven
mechanical oscillator may be written as: F
x=
0
ω′r
where,
ω′2 = s − r
2
m 4m2
3.7
(a) The displacement amplitude is given by:
F0
x = ω r2 + (ωm − s ω)2

At low frequencies, we have:
lim x = lim F0 = lim F0 = F0

ω→0 ω→0 ω r2 + (ωm − s ω)2 ω→0 ω2r2 + (ω2m − s)2 s
(b) The velocity amplitude is given by:
F
0
v=
r2 + (ωm − s ω)2
At velocity resonance: ω = s m , so we have:
F0 F0 F0
vr = = =
r2 + (ωm − s ω)2 ω= s m
r2 + ( sm − sm)2 r
(c) From problem 3.5, we have the acceleration amplitude given by:
ωF0
v& =
r 2+ (ωm − s ω)2
At high frequency, we have:
lim v& = lim ωF0 = lim F0 = F0
ω→∞ω→∞ r2+ (ωm − s ω)2 ω→∞ r2 ω2 + (m − s ω2 )2 m

From (a), (b) and (c), we find lim x , vr and lim v& are all constants, i.e. they are all
ω→0 ω→∞
frequency independent.
3.8
The expression of curve (a) in Figure 3.9 is given by:
FXm F m(ω 2 − ω2 )
x =− 0
= 0 0
(3.8.1)
a ωZm2 m (ω0 − ω2 )2 + ω2r2
2 2
where ω0 = s m
x has either maximum or minimum value when dxa = 0

a
dω
d F0m(ω02 − ω2 )
i.e. 2 2 2 2 2 2= 0
dω m (ω0 − ω ) + ω r
i.e. m2 (ω02 − ω2 )2 − ω02r2 = 0
Then, we have two solutions of ω given by:
ω = ω2 − ω 0 r (3.8.2)
1 0
m

and
ω2 = ω 0 2 + ω 0 r (3.8.3)
m
Since r is very small, rearrange the expressions of ω1 and ω2 , we have:
2
ωr r r2 r
ω = ω2 − 0
= ω − − ≈ω −
1 0 m 0 2m 4m2 0 2m
2
ωr r r2 r
ω = ω2 + 0
= ω + − ≈ω +
2 0 m 0 2m 4m2 0 2m
The maximum and the minimum values of xa can found by substitution of (3.8.2)
and (3.8.3) into (3.8.1), so we have:
F0 F0
when ω = ω1 : xa = 2ω0r − ω0r m ≈ 2ω0r 2
which is the maximum value of xa , and
F0 F0
when ω = ω2 : xa = − 2ω0r + ω0r2 m ≈ − 2ω0r
which is the minimum value of xa .
3.9
The undamped oscillatory equation for a bound electron is given by:
&x& + ω02 x = (− eE0 m)cosωt (3.9.1)

Try solution x = Acosωt in equation (3.9.1), we have:
(−ω2 + ω02 )Acosωt = (− eE0 m)
cosωt which is true for all t provided:
(−ω2 + ω02 ) A = − eE0 m
eE0
i.e. A = − m(ω02 − ω2 )
So, we find a solution to equation (3.9.1) given by:
eE
x=− 0 cosωt (3.9.2)
m(ω0 − ω )
2 2
For an electron number density n , the induced polarizability per unit volume of a

medium is given by:
nex
χe = − (3.9.3)
ε0 E
By substitution of (3.9.2) and E = E0 cosωt into (3.9.3), we have
ne2
χ = − nex =
e ε0 E ε0m(ω02 − ω2 )
3.10
The forced mechanical oscillator equation is given by:
m&x& + rx& + sx = F0 cosωt
which can be written as:
m&x& + rx& + mω02 x = F0 cosωt (3.10.1)
where, ω0 = s m . Its solution can be written as:

FX
x = F0r sinωt − 0 m
cosωt (3.10.2)
ωZm2 ωZm2
2 2 −1 ωm − s ω
where, X m = ωm − s ω , Zm = r + (ωm − s ω) , φ = tan
r
By taking the displacement x as the component represented by curve (a) in Figure 3.9,
i.e. by taking the second term of equation (3.10.2) as the expression of x , we have:
FXm F m(ω2 − ω2 )
x=− 0 cosωt = 00 cosωt (3.10.3)
ωZm2 m 2
(ω02 − ω2 )2 + ω2r2
The damped oscillatory electron equation can be written as:
m&x& + rx& + mω02 x = −eE0 cosωt (3.10.4)

Comparing (3.10.1) with (3.10.4), we can immediately find the displacement x for a
damped oscillatory electron by substituting F0 = −eE0 into (3.10.3), i.e.:
x = − m2 (ω02
eE m(ω2 − ω2 ) cosωt
− ω2 )2 + ω2r2
(3.10.5)
0 0
By substitution of (3.10.5) into (3.9.3), we can find the expression of χ for a
damped oscillatory electron is given by:

nex ne2m(ω02 − ω2 )
χ = − ε0 E = ε0[m2 (ω02 − ω2 )2 + ω2r2 ]
So we have:
ne2m(ω02 − ω2 )
εr = 1+ χ = 1+ ε0[m2 (ω02 − ω2 )2 + ω2r2 ] cosωt
3.11
The instantaneous power dissipated is equal to the product of frictional force and the
instantaneous velocity, i.e.:
F
P = (rx&)x& = r 02 cos2
(ωt − φ) Zm2
The period for a given frequency ω is given by:
2π
T=
ω
Therefore, the energy dissipated per cycle is given by:
T 2π ω F2
E=
∫0 Pdt = ∫0 r
0
2 cos2 (ωt −φ)dt
Zm
2π ω rF 2
2 [1− cos 2(ωt −φ)]dt
=
∫0
0
2Zm (3.11.1)
2π rF 2 0
2
= ω 2Zm
2
= πrF m2
ωZ
The displacement is given by:

F
x= 0 sin(ωt −φ)
ωZm
so we have:
F0
xmax = ω (3.11.2)
Zm
E = πrωxmax2
3.12
The low frequency limit of the bandwidth of the resonance absorption curve ω1
satisfies the equation:

ω1m − s ω1 = −r
which defines the phase angle given by:
ωm − s ω
tanφ = 1 1 = −1
1 r
The high frequency limit of the bandwidth of the resonance absorption curve ω2
ω2 m − s ω2 = r
which defines the phase angle given by:
tanφ = ω m − s ω
2 2 = 1
2 r
3.13
For a LCR series circuit, the current through the circuit is given by
I = I0eiωt
The voltage across the inductance is given by:
L dI = L d I eiωt = iωLIeiωt = iωLI
dt dt 0 0
i.e. the amplitude of voltage across the inductance is:

VL = ωLI0 (3.13.1)
The voltage across the condenser is given by:
q 1 1 iωt 1 iωt iI
C = C ∫ Idt = C ∫e dt = iωC I0e = − ωC
i.e. the amplitude of the voltage across the condenser is:
I
V = 0 (3.13.2)
C
ωC
When an alternating voltage, amplitude V0 is applied across LCR series circuit,
current amplitude I0 is given by: I0 = V0 Ze , where the impedance Ze is given

by:
2
2 1
Zm = R + ωL −
ωC
At current resonance, I0 has the maximum value:
I V0
0 = R (3.13.3)
and the resonant frequency ω0 is given by:

1 1
ω0 L − = 0 or ω0 = (3.13.4)
ω0C LC
V = ω0 L V
L R 0
V = V0 = LC V = L V0 = L V0 = ω 0 L V
C 0 0
ω0 RC RC CR LC R R
Noting that the quality factor of an LCR series circuit is given by:
ωL
Q= 0
R
so we have:
VL = VC = QV0
3.14
In a resonant LCR series circuit, the potential across the condenser is given by:
V = I (3.14.1)
C ωC
where, I is the current through the whole LCR series circuit, and is given by:
I = I0eiωt (3.14.2)
The current amplitude I0 is given by:
V0
I0 = (3.14.3)
Ze
where, V0 is the voltage amplitude applied across the whole LCR series circuit and is
a constant. Ze is the impedance of the whole circuit, given by:
2 12
Ze = R + ωL − (3.14.4)
ωC
From (3.14.1), (3.14.2), (3.14.3), and (3.14.4) we have:
V
V = 0
eiωt = V eiωt
C 2 C0
2 1
Cω R + ωL −
ωC
dVC 0
which has the maximum value when = 0 , i.e.:
dω

V
d 0
2
dω 1 =0
+ ωL −
2
Cω R
ωC
2
2 1 2 2 1
i.e. R + ωL − +ω L − =0
ωC ω 2C2
2 2 2 L
i.e. R + 2ω L − 2 C = 0
2
i.e. ω = 1 − R = ω 1− 1 Q2
LC 2L2 0 2 0
where ω2 = 1 , Q = ω0 L
0 0
LC R
3.15
In a resonant LCR series circuit, the potential across the inductance is given by:
VL = ωLI (3.15.1)
where, I is the current through the whole LCR series circuit, and is given by:
I = I0eiωt (3.15.2)
The current amplitude I0 is given by:
V0
I0 = (3.15.3)
Ze
where, V0 is the voltage amplitude applied across the whole LCR series circuit and is
a constant. Ze is the impedance of the whole circuit, given by:
2
2 1
Ze = R + ωL − (3.15.4)
ωC
From (3.15.1), (3.15.2), (3.15.3), and (3.15.4) we have:
V = ωLV0 eiωt = V eiωt
L L0
12
R2 +ωL −
ωC
which has the maximum value when dVL0 = 0 , i.e.:
dω

d ωLV0
=0
2
dω 2 1
R + ωL −
ωC
2
2 1 2 2 1
i.e. R + ωL − −ω L + =0
ωC ω2C2
2 L
i.e. R2 + 2 2 −2 =0
ωC C
ω
1 1 1 1 0
i.e. ω = LC − R C = LC 1 − R2C = ω0 1 −
2 2
R2 = 1− 1 Q2
2 2L 2L2ω02 2 0
where ω2 = 1 , Q =ω0 L
0 0
LC R
3.16
Considering an electron in an atom as a lightly damped simple harmonic oscillator,
we know its resonance absorption bandwidth is given by:
r
δω = (3.16.1)
m
On the other hand, the relation between frequency and wavelength of light is given
by:
c
f= (3.16.2)
λ
where, c is speed of light in vacuum. From (3.16.2) we find at frequency resonance:
c
δf = − δλ
λ20
where λ0 is the wavelength at frequency resonance. Then, the relation between
angular frequency bandwidth δω and the width of spectral line δλ is given by:
δω = 2π δf = 2πc δλ 2
(3.16.3)
λ
0
From (3.16.1) and (3.16.3) we have:

λ2r λr λ
δλ = 0 = 0 = 0
So the width of the spectral line from such an atom is given by:
λ0 0.6×10−6
δλ = = = 1.2×10−14[m]
Q 5×107

3.17
According to problem 3.6, the displacement resonance frequency ωr and the
x
corresponding displacement amplitude max are given by:
r2
ω = ω2−
r 0 2m2
x = F0 F
0
max = ′
ωZm ω=ωr ωr
2 2 2 r2 s
′
ω− ,ω =
where, Zm = r + (ωm − s ω) , ω = 0 4m2 0 m
Now, at half maximum displacement:
F x F
0 = max = 0
ωZm 2 2ω′r
2 2 ′
i.e. ω r + (ωm − s ω) = 2ω r
2 2
2 2 s s r 2
ω ωm − −
ω
i.e. r + r
2
=4
m 4m
(r2 − 2sm) 2 s 2 4sr 2 r4

i.e. ω4 + ω + − + =0
m2 m 2 m3 m4
2
4 s r2 2 r2 3r 2 s r2 2
ω − − − −
s
i.e. −2 2
ω +
2 2 2 =0
m m m
2m 2m m 4m
2 2 2 3r 2 2
i.e. (ω −ω ) − ω′ =0
r
3r
i.e. ω2 − ωr2 = ± ω′2 (3.17.1)
m
If ω1 and ω2 are the two solutions of equation (3.17.1), and ω2 > ω1 , then:
3r
ω22 − ωr2 = ω′2 (3.17.2)
m
ω12 − ωr2 = − 3r ω′2 (3.17.3)

m

Since the Q-value is high, we have:
ωm
Q= 0 >> 1
r
i.e. ω 2 >>
r2
i.e.
0 m2
ω r ≈ ω′ ≈ ω0
Then, from (3.17.2) and (3.17.3) we have:
(ω − ω )(ω + ω ) ≈ 2 3r ω 2
2 1 2 1 0
m
and ω1 + ω2 ≈ 2ω0
Therefore, the width of displacement resonance curve is given by:
ω − ω ≈ 3r
2 1
m
3.18
In Figure 3.9, curve (b) corresponds to absorption, and is given by:
F0 r F0ωr
x= sin ωt = sinωt
ωZm2 m (ω0 − ω2 )2 + ω2r2
2 2
and the velocity component corresponding to absorption is given by:

F ω2r
v = x& = 0 cosωt
m (ω0 − ω ) + ω r
2 2 2 2 2 2
For Problem 3.10, the velocity component corresponding to absorption can be given
by substituting F0 = −eE0 into the above equation, i.e.:
eE ω2r + ω2r2 cosωt

v = x& = − m2 (ω02 − ω2 ) 2
(3.18.1)
0
For an electron density of n , the instantaneous power supplied equal to the product
of the instantaneous driving force − neE0 cosωt and the instantaneous velocity, i.e.:
2
eE0ω r
P = (−neE0 cosωt) × − 2 2 2 2 2 2 cosωt
m (ω0 − ω ) + ω r
ne2 E02ω2r
= cos2 ωt
m (ω0 − ω ) + ω r
2 2 2 2 2 2

The average power supplied per unit volume is then given by:
ω 2π ω
P = Pdt
av
2π ∫ 0
ω 2π ω ne2 E2ω2r
0 2
= 2π ∫0 m 2
(ω02 − ω2 )2 + ω2r2
cosωt
= ne2 2
E ω r 2
0
2 m2 (ω02 − ω2 )2 + ω2r2
which is also the mean rate of energy absorption per unit volume.

4.1
The kinetic energy of the system is the sum of the separate kinetic energy of the two
masses, i.e.:
= 1 mx& 2 + 1 my& 2 = 1 m 1 (x& + y&) 2 + 1 (x& − y&) 2 = 1 & 2 + 1 & 2

E
k mX mY
2 2 2 2 2 4 4
The potential energy of the system is the sum of the separate potential energy of the
two masses, i.e.:
1 mg 2 1 1 mg 1
Ep = 2 l x + 2 s( y − x)2 + 2 l y 2 + 2 s( x − y)2
1 mg
= ( x 2 + y 2 ) + s( x − y)2
2 l
= 1 mg 1 ( x + y) 2 + 1 ( x − y) 2 + s( x − y) 2
2 l 2 2
1 mg 2 1 mg
= X + +s Y2
4 l 2 l
Comparing the expression of Ek and Ep with the definition of EX and EY given
by (4.3a) and (4.3b), we have:
a = 1 m , b = mg , c = 1 m , and d = mg + s
2 4l 4 2l
Noting that:
m 12 m12
Xq= (x + y) = X
2 2
m12 m12
and Yq = (x − y) = Y
2 c
m −1 2 Y= m −1 2 Y
i.e. X= Xq
2
and
we have the kinetic energy of the system given by:
2 2
2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
& & & &
Ek = aX + cY = m X q + m Y q = X& q + Y&q
4 m 4 m 2 2
and
2 2 mg 2 2 mg 2 2 1g 2 g 2s 2
Ep = bX + dY = Xq + +s Y
q = X
q + + Yq
4l m 2l m 2l l m
which are the expressions given by (4.4a) and (4.4b)
4.2
The total energy of Problem 4.1 can be written as:
1 1 1 mg
E = Ek + Ep = 2 mx&2 + 2 my&2 + 2 l (x2 + y2
) + s(x − y)2 The above equation can be rearranged as the format:
E = (E + E ) + (E + E ) + (E )
kin pot x kin pot y pot xy
1 2 mg 2 1 2 mg 2
where, (E
kin
+E ) =
pot x mx& + + sx , (E
kin
+E ) =
pot y my& + +sy ,
2 2l 2 2l
and Epot = −2sxy
4.3
x = −2a , y = 0 :
-X + Y
≡ +
-2a y=0 -a -a -a a
x = 0 , y = −2a :
-X - Y
≡ +
x=0 -2a -a -a -a a
4.4
For mass m1 , Newton’s second law gives:
m1&x&1 = sx
For mass m2 , Newton’s second law gives:
m2 &x&2 = −sx

Provided x is the extension of the spring and l is the natural length of the spring, we
have:
x2 − x1 = l + x
By elimination of x1 and x2 , we have:
s s
− x− x=
&x& m2 m1
i.e. &x& +
m1 + m2 sx = 0
mm
1 2
which shows the system oscillate at a frequency:

s
ω2 = μ
where,
mm
μ= 1 2
m1 + m2
For a sodium chloride molecule the interatomic force constant s is given by:
s = ω2 μ = (2πν )2 mNa mCl = 4π 2 × (1.14×1013 )2 × (23× 35) ×−(1.67 ×10−27 )2 ≈ 120[Nm−1 ]

mNa + mCl(23 + 35) ×1.67 ×10 27
4.5
If the upper mass oscillate with a displacement of x and the lower mass oscillate with
a displacement of y , the equations of motion of the two masses are given by
Newton’s second law as:
m&x& = s( y − x) − sx
m&y& = s(x − y)
i.e.
m&x& + s(x − y) − sx = 0
m&y& − s(x − y) = 0
Suppose the system starts from rest and oscillates in only one of its normal modes of
frequency ω , we may assume the solutions:
x = Aeiωt
y = Beiωt
where A and B are the displacement amplitude of x and y at frequency ω .

Using these solutions, the equations of motion become:
[−mω2 A + s( A − B) + sA]eiωt = 0
[−mω2 B − s( A − B)]eiωt = 0
We may, by dividing through by meiωt , rewrite the above equations in matrix form
as:
2s m −ω2 −smA
2 =0 (4.5.1)
B
−sm sm−ω
which has a non-zero solution if and only if the determinant of the matrix vanishes;
that is, if
(2s m − ω2 )(s m − ω2 ) − s2 m2 = 0
i.e. ω4 − (3s m)ω2 + s2 m2 = 0

s
i.e. ω 2 = (3 ± 5)
2m
In the slower mode, ω 2 = (3 − 5) s 2m . By substitution of the value of frequency
into equation (4.5.1), we have:
s − mω 2
= 5 −1
A = s =
B 2s − mω2 s 2
which is the ratio of the amplitude of the upper mass to that of the lower mass.
Similarly, in the slower mode, ω 2 = (3 + 5) s 2m . By substitution of the value of
frequency into equation (4.5.1), we have:
s − mω 2
= − 5 +1
A s
= =
B 2s − mω 2
s 2
4.6
The motions of the two pendulums in Figure 4.3 are given by:
(ω2 − ω1 )t (ω1 + ω2 )t
x = 2a cos cos = 2a cosωmt cosωat
2 2
(ω − ω )t (ω + ω )t
y = 2a sin 2 1 sin 1 2 = 2a sinωmt sinωat
22
where, the amplitude of the two masses, 2a cosωmt and 2a sinωmt , are constants
over one cycle at the frequency ωa .
Supposing the spring is very weak, the stiffness of the spring is ignorable, i.e. s ≈ 0 .

Noting that ω2 = g l and ω2 = (g l + 2s m) , we have:
1 2
g ω +ω 2 2
= ω1 ≈ ω2 ≈
2 2 1
= ωa2
l 2
Hence, the energies of the masses are given by:
1 2 1 mg 2 2 2 2
Ex = 2 sxax = 2 l (2 a cosωmt) = 2ma ωa cos ωmt

1 2 1 mg 2 2 2 2
Ey = 2 sy ay = 2 l (2 a sin ωmt) = 2ma ωa sin ωmt

The total energy is given by:
E = Ex + Ey = 2ma2ωa2 (cos2 ωmt + sin2 ωmt) = 2ma2ωa2
Noting that ωm = (ω2 −ω1 ) 2 , we have:
E
Ex = 2ma2ωa2 cos2 (ω2 − ω1 )t = 2 [1+ cos(ω2 − ω1 )t]
E
Ey = 2ma2ωa2 sin2 (ω2 − ω1 )t = 2 [1− cos(ω2 −ω1 )t]
which show that the constant energy E is completed exchanged between the two
pendulums at the beat frequency (ω2 −ω1) .
4.7
By adding up the two equations of motion, we have:
m1&x& + m2 &y& = −(m1x + m2 y)(g l)
By multiplying the equation by 1 (m1 + m2 ) on both sides, we have:
m1 & x & + m 2 & y & = − g m1x + m2 y

m +m l m+m
1 2 1 2
i.e. m1 & x & + m 2 & y & + g m1x + m2 y = 0

m +m l m +m
1 2 1 2

&&
X + ω2 X = 0 (4.7.1)
1
where,
X = m1x + m2 y and ω2 = g l
1
m1 + m2

On the other hand, the equations of motion can be written as:
g s
&x& = − l x − m (x − y)
1
g s
&y& = − l y + m (x − y)
2
By subtracting the above equations, we have:
&x& − &y& = −
g (x − y) − s + s (x − y)
l m m
1 2
i.e. &x& − &y& + g +s

1 +
1 (x − y) = 0
l m m
1 2

&&
Y + ω2 2 Y = 0 (4.7.2)
where,
2 g 1 1
+
Y = x − y and ω2 = l +s
m m
1 2
Equations (4.7.1) and (4.7.2) take the form of linear differential equations with and
constant coefficients each equation contains only one dependant variable, are
therefore X and Y normal coordinates and their normal frequencies are given
by ω1 and ω2 respectively.
4.8
Since the initial condition gives x& = y& = 0 , we may write, in normal coordinate, the
solutions to the equations of motion of Problem 4.7 as:
X = X 0 cosω1t
Y = Y0 cosω2t
i.e.
m x+m y
1 = X cosω t2
m1 + m2 0 1
x − y = Y0 cosω2t
By substitution of initial conditions: t = 0 , x = A and y = 0 into the above equations,

we have:
X 0 = (m1 M )A
Y0 = A

where, M = m1 + m2
so the equations of motion in original coordinates x , y are given by:

m
m1x + m2 y = 1
Acosω t
1
m1 + m2M
x − y = Acosω2t
The solutions to the above equations are given by:
A
x=M (m1 cosω1t + m2 cosω2t)
m 1
y=A M (cosω1t − cosω2t)
Noting that ω1 = ωa −ωm and ω2 = ωa + ωm , where ωm = (ω2 −ω1 ) 2 and ωa =
(ω1 + ω2 ) 2 , the above equations can be rearranged as:
A
x=M [m1 cos(ωa − ωm )t + m2 cos(ωa + ωm )t]
A
= M [m1 (cosωmt cosωat + sinωmt sinωat) + m2 (cosωmt cosωat − sinωmt sinωat)]
A
= M [(m1 + m2 ) cosωmt cosωat + (m1 − m2 )sinωmt sinωat]
A
= Acosωmt cosωat + M (m1 − m2 )sinωmt sinωat
and
m 1
y=A M [cos(ωa − ωm )t − cos(ωa + ωm )t]
m
= 2A M1 sinωmt sinωat
4.9
From the analysis in Problem 4.6, we know, at weak coupling conditions, cosωmt
and sinωmt are constants over one cycle, and the relation: ωa ≈ g l , so the energy
of the mass m1 , Ex , and the energy of the mass m2 , Ey , are the sums of their
separate kinetic and potential energies, i.e.:
Ex = 1 m1x&2 + 1 sx x2 = 1 m1x&2 + 1 mg x2 = 1 m1x&2 + 1 m1ωa2 x2

2 2 2 2 l 2 2
1 1 1 1 mg 2 1 1
Ey = m21 y& 2 + sy y2 = m2 y&2 + y = m1 y&2 + m1ωa2 y2
2 2 2 2 l 2 2
By substitution of the expressions of x and y in terms of cosωat and sinωat
given by Problem 4.8 into the above equations, we have:
E x = 1 m − Aω a cosω m t sin ω t + A ω (m − m )sin ω m t cosω t 2

1 a a 1 2 a
+
2 M
2
1 m ω2 Acosω t cosω t + A (m − m )sin ω m t sin ω t
1 a m a 1 2 a
2 M
1 A
= 2 m1ωa2 M 22 [( m1 + m2 )2 cos2 ωmt + (m1 − m2 )2 sin2 ωmt]
1 A
= 2 m1ωa2 M 22 [m12 + m22 + 2m1m2 (cos2 ωmt − sin2 ωmt)]
1 A
= 2 m1ωa2 M 22 [m12 + m22 + 2m1m2 cos 2ωmt]
E
= M 2 [m12 + m22 + 2m1m2 cos(ω2 − ω1 )t]
and
2 2
1 m 1 m
Ey = m 2A 2
1 ω a sinω t cosω t m a
+ m ω2 2A sinω t sinω t
1 a
1
m a
2 M 2 M
A2
= 2m12m2ωa2 M 2 [sin2 ωmt(cos2 ωat + sin2 ωat)]
2 2 A2 2
= 2m mω sin ω t
2
1 2 a M m
1 2m m
= m ω2 A2 1 2
[1 − cos 2ω t]
2 1a M2 m
2m m
=E 1 2
[1 − cos(ω − ω )t]
2
M 2 1
where,
E = 1 m ω2 A2
1
2 a
4.10
Add up the two equations and we have:
mg (x + y) + r(x& + y&) = F cosωt
m(&x& + &y&) + 0
l
mX + rX + mg X = F cosωt
&& &
i.e. (4.10.1)
l 0
Subtract the two equations and we have:

mg (x − y) + r(x& − y&) + 2s(x − y) = F cosωt
m(&x& − &y&) + 0
l

mg
i.e. mY&& + rY& + + 2s Y = F0 cosωt (4.10.2)
l
Equations (4.10.1) and (4.10.2) shows that the normal coordinates X and Y are those
for damped oscillators driven by a force F0 cosωt .
By neglecting the effect of r , equation of (4.10.1) and (4.10.2) become:
&& mg
mX + X ≈ F cosωt
l 0
&& mg
mY + + 2s Y ≈ F0 cosωt
l
Suppose the above equations have solutions: X = X 0 cosωt and Y = Y0 cosωt , by
substitution of the solutions to the above equations, we have:
2 mg
− mω + X cosωt ≈ F cosωt
l 0 0
2 mg
− mω + + 2s Y cosωt ≈ F cosωt
l 0 0
These equations satisfy any t if

2 mg
− mω + X ≈F
l 0 0
2 mg
− mω + + 2s Y ≈F
0
l 0
F0
X 0 ≈ m(g l − ω2 )
i.e. F
0
Y0 ≈ m(g l + 2s m − ω2 )
so the expressions of X and Y are given by:
= + ≈ F0
X x y cosωt
m(g l − ω2 )
= − ≈ F0
Y x y cosωt
m(g l + 2s m − ω2 )
By solving the above equations, the expressions of x and y are given by:

F
0 1 1
x≈ cos ω t 2 2 + 2 2
2m ω1 − ω ω2 −ω
F
0 1 1
y≈ cos ω t 2 2 − 2 2
ω ω
2m 1 −ω 2 −ω
where,
ω2 = g and ω2 = g + 2s
1 2
l l m
The ratio of y x is given by:
F0 1 1 1 1
cosωt + +
y 2m ω − ω2
2
1
ω 2− ω 2
2
ω2 − ω 2
1
ω2 − ω2
2 2
ω2 − ω 2 1
≈ F = =
x 0 1 1 1 1 ω2 + ω1 − 2ω2
2 2
2 2 −
2m cosωtω 2 − ω2 −ω 2 − ω2 ω1 − ω ω22 − ω2
1 2
y
x
1
2
ω2 − ω1 2 ω2 2 + ω1 2
2 2 2
ω
2 + ω1
0 ω1 ω2 ω
-
1
The behaviour of y x as a function of frequency ω is shown as the figure below:
The figure shows y x is less than 1 if ω < ω1 or ω > ω2 , i.e. outside frequency
range ω2 − ω1 the motion of y is attenuated.

4.11
Suppose the displacement of mass M is x , the displacement of mass m is y , and the
tension of the spring is T . Equations of motion give:
M&x& + kx = F0 cosωt + T (4.11.1)
m&y& = −T (4.11.2)
s( y − x) = T (4.11.3)

Eliminating T , we have:
M&x& + kx = F0 cosωt + s( y − x)
so for x = 0 at all times, we have
F0 cosωt + sy = 0
that is
F
y=− s0 cosωt
Equation (4.11.2) and (4.11.3) now give:
m&y& + sy = 0
with ω2 = s m , so M is stationary at ω2 = s m .
This value of ω satisfies all equations of motion for x = 0 including
T = −F0 cosωt
4.12
Noting the relation: V = q C , the voltage equations can be written as:
q q dI
1 − 2 =L a
C C dt
q q dI
2 − 3 =L b
C C dt
so we have:
&&
q&1 − q&2 = LCI a
&&
q&2 − q&3 = LCI b
i.e.
&&
q&1 − q&2 = LCI a
&&
q&2 − q&3 = LCI b
By substitution of q&1 = −Ia , q&2 = Ia − Ib and q&3 = Ib into the above equations, we
have:
&&
− Ia − Ia + Ib = LCI a
&&
Ia − Ib − Ib = LCI b
i.e.
&&
LCI a + 2Ia − Ib = 0
&&
LCI b − Ia + 2Ib = 0

By adding up and subtracting the above equations, we have:
&& &&
LC(I a +I b ) + Ia + Ib = 0
&& &&
LC(I a−I b ) + 3(Ia − Ib ) = 0
Supposing the solutions to the above normal modes equations are given by:
Ia + Ib = Acosωt
Ia − Ib = B cosωt
so we have:
(− Aω2 LC + A) cosωt = 0
(−Bω2 LC + 3B) cosωt = 0
which are true for all t when
1
ω2 = LC and B=0
or
3
ω2 =
and A=0
LC
which show that the normal modes of oscillation are given by:
1
Ia = Ib at ω12 = LC
and
3
Ia = −Ib at ω22 = LC
4.13
From the given equations, we have the relation between I1 and I2 given by:
iωM
I2 = Z + iωL I1
2 s
so:
ω2 M
E = iωLp I1 − iωMI2 = iωLp + Z + iωL
I1
2 s
i.e.
E ω2 M 2
= iωLp +
I1 Z2 + iωLs
which shows that E I1 , the impedance of the whole system seen by the generator, is
the sum of the primary impedance, iωLp , and a ‘reflected impedance’ from the

secondary circuit of ω2M 2 Z , where Z = Z + iωL .
s s 2 s
4.14
Problem 4.13 shows the impedance seen by the generator Z is given by:
ω2 M 2
Z = iωLp +
Z2 + iωLs
Noting that M = L L and L L = n2 n2 , the impedance can be written as:
p s p s p s
2 2 2 2 2
Z = iωLp Z2 − ω L L + ω M = iωLp Z2 − ω M + ω 2M 2 = iωL Z
Z + iωL Z + iωL Z + iωL
p s p 2
2 s 2 s 2 s
so we have:
1 = Z2 + iωLs == 1 + 1 = 1 + 1
L 2
Z iωL
iωL Z
p
p
Z iωL n2
2 p p p
Ls 2 n Z2
s
which shows the impedance Z is equivalent to the primary impedance iωLp
connected in parallel with an impedance (np ns ) 2 Z 2 .
4.15
Suppose a generator with the internal impedance of Z1 is connected with a load with
an impedance of Z2 via an ideal transformer with a primary inductance of Lp and the
ratio of the number of primary and secondary transformer coil turns given by np ns ,
and the whole circuit oscillate at a frequency of ω . From the analysis in Problem
4.13, the impedance of the load is given by:
1 = 1 + 1
Z iωL n2 Z
L p p
2
ns 2
At the maximum output power: ZL = Z1 , i.e.:
1 = 1 + 1 = 1
Z iωL n2 Z Z
L p p 1
n2 2
s
which is the relation used for matching a load to a generator.

4.16
From the second equation, we have:
Z2
I1 = − I2
ZM
By substitution into the first equation, we have:
Z1 Z2
− I2 + ZM I2 =
E ZM
E
i.e. I2 = I1
Z1Z2
Z
M −
ZM
Noting that ZM = iωM and I2 has the maximum value when X1 = X 2 = 0 , i.e.
Z1 = R1 and Z2 = R2 , we have:
E I E I E I E I
I2 = RR 1 = RR 1 ≤ 1 = 1
1 2
iωM − iωM
ωM + 1 2 ωM 2
RR
1
ωM ωM
2
2 RR1 2
RR
E 1 2
which shows I2 has the maximum value of I1 , when ωM = , i.e.
2 R1 R2 ωM
ωM = R1R2
4.17
By substitution of j = 1 and n = 3 into equation (4.15), we have:
2 2 π 2 2 2
ω1 = 2ω0 1 − cos = 2ω01− = (2 − 2)ω0
4 2
2 2 2π 2
ω1 = 2ω0 1
− cos = 2ω0
4
2 2 3π 2 2 2
ω1 = 2ω0 1 − cos = 2ω
0 1+ = (2 + 2)ω0
4 2

2
In equation (4.14), we have A0 = A4 = 0 when n = 3 , and noting that ω0 = T ma ,
equation (4.14) gives:
ω2
when r = 1 : − A0 + 2 − 2 A
1 − A2 = 0
ω0
2
ω
i.e. 2
− 2 A
1 − A2 =0
(4.17.1)
ω0
ω2
when r = 2 : − A1 + 2 − 2 A
2 − A3 = 0
(4.17.2)
ω0
ω2
when r = 3 : − A2 + 2 − 2 A
3 − A4 = 0
ω0
ω2
i.e. − A2 + 2 − A
3=0
(4.17.3)
ω
2
Write the above equations in matrix format, we have:

2 − ω ω0 −1 0 A
2 2 1
−1 2 − ω2 ω 02 −1 A2 = 0
0 −1 2 − ω2 ω 2 0
A 3
which has non zero solutions provided the determinant of the matrix is zero, i.e.:
(2 − ω2 ω2 )3 − 2(2 − ω2 ω2 ) = 0
0 0
The solutions to the above equations are given by:

ω2 = (2 − 2)ω2 ,` ω2 = 2ω2 , and ω2 = (2 + 2)ω2
1 0 2 0 1 0
4.18
By substitution of ω2 = (2 − 2)ω2 into equation (4.17.1), we have:
1 0
2A1 − A2 = 0 i.e. A1 : A2 = 1: 2
By substitution of ω2 = (2 − 2)ω2 into equation (4.17.3), we have:

1 0
− A2 + 2A3 = 0 i.e. A2 : A3 = 2 :1
Hence, when ω2 = (2 − 2)ω2 , the relative displacements are given by:

1 0
A1 : A2 : A3 = 1: 2 :1
By substitution of ω22 = 2ω02 into equation (4.17.1), we have:

A2 = 0
By substitution of ω22 = 2ω02 into equation (4.17.2), we have:
− A1 + A3 = 0 i.e. A1 : A3 = 1: −1
Hence, when ω22 = 2ω02 , the relative displacements are given by:
A1 : A2 : A3 = 1: 0 : −1
By substitution of ω22 = (2 + 2)ω02 into equation (4.17.1), we have:
− 2A1 − A2 = 0 i.e. A1 : A2 = 1: − 2
By substitution of ω2 = (2 + 2)ω 2 into equation (4.17.3), we have:

1 0
− A2 − 2A3 = 0 i.e. A2 : A3 = − 2 :1
Hence, when ω12 = (2 + 2)ω02 , the relative displacements are given by:
A1 : A2 : A3 = 1: − 2 :1
The relative displacements of the three masses at different normal frequencies are
shown below:
ω2= − ω2 ω2 = 2ω2 ω2= + ω2

(2 2) 0 0 (2 2) 0
As we can see from the above figures that tighter coupling corresponds to higher
frequency.
4.19
Suppose the displacement of the left mass m is x , and that of the central mass M is y ,
and that of the right mass m is z . The equations of motion are given by:

m&x& = s( y − x)
M&y& = −s( y − x) + s(z − y)
m&z& = −s(z − y)
If the system has a normal frequency of ω , and the displacements of the three masses
can by written as:
x = η1eiωt
y = η2eiωt
z = η3eiωt
By substitution of the expressions of displacements into the above equations of
motion, we have:
− mω2η1eiωt = s(η2 −η1 )eiωt
− Mω2η2eiωt = −s(η2 −η1 )eiωt + s(η3 −η2 )eiωt
− mω2η3eiωt = −s(η3 −η2 )eiωt
i.e.
[(s − mω2 )η1 − sη2 ]eiωt = 0
[−sη1 + (2s − Mω2 )η2 − sη3 ]eiωt = 0
[−sη2 + (s − mω2 )η3 ]eiωt = 0
which is true for all t if
(s − mω2 )η1 − sη2 = 0
− sη1 + (2s − Mω2 )η2 − sη3 = 0
− sη2 + (s − mω2 )η3 = 0
The matrix format of these equations is given by:
s − mω2 −s 0 η
1
−s 2s − Mω2 −s η 2 =0
0 −s s − mω2 η 3
which has non zero solutions if and only if the determinant of the matrix is zero, i.e.:
(s − mω2 )2 (2s − Mω2 ) − 2s2 (s − mω2 ) = 0
i.e. (s − mω2 )[(s − mω2 )(2s − Mω2 ) − 2s2 ] = 0
i.e. (s − mω2 )[mMω4 − s(M + 2m)ω2 ] = 0
i.e. ω2 (s − mω2 )[mMω2 − s(M + 2m)] = 0

The solutions to the above equation, i.e. the frequencies of the normal modes, are
given by:
ω2 = 0 , ω2 = s and ω2 = s(M + 2m)
1 2 3
m mM

At the normal mode of ω2 = 0 , all the atoms are stationary, η = η = η , i.e. all the
1 2 3
masses has the same displacement;

At the normal mode of ω2 = s , η = 0 and η = −η , i.e. the mass M is
m 2 1 3
stationary, and the two masses m have the same amplitude but are “anti-phase” with
respect to each other;
s(M + 2m)
At the normal mode of ω2 = , η1 :η2 :η3 = M : −2m : M , i.e. the two mM
mass m have the same amplitude and are “in-phase” with respect to each other. They
are both “anti-phase” with respect to the mass M . The ratio of amplitude
between the mass m and M is M 2m .
4.20
In understanding the motion of the masses it is more instructive to consider the range
n 2 ≤ j ≤ n . For each value of the frequency ω j the amplitude of the rth mass is
A = C sin rjπ
r where C is a constant. For j = n 2 adjacent masses have a π 2
n +1
phase difference, so the ratios: A : A : A = −1: 0 :1 , with the rth masses
r−1 rr+ 1
stationary and the amplitude Ar−1 anti-phase with respect to Ar+1 , so that:
A
r+1 Ar → 0
Ar
A j→n
r−1
j=n2
As n 2 → n , Ar begins to move, the coupling between masses tightens and when
j is close to n each mass is anti-phase with respect to its neighbour, the amplitude
of each mass decreases until in the limit j = n no motion is transmitted as the cut off
frequency ω2j = 4T ma is reached. The end points are fixed and this restricts the
motion of the masses near the end points at all frequencies except the lowest.
4.21
By expansion of the expression of ω2j , we have:

2 2T jπ 2T ( jπ n +1)2 ( jπ n +1)4 ( jπ n +1)6
ωj = 1− cos = − + −L
ma n +1 ma 2! 4! 6!
If n >> 1 and j << n , jπ n +1 has a very small value, so the high order terms of
the above equation can be neglected, so the above equation become:
T jπ 2
2
ω j= 2T ( jπ n +1) 2
ma n +1 =
ma 2!
jπ T
i.e. ωj =
n +1 ma
ω j = jπ T
l ρ
where, ρ = m a and l = (n +1)a
4.22
From the first equation, we have:
q& − q&
LI&&r−1 = r−1 r
C
By substitution of q&r = Ir−1 − Ir and q&r−1 = Ir−2 − Ir−1 into the above equation, we
have:
I − 2I + I
LI&&r−1 = r−2 r−1 r
(4.22.1)
C
If, in the normal mode, the currents oscillate at a frequency ω , we may write the
displacements as:
I =A eiωt , I = A eiωt and I = A eiωt
r−2 r−2 r− 1 r− 1 r r
Using these values of I in equation (4.22.1) gives:

A − 2A + A
− ω2 LA eiωt = r−2 r−1 r
eiωt
r−1
C
or
− A + (2 − LCω2 )A − A =0 (4.22.2)
r−2 r− 1 r
By comparison of equation (4.22.2) with equation (4.14) in text book, we may find
the expression of Ir is the same as that of yr in the case of mass-loaded string, i.e.
I = A eiωt = D sin rjπ eiωt

r r n +1
Where D is constant, and the frequency ω is given by:

2 1 jπ
ωj = 1− cos
LC n +1
where, j = 1,2,3...n
4.23
∂2 y
By substitution of y into , we have:
∂t2
∂2 y = ∂2 (e iωt e ikx ) = −ω 2 e i(ωt+kx)

∂t2 ∂t2
∂2 y
By substitution of y into , we have:
∂x2
∂2 y = ∂2 (eiωt eikx ) = −k 2ei(ωt+kx)

2
∂x ∂x 2
If ω = ck , we have:
∂2 y 2 ∂2 y 2 2 2 i(ωt+kx)
∂t − c ∂x2 = (−ω
2 + ck )e =0
i.e.
∂2 y ∂2 y
= c2
∂t2 ∂x2

5.1
∂2 y
Write u = ct + x , and try with y = f (ct + x) , we have:
∂x2 2
∂y ∂f2 (u) ∂2 y = ∂2 f2 (u)

∂x = ∂u , and ∂x2 ∂u2
1 ∂2 y
Try with y = f (ct + x) , we have:
c2 ∂t2 2
2 2
∂y = c ∂f2 (u) , and ∂ y = c2 ∂ f2 (u)
∂t ∂u ∂t2 ∂u2
so:
1 ∂2 y
=
1
c 2 ∂2 f 2 (u)
=
∂2 f 2 (u)
c2 ∂t2 c2 ∂u2 ∂u2
Therefore:
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
=
∂x2 c2 ∂t2
5.2
If y = f1(ct − x) , the expression for y at a time t + t and a position x + x , where
t = x c , is given by:
yt+ t ,x+ x = f1[c(t + t) − (x + x)]

= f1[c(t + x c) − (x + x)]
= f1[ct + x − x − x]
= f1[ct − x] = yt ,x
i.e. the wave profile remains unchanged.
If y = f2 (ct + x) , the expression for y at a time t + t and a position x + x , where
t = − x c , is given by:

yt + t , x+ x = f1[c(t + t ) + (x + x)]
= f1[c(t − x c) + (x + x)]
= f1[ct − x + x + x]
= f1[ct + x] = yt , x
i.e. the wave profile also remains unchanged.
5.3
∂ y ∂ y
∂ t=c ∂ x
x
5.4
The pulse shape before reflection is given by the graph below:
The pulse shapes after of a length of l of the pulse being reflected are shown below:
(a) l=l 4
1
2l
3
l
© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 4
Z1 Z2 = ∞
(b) l=l 2
Z1 Z2 = ∞
(c) l = 3l 4
Z1 Z2 = ∞
3
4l
1
2l
(d) l=l
Z1 Z2 = ∞
5.5
The boundary condition yi + yr = yt gives:
A ei(ωt−kx) + B ei(ωt+kx) = A ei(ωt−kx)

1 1 2
At x = 0 , this equation gives:
A1 + B1 = A2 (5.5.1)

∂ ∂
The boundary condition Ma = T ∂x yt − T ∂x ( yi + yr ) gives:
Ma = −ikTA2ei(ωt−kx) + ikTA1ei(ωt−kx) − ikTB1ei(ωt+kx)
At x = 0 , a = &y&t = &y&i + &y&r , so the above equation becomes:
T T T
− ω2MA2 = −iω c A2 + iω c A1 − iω c B1
T T T
i.e. i A− i B =− ωM + i A
c 1 c 1 c 2
Noting that T c = ρc , the above equation becomes:
iρcA1 − iρcB1 = (− ωM + iρc)A2 (5.5.2)
iρcA1 − iρcB1 = (− ωM + iρc)(A1 + B1 )

i.e.
B1 = − iq
A 1+ iq
1
where q = ωM 2ρc
By substitution of the above equation into (5.5.1), we have:
A− iq A = A
1 1+ iq 1 2
i.e.
A2 = 1
A 1 + iq
1
5.6
Writing q = tanθ , we have:
A2 = 1 = 1 = cosθ = cosθe−iθ
A 1+ iq 1+ i tanθ cosθ + i sinθ
1
and
B1 − iq − i tanθ − i sinθ
= = =
A 1+ iq 1+ i tanθ cosθ + i sinθ = sinθe−i(θ +π 2)
1
which show that A2 lags A1 by θ and that B1 lags A1 by (π 2 +θ ) for 0 < θ < π 2

The reflected energy coefficients are given by:
2
B1
= sinθe−i(θ +π 2) 2 = sin2 θ
A1
and the transmitted energy coefficients are given by:
A 2 −θ 2
A = cosθe i = cos2 θ
2
5.7
Suppose T is the tension of the string, the average rate of working by the force over one period of
oscillation on one-wavelength-long string is given by:
ω ∂y ∂y
W = ∫02 π ω ∫01 k − T
dxdt
2π ∂x ∂t
By substitution of y = a sin(ωt − kx) into the above equation, we have:
ω
W =2 π ∫02 π ω ∫01 k − T[−ka sin(ωt − kx)][ωa sin(ωt − kx)]dxdt
= ω2k 2a2T ∫ 2 π ω 1k
∫ sin2 (ωt − kx)dxdt
2π00
= ω k a T∫2π ∫
ω 1 k 1− cos(2ωt − 2kx)
2 2 2
dxdt
2π002
2 2 2
= ω k a T ⋅1 ⋅2π ⋅1
2π 2 ω k
= ωka2T
2
Noting that k = ω c and T = ρc2 , the above equation becomes
W = ω2a2 ρc2 = ω2a2 ρc

2c 2
which equals the rate of energy transfer along the string.
5.8
Suppose the wave equation is given by: y = sin(ωt − kx) . The maximum value of transverse
harmonic force Fmax is given by:
∂y ∂ TAω
Fmax = T =T Asin(ωt − kx) = TAk =
∂x max ∂x max c
i.e.

F
T = max = 0.3 = 0.3
c Aω 0.1× 2π × 5 π
Noting that ρc = T c , the rate of energy transfer along the string is given by:
ρcω2 A2 1 T 2 2 1 0.3 2 2 3π
P= 2 =2 cω A = 2 × π × (2π × 5) × 0.1 = 20 [W ]
so the velocity of the wave c is given by:
2P 2× 3π 20 30 −1
c= 2 2 = 2 = [ms ]
2
ρω A 0.01× (2π × 5) × 0.1 π
5.9
This problem is not viable in its present form and it will be revised in the next printing. The first
part in the zero reflected amplitude may be solved by replacing Z3 by Z1, which then equates r
with R′ because each is a reflection at a Z1Z2 boundary. We then have the total reflected
amplitude as:
′ ′2 ′4 tTR′
R + tTR (1 + R + R +L) = R + 1− R′2
Stokes’ relations show that the incident amplitude may be reconstructed by reversing the paths of
the transmitted and reflected amplitudes.
T is transmitted back along the incident direction as tT in Z1 and is reflected as TR′ in
Z2 .
R is reflected in Z as (R)R = R2 back along the incident direction and is refracted as TR

1
in the TR′ direction in Z2 .
2 2 ′
We therefore have tT + R = 1 in Z1 , i.e. tT = 1− R and T (R + R ) = 0 in Z2 giving
R = −R′ , ∴tT = 1− R2 = 1− R′2 giving the total reflected amplitude in Z1 as R + R′ = 0

with R = −R′ .
R2
1 θ1 θ1 R tT θ1 θ1 R Z
1
θ2 TR′ θ2 θ2 Z2
T TR T
Z1
Fig Q.5.9(a) Fig Q.5.9(b)

Note that for zero total reflection in medium Z1, the first reflection R is cancelled by the sum of all
subsequent reflections.
5.10
The impedance of the anti-reflection coating Zcoat should have a relation to the impedance of air
Zair and the impedance of the lens Zlens given by:
Z = Z Z 1
coat air lens = n n
air lens
So the reflective index of the coating is given by:
n = 1 = n n = 1.5 = 1.22
coat Z air lens
coat
and the thickness of the coating d should be a quarter of light wavelength in the coating, i.e.
−7
d= λ = 5.5×10 = 1.12×10−7[m]
4n 4×1.22
coat
5.11
By substitution of equation (5.10) into ∂y , we have:
∂x
∂y = ωn (A cosω t + B sinω t) cos ωnt
∂x c n n n n c
so:
∂2 y ω2 ωt ω2
=− n (A cosω t + B sinω t)sin n =− n y
2 2 2
∂x c n n n n c c
Noting that k = ωn , we have:
c
∂2 y 2 ω2 ω2
+k y=− n
y+ n
y=0
2 2 2
∂x c c
5.12
2
By substitution of the expression of ( yn )max into the integral, we have:

1 1 ω x
ρω2 ∫l ( y2 ) dx = ρω2 ( A2 + B2 )∫l sin2 n dx
n n max n n n
2 0 2 0 c
1 1− cos(2ω x c)
= ρω2 (A2 + B2 )∫l n dx
nnn
2 02
1 2 2 2 c 2ωnl
= ρωn (An + Bn ) l − sin
4 2ωn c
nπ c 2ω l
Noting that ωn = l , i.e. sin cn = sin 2nπ = 0 , the above equation becomes:
1 1
2 ρωn2 ∫0l ( yn2 )max dx = 4 ρlωn2 (An2 + Bn2 )
which gives the expected result.
5.13
Expand the expression of y(x,t) , we have:
y(x,t) = Acos(ωt − kx) + rAcos(ωt + kx)

= Acosωt cos kx + Asin ωt sin kx + rAcosωt cos kx − rAsinωt sin kx
= A(1+ r) cosωt cos kx + A(1− r)sinωt sin kx
which is the superposition of standing waves.
5.14
The wave group has a modulation envelope of:
ω k
A = A0 cos t− x
k = k1 − k2
2 2
where ω = ω1 − ω2 is the frequency difference and is the wave number
difference. At a certain time t , the distance between

2 two2successive zeros of the modulation
envelope x satisfies:
k
x=π
2
Noting that k = 2π λ , for a small value of λ λ , we have: k ≈ (2π λ2 ) λ , so the above
equation becomes:
2π λ
x≈π
2λ2
i.e.
x≈ λ
λλ
which shows that the number of wavelengths λ contained between two successive zeros of the
modulating envelop is ≈ λ λ
5.15
The expression for group velocity is given by:
dω d dv
= (kv) = v + k
vg =
dk dk dk
By substitution of the expression of v into the above equation, we have:
vg =c sin(ka 2) +k d c
sin(ka
2)
ka 2 dk ka 2
sin(ka 2) (ka2 4) cos(ka 2) − (a 2)sin(ka 2)
=c + ck
ka 2 (ka 2)2
= c sin(ka 2) + c cos ka − c sin(ka 2)
ka 22ka 2
ka
= c cos 2
At long wavelengths, i.e. k → 0 , the limiting value of group velocity is the phase velocity c .
5.16
Noting that the group velocity of light in gas is given on page 131 as:
λ ∂εr
Vg = v 1 +
2εr ∂λ
we have:
λ ∂εr λ ∂εr
Vgεr = v 1 + εr +
εr = v
2εr ∂λ 2 ∂λ
B 2 λ ∂ B 2
=v A+ − Dλ + A+ − Dλ
λ
2
2 ∂λ λ
2
B 2 λ 2B
− Dλ + − 2Dλ
2 −λ3
=v A+ 2
λ
B 2 B 2
=v A+ 2 − Dλ + − 2 − Dλ
λ λ
= v(A − 2Dλ2 )
5.17
c2 ωe 2
The relation ε = = 1− gives:
r v2 ω
ω 2 c2
= ω 2− ω 2
2
v e
By substitution of v = ω k , the above equation becomes:

ω2 = ωe2 + c2k 2 (5.17.1)
As ω → ωe , we have:
c2 ωe 2
=1− <1
v2 ω
i.e. v > c , which means the phase velocity exceeds that of light c .
From equation (5.17.1), we have:
d (ω2 ) = d (ωe2 + c2k 2 )
i.e. 2ωdω = 2kc2dk
which shows the group velocity vg is given by:
vg = dω = c2 k = c2 = c c < c
dk ω v v
i.e. the group velocity is always less than c .
5.18
From equation (5.17.1), we know that only electromagnetic waves of ω > ωe can propagate
through the electron plasma media.
For an electron number density n ~ 1020 , the electron plasma frequency is given by:
e
n − 1020 −
e 19 11 1
ωe = e m ε = 1.6×10 × 9.1×10−31 ×8.8×10−12 = 5.65×10 [rad ⋅ s ]
e 0
Now consider the wavelength of the wave in the media given by:
8
v 2πv 2πv 2πc
λ= = < < =
2π × 3×10
11 = 3×10−3[m]
f ω ωe ωe 5.65×10
−3
which shows the wavelength has an upper limit of 3×10 m .
5.19
The dispersion relation ω2 c2 = k 2 + m2c2 h2 gives
d (ω2 c2 ) = d (k 2 + m2c2 h2 )
i.e. 2ω dω = 2kdk
c2

ω dω
i.e. = c2
k dk
Noting that the group velocity is dω dk and the particle (phase) velocity is ω k , the above
equation shows their product is c2 .
5.20
The series in the problem is that at the bottom of page 132. The frequency components can be
expressed as:
R = na sin( ω ⋅t 2) cosω t
ω ⋅t 2
2π
which is a symmetric function to the average frequency ω0 . It shows that at t= , R=0,
ω
∴ t ⋅ ω = 2π
In k space, we may write the series as:
y(k) = a cos k1x + a cos(k1 + δk)x +L + a cos[k1 + (n −1)δk]x

As an analogy to the above analysis, we may replace ω by k and t by x , and R is zero at
x = 2π , i.e. k x = 2π
k
5.21
The frequency of infrared absorption of NaCl is given by:
2T 1 1 1 1 13 −1
ω= + = 2×15× + = 3.608×10 [rad ⋅s ]
a m m 23×1.66×10−27 35×1.66×10−27
Na Cl
The corresponding wavelength is given by:
λ = 2πc = 2π × 3×108 ≈ 52[μm]
61μm
ω 3.608×1013
which is close to the experimental value:
The frequency of infrared absorption of KCl is given by:
2T 1 1 1 1 13 −1
ω= + = 2 ×15 × + = 3.13×10 [rad ⋅ s ]
a m m 39×1.66×10−27 35 ×1.66×10−27
K Cl
The corresponding wavelength is given by:
λ = 2πc = 2π × 3×108 ≈ 60[μm]

ω 3.13×1013
which is close to the experimental value: 71μm

5.22
Before the source passes by the observer, the source has a velocity of u , the frequency noted by
the observer is given by:
ν= c ν
1 c− u
After the source passes by the observer, the source has a velocity of − u , the frequency noted by
the observer is given by:
ν = c ν
2 c+ u
So the change of frequency noted by the observer is given by:
ν = ν −ν = c − c ν = 2νcu
21 c−u c+u (c2 − u2 )
5.23
By superimposing a velocity of − v on the system, the observer becomes stationary and the source
has a velocity of u − v and the wave has a velocity of c − v . So the frequency registered by the
observer is given by:
c−v
ν ′′′ = = c − vν
c − v − (u − v) c − u
5.24
The relation between wavelength λ and frequency ν of light is given by:
c
ν =λ
′ νc can be written in the format of wavelength as:

=
So the Doppler Effect ν c−u c = c2
λ ′ λ(c − u)
′ c−u
i.e. λ = c λ
Noting that wavelength shift is towards red, i.e. λ′ > λ , so we have:
u
λ = λ′ − λ = − cλ
cλ 3×108 ×10−11
i.e. u=− =− = −5[Kms−1]
λ 6 ×10−7
which shows the earth and the star are separating at a velocity of 5Kms−1 .
5.25

Suppose the aircraft is flying at a speed of u , and the signal is being transmitted from the aircraft
at a frequency of ν and registered at the distant point at a frequency of ν ′ . Then, the Doppler
Effect gives:
c
ν ′ =ν c − u
Now, let the distant point be the source, reflecting a frequency of ν ′ and the flying aircraft be the
receiver, registering a frequency of ν ′′ . By superimposing a velocity of − u on the flying
aircraft, the distant point and signal waves, we bring the aircraft to rest; the distant point now has a
velocity of − u and signal waves a velocity of − c − u . Then, the Doppler Effect gives:
ν ′′ =ν ′ −c−u =ν ′ c + u =ν c + u
− c − u − (−u) c c−u
which gives:
u = ν ′′ −ν c = ν c = 15×103 × 3×108 = 750[ms−1 ]

ν ′′ +ν 2ν + ν 2× 3×109
i.e. the aircraft is flying at a speed of 750 m s
5.26
Problem 5.24 shows the Doppler Effect in the format of wavelength is given by:
c−u
λ′ = λ
c
where u is the velocity of gas atom. So we have:
u
λ = λ′ − λ = λ
c
i.e.
λ 2×10−12
u = λ
′ −λ = λ c = 6×10
−7 × 3×10
8 = 1×10 3 [ms
−1 ]
The thermal energy of sodium gas is given by:

1 m u2 = 3 kT
2 Na 2
where k = 1.38×10−23[JK −1 ] is Boltzmann’s constant, so the gas temperature is given by:
mNau2 23×1.66×10−27 ×10002

T = 3k = 3×1.38×10−23 ≈ 900[K ]
5.27
A point source radiates spherical waves equally in all directions.
v
′ = : Observer
vc
is at rest with a moving source.
c − u′

u
s′ θ
′
u′ = u cosθ o
′′ = c − v′
v : Source at rest with a moving observer.
c
v
θ o′
s′
v′ = v cosθ
v
′′′= c − v′
: Source and observer both moving.
c − u′
u
v
s′ θ α o
u′ = u cosθ v′ = v cosθ ′
5.28
By substitution of equation (2) into (3) and eliminating x′ , we can find the expression of t′ given
by:
1x
t′ = − k(x − vt)
v k′
Now we can eliminate x′ and t′ by substituting the above equation and the equation (2) into
equation (1), i.e.
2 2 2 2 2 c2 x 2
x − c t = k (x − vt) − 2 − k(x − vt)
v k ′
i.e.
2 c2 1 2
2 c2 1 2 2 c2 2 2
1− k + −k x + 2kv k+ −k xt + kv −1 −c t =0
2 2
v k′ v k′ v2
which is true for all x and t if and only if the coefficients of all terms are zeros, so we have:
2
1− k
2
=
c2 k−
1
v2 k′
2
′
c2
c
2 −1 kk = 2
v v
k 2 (c2 − v2 ) = c2
The solution to the above equations gives:
1
k = k′ =
1−β2
where, β = v c
5.29
Source at rest at x1 in O frame gives signals at intervals measured by O as t = t2 − t1
where t2 is later than t1 . O′ moving with velocity v with respect to O measures these
intervals as:
′ ′ ′ v
t−
t2 − t1 = t = k( c2 x) with x=0
∴ t′ = k t
′ ′ ′
l = (x2 − x1 ) as seen by O , O sees it as (x2 − x1 ) = k[(x2 − x1 ) − v(t2 − t1 )].
′ ′ ′ ′
Measuring l puts t2 = t1 or t = 0
v v
∴ t′ = k t − 2 (x2 − x1 ) = 0 i.e. t = 2 (x2 − x1 ) = t2 − t1
c c
′ ′ ′ v
2
x2 − x 1
∴l = x2 − x1 = k[(x2 − x1 ) − v( t)] = k (x2 − x1 ) − 2 (x2 − x1 ) =
c k
∴l′ = l k
5.30
Two events are simultaneous (t1 = t2 ) at x1 and x2 in O frame. They are not simultaneous
in O′ frame because:
v v
t′ = k t − x ≠ t′ =kt − x i.e. x ≠ x
1 1 c2 1 2 2 c2 2 1 2
5.31
The order of cause followed by effect can never be reversed.
2 events and in O frame with i.e. t2 − t1 > 0 ( t2 is later).
x1,t1 x2 ,t2 t2 > t1

v v
′ ′ (x − x ) t′ =kt− x ′
t2 − t1 = k (t2 − t1 ) − 2 2 1 i.e. 2 in O frame.
c c
v x v
t′ real requires k real that is v < c , t′ is + ve if t> where is + ve
c c c
x
but < 1 and is shortest possible time for signal to traverse x.
c
6.1
Elementary kinetic theory shows that, for particles of mass m in a gas at temperature T , the
energy of each particle is given by:
1 2 3
mv = kT
2 2
where v is the root mean square velocity and k is Boltzmann’s constant.
Page 154 of the text shows that the velocity of sound c is a gas at pressure P is given by:
γP γPV γRT γNkT

c2 = = = =
ρ M M M
where V is the molar volume, M is the molar mass and N is Avogadro’s number, so:
5
Mc2 = γNkT = αkT ≈ 3 kT
6.2
The intensity of sound wave can be written as:
I = P2 ρ0c
where P is acoustic pressure, ρ0 is air density, and c is sound velocity, so we have:
P = Iρ0c = 10×1.29× 330 ≈ 65[Pa]
which is 6.5×10−4 of the pressure of an atmosphere.
6.3
The intensity of sound wave can be written as:
1
I= 2 ρ0cω 2η 2
where η is the displacement amplitude of an air molecule, so we have:

1 2I 1 2×10
η= = × = 6.9×10−5[m]
2πν ρ0c 2π × 500 1.29× 330
6.4
The expression of displacement amplitude is given by Problem 6.3, i.e.:
1 2×10−10 I 0 1 2×10×10−10 ×10−2 −
η = 2πν ρ0c = 2π × 500 × 1.29× 330 ≈ 10 10[m]
6.5
The audio output is the product of sound intensity and the cross section area of the room, i.e.:
P = IA = 100I0 A = 100 ×10−2 × 3× 3 ≈ 10[W ]
6.6
The expression of acoustic pressure amplitude is given by Problem 6.2, so the ratio of the pressure
amplitude in water and in air, at the same sound intensity, are given by:
p water I (ρc) water (ρc) water 1.45×106
0 0
p = = = ≈ 60
air I (ρ0c)air (ρ0c)air 400
And at the same pressure amplitudes, we have:
I
water
= (ρ0c)air = 400 ≈ 3×10−4
I (ρ c)
air 0 water 1.45×106
6.7
If η is the displacement of a section of a stretched spring by a disturbance, which travels along it
∂η
in the x direction, the force atthat section is given by: F = Y , where Y is young’s
∂x
modulus.
The relation between Y and s , the stiffness of the spring, is found by considering the force
required to increase the length L of the spring slowly by a small amount l << L , the force F being
the same at all points of the spring in equilibrium. Thus
∂η l Y
= and F = l
∂x L L
If l = x in the stretched spring, we have:
Y
F = sx = L x and Y = sL .
If the spring has mass m per unit length, the equation of motion of a section of length dx is given
by:

m ∂2η dx = ∂F dx = Y ∂2η dx
∂t2 ∂x ∂x2
∂2η Y ∂2η sL ∂2η

or = =
2 2
∂t m ∂x m ∂x2
a wave equation with a phase velocity sL

m
6.8
At x = 0 ,
η = B sin kx sin ωt
At x = L ,
∂ 2η ∂η
M = −sL
2
∂t ∂x
i.e. − Mω 2 sin kL = −sLk cos kL
(which for k = ω v , ρ = m L and v = sL ρ from problem 7 when l << L )

becomes:
ωL tan ωL = sL2 = ρL = m (6.8.1)

v v Mv2 M M
For M >> m , v >> ωL and writing ωL v = θ where θ is small, we have:
tanθ = θ +θ 3 3 + ...
and the left hand side of equation 6.8.1 becomes
θ 2[1+θ 2 3 + ...] = (ωL v)2[1+ (ωL v)2 3 + ...]
Now v = (sL ρ)1 2 = (sL2 m)1 2 = L(s m)1 2 and ωL v = ω m s

So eq. 6.8.1 becomes:
ω2m s (1+ ω2m 3s + ...) = m M

or
ω2 (1+ ω2m 3s) = s M (6.8.2)
Using ω2 = s M as a second approximation in the bracket of eq. 6.8.2, we have:

ω2+ 1 m = s
1
3 MM
s
i.e. ω2=
1
M+ m
3
6.9
The Poissons ratio σ = 0.25 gives:
λ
= 0.25
2(λ + μ)
i.e. λ=μ
So the ratio of the longitudinal wave velocity to the transverse wave velocity is given by:
vl λ + 2μ μ + 2μ
= = = 3
v μ μ
t
In the text, the longitudinal wave velocity of the earth is 8kms−1 and the transverse wave
velocity is 4.45kms−1 , so we have:
λ + 2μ = 8
μ 4.45
i.e. λ = 1.23μ
so the Poissons ratio for the earth is given by:
λ 1.23μ
σ = 2(λ + μ) = 2× (1.23μ + μ) ≈ 0.276
6.10
At a plane steel water interface, the energy ratio of reflected wave is given by:
2
Ir 2
Z −Z 3.9 ×10 7 −1.43×10 6
≈ 86%
steel water
= = 7 6
Z +Z
Ii steel water 3.9 ×10 + 1.43×10
At a plane steel water interface, the energy ratio of transmitted wave is given by:
I 4Z ice Z water 4 × 3.49 ×106 ×1.43×106

t
= = ≈ 82.3%
(Z
Ii ice + Zwater )2 (3.49 ×106 + 1.43×106 )2
6.11
Solution follow directly from the coefficients at top of page 165.

nr
Closed end is zero displacement with = −1 (node).
n
i
n
r
Open end: = 1 (antinode, η is a max)
n
i
pr
Pressure: closed end: = 1. Pressure doubles at antinode
pi
Open end :
pr
= −1 (out of phase – cancels to give zero pressure, i.e. node)
p
i
6.12
∂ η
(a) The boundary condition ∂ x = 0 at x = 0 gives:
(−Ak sin kx + Bk coskx)sinωt x=0 = 0
i.e. B = 0 , so we have: η = Acos kx sin ωt
∂ η
The boundary condition ∂ x = 0 at x = L gives:
− kAsin kxsinωt x=l = 0
i.e. kAsin kLsinωt = 0

which is true for all t if kl = nπ , i.e. 2π l = nπ or λ = 2l
λ n
The first three harmonics are shown below:

η
n = 1: 0
l 2 l x
n=2: 0
l 4 3l 4 l x
n=3: 0
l x
l6 l2 5l 6
∂ η
(b) The boundary condition ∂ x = 0 at x = 0 gives:
(−Ak sin kx + Bk coskx)sinωt x=0 = 0
i.e. B = 0 , so we have: η = Acos kx sin ωt
The boundary condition η = 0 at x = L gives:
Asin kxsinωt x=l

=0
i.e. Acoskl sinωt = 0

1 2π 1 4l
which is true for all t if kl = n + π , i.e. l = n+ π or λ =
2 λ 2 2n +1
The first three harmonics are shown below:

η
n=0: 0
l x
n = 1: 0
l 3 l x
n=2: 0
l 5 3l 5 l x
6.13
The boundary condition for pressure continuity at x = 0 gives:
i(ωt−k x) i(ωt−k x)
[A e 1 +B e 1 ] = [ A ei(ωt−k x) + B ei(ωt−k x) ]
2 2
1 1 x=0 2 2 x=0
i.e. A1 + B1 = A2 + B2 (6.13.1)
In acoustic wave, the pressure is given by: p = Zη& , so the continuity of particle velocity η& at
x = 0 gives:
A ei(ωt−k x) + B ei(ωt−k x)
1 1 A ei(ωt−k x) + B ei(ωt−k x)
2 2
1 1 2 2
=
Z1 x=0 Z2 x=0
i.e. Z2 (A1 − B1) = Z1(A2 − B2 ) (6.13.2)
At x = l , the continuity of pressure gives:

[A ei(ωt−k2x) + B ei(ωt−k2x) ] = A ei(ωt−k3x)
2 2 x=l 3 x=l
i.e. A e−ik l + B eik l = A

2 2 (6.13.3)
2 2 3
The continuity of particle velocity gives:

A ei(ωt−k x) + B ei(ωt−k x)
2 2 A ei(ωt−k x) 3
2 2 3
=
Z2 x= l Z3 x= l
i.e. Z ( A e−ik l − B eik l ) = Z

2 2 A (6.13.4)
3 2 2 2 3
By comparison of the boundary conditions derived above with the derivation in page 121-124, we
can easily find:
Z A2 = 4r
1 3 31
2
Z A (r +1) cos k l + (r + r )2 sin2 k l
2 2
3 1 31 2 21 32 2
where r = Z3 , r = Z2 , and r = Z3 .
31 21 32
Z Z Z
1 1 2
If we choose l = λ2 4 , cos k2l = 0 and sin k2l = 1, we have:
Z1 A2 3
= 4r
31
=1
Z A2 (r + r )2
3 1 21 32
Z Z
when r = r , i.e. 2
= 3
or Z2 = ZZ .
21 32 2 1 3
Z1 Z2
6.14
The differentiation of the adiabatic condition:
V γ
P 0
=
P V (1+ δ )
0 0
gives:
∂P = ∂p = −γP (1+ δ )−(γ +1) ∂2η

∂x ∂x 0 ∂x2
since δ = ∂η ∂x .
Since (1+ δ )(1+ s) = 1, we may write:
∂p = −γP0 (1+ s)γ +1 ∂2η

∂x ∂x2
and from Newton’s second law we have:
∂p = −ρ0 ∂2η
∂x ∂t2
so that
∂2η γ+ ∂2η γP
= c2 (1+ s) 1
, where c2 = 0
2 2
∂t 0 ∂x 0 ρ0
which shows the sound velocity of high amplitude wave is given by c0 (1+ s)(γ +1) 2
6.15
The differentiation of equation ω 2 = ωe2 + 3aTk 2 gives:
2ω dω = 6aTk
dk
ω dω
i.e. = 3aT
k dk
where a represents Boltzmann constant, ω k is the phase velocity, dω dk is the group
velocity.
6.16
The fluid is incompressible so that during the wave motion there is no change in the volume of the
fluid element of height h , horizontal length x and unit width. The distortion η in the
element x is therefore directly translated to a change in its height h and its constant volume
requires that:
h x = (h + α )( x + η) = h x + h η + α x + α η
Because α << h and η << x , the second order term α η is ignorable, we then have
α = −h η x = −h ∂η ∂x , and from now on we replace x by dx .
We see that for α + ve (or increase in height), we have ∂η ∂x − ve , that is, a compression.
On page 153 of the text, the horizontal motion of the element is shown to be due to the difference
in forces acting on the opposing faces of the element h x , that is:
∂F ∂2η
− x = ρh x
∂x ∂t2
where the force difference, dF is − ve when measured in the + ve x direction for a
compression.
Thus:
∂F ∂2η ∂P
− dx = ρh dx = −h
av
2 dx (6.16.1)
∂x ∂t ∂x
where the pressure must be averaged over the height of the element because it varies with the
liquid depth. This average value is found from the pressure difference (to unit depth) at the liquid
surface to between the two values of α on the opposing faces of the element. This gives:
dPav = ρgdα

so dPav dx = ρg dα dx
dx dx
and we have from eq. 6.16.1:
∂F ∂P dα ∂2η ∂2 η
− dx = −h av dx = −hρg dx = h2 ρg dx = ρh dx
2 2
∂x∂xdx∂x ∂t
The last two terms equate to give the wave equation. For horizontal motion as:
∂2η ∂2η
= gh
∂t2 ∂x2
with phase velocity v = gh .
The horizontal motion translates directly to the vertical displacement α to give an equation of
wave motion:
∂2α ∂2α
= gh
2
∂t ∂x2
with a similar phase velocity v = gh
6.17
(a) Since h >> λ , i.e. kh >> 1, we have: tanh kh ≈ 1, therefore:
2 g Tk g Tk g Tk gT
v = + tanh kh ≈ + ≥2 ⋅ =2
k
ρ k ρ k ρ ρ
i.e. the velocity has a minimum value given by:
v4 = 4gT
ρ
when g =Tk , i.e. k 2 = gρ or λ = 2π T

k ρ T c
ρg
(b) If T is negligible, we have:
g
v2 ≈ k tanh kh
and when λ >> λc , k → 0 , and for a shallow liquid, h → 0 . Noting that when hk → 0 , tanh
kh → kh , we have:
v= g tanh kh ≈ g kh = gh
k k
(c) For a deep liquid, h → +∞ i.e. tanh kh → 1, the phase velocity is given by:
v2p = g tanh kh ≈ g i.e. vp = g

k k k
and the group velocity is given by:
kdvp 1 g g 1 g 1 g
v =v + =v − k = − =
g p dk p 2 k3 k 2 k 2 k
g Tk
(d) For the case of short ripples dominated by surface tension in a deep liquid, i.e. k << ρ
and h → +∞ , we have:
v2p = lim Tk tanh kh = Tk i.e. vp = Tk

h→+∞ ρ ρ ρ
and the group velocity is given by:
kdvp Tk k T 3 Tk 3
v =v + = + = = v
g p dk ρ 2 ρk 2 ρ 2 p

7.1
The equation
I − I = d q = C dx d V
r −1 r dt r 0 dt r
at the limit of dx → 0 becomes:
dI = dV
C
(7.1.1)
The equation
L dx d I = V − V
0 dt r r r +1
at the limit of dx → 0 becomes:
∂V = L0 ∂I
∂x ∂t
(7.1.2)
The derivative of equation (7.1.1) on t gives:
∂2 I = C0 ∂2V
∂x∂t ∂t2
(7.1.3)
The derivative of equation (7.1.2) on x gives:
∂2V = L0 ∂2 I
∂x2 ∂x∂t
(7.1.4)
Equation (7.1.3) and (7.1.4) give:
∂2V = L C ∂2V
∂x2 0 0 ∂t2
The derivative of equation (7.1.1) on x gives:
∂2 I = C0 ∂2V
∂x2 ∂x∂t
(7.1.5)
The derivative of equation (7.1.2) on t gives:
∂2V = L0 ∂2 I
∂x∂t ∂t2
(7.1.6)
Equation (7.1.5) and (7.1.6) give:

∂2 I = L C ∂2 I
∂x2 0
0 ∂t2
7.2
l
2a
I
2d
Fig Q.7.2.1
A pair of parallel wires of circular cross section and radius a are separated at a distance 2d
between their centres.
To find the inductance per unit length we close the circuit by joining the sides of a section of
length l .
The self inductance of this circuit is the magnetic flux through the circuit when a current of 1 amp
flows around it.
If the current is 1 amp the field outside the wire at a distance r from the centre is μ0 I 2πr ,
where μ0 is the permeability of free space. For a clockwise current in the circuit (Fig Q.7.2.1)
both wires contribute to the magnetic flux B which points downwards into the page and the total
flux through the circuit is given by:
2d −2a μ 0Idr μ 0 lI 2d
2l
∫a = ln for d >> a
2πr π a
Hence the self inductance per unit length is:
μ0 2d
L= ln
π a
To find the capacitance per unit length of such a pair of wires we first find the electrostatic
potential at a distance r from a single wire and proceed to find the potential from a pair of wires
via the principle of electrostatic images.
If the radius of the wire is a and it carries a charge of λ per unit length then the electrostatic
flux E per unit length of the cylindrical surface is: 2πrE(r) = λ ε0 , where ε0 is the
permittivity of free space. Thus E(r) = λ 2πε0r for r > a and we have the potential:

λ λ b
φ(r) = − ln(r) + constant = ln for φ=0 at r = b .
2πε0 2πε0 r
y
p
r r r
−λ +λ θ
a o x
p p
d d
Fig Q.7.2.2
The conducting wires are now represented in the image system of Fig Q.7.2.2. The equipotential
surfaces will be seen to be cylindrical but not coaxial with the wires. Neither the electric field nor
the charge density is uniform on the conducting surface.
The surface charge is collapsed onto two line carrying charges ± λ per unit length. The y axis
represents an equipotential plane.
The conducting wires, of radius a , are centred a distance d from the origin ο(x = y = 0) .
The distances ± p can be chosen of the line charges so that the conducting surfaces lie on the
equipotentials of the image charge. Choosing the potential to be zero at ∞ on the y axis, the
potential at point p in the xy plane is given by:
λ 1 λ 1 λ 2
r2
φp = 2πε ln −
r 2πε ln
r
=
4πε ln
r2
0 1 0 2 0 1
In Fig Q.7.2.2:
r2 = 2αγ + δ
2
r2 = 2βγ + δ
1
where α = (d + p) ; β = (d − p) ; γ = (d + r cosθ ) and δ = (r2 + p2 − d 2 ) .
If the position of the image charge is such that p2 = (d 2 − a2 ) , then, at r = a :
φ(a) = λ ln d
+ p , independent of θ , and the right-hand conductor is an equipotential of
d
4πε0 −p
the image charge. Symmetry requires that the potential at the surface of the other conductor is

−φ(a) and the potential difference between the conductors is:
V=
λ ln d+p
2πε0 d−p
Gauss’s theorem applied to one of the equipotentials surrounding each conductor proves that the
surface charge on each conductor is equal to the image charge. The capacitance per unit length is
now given by:
λ 2πε0 2πε0
C=V = ≈ 2d for d >> a
ln d + p ln
d−p a
and
12
μ 0 ln
2d
L π a μ0 12
2d
Z0 for the parallel wires = = 2πε0 2 ln
≈
C
π ε0 a
ln(2d a)
7.3
The integral of magnetic energy over the last quarter wavelength is given by:
0 0 2 2 2
2V
+ cos 4πx λ
0
1 dx = 1 dx = 2L V 1 λL V
∫ 2
∫−λ 4 ∫−λ 4
0+ 0+ 0 0+
−λ 4 L0 I L
0 cos kx 0 2 dx = − 2
2 2 Z0 Z0 2 4Z0
The integral of electric energy over the last quarter wavelength is given by:
0 1 2 0 1 2 0 2 1− cos 4πx λ λC V 20 0+
=
∫−λ 4 2 C0V dx = ∫ −λ 4 2 C0 (2V0+ sin kx) dx ∫−λ 4 2C0V0+ 2 dx = − 4
Noting that Z0 = L0 C0 , we have:
0 1 λL V 2 λC V 2 0
1
2 0 0+ 0 0+
= 2
∫ −λ 4 2 L0 I dx = 4 Z0 2
= 4 ∫−λ 4 2 C0V dx
7.4
The maximum of the magnetic energy is given by:
2
1 1 2V 2L V 2
(E ) = LI 2
= L 0 + cos kx = 0 0+
= 2C V 2
m max 2 0 2 0 Z Z 2 0 0+
max 0 max 0
The maximum of the electric energy is given by:
1 2 1 2 2
(Ee )max = C0V = C0 (2V0+ sin kx) = 2C0V0+
2 max 2 max
The instantaneous value of the two energies over the last quarter wavelength is given by:

1 2V0 + 2 1C 2 2
L
cos kx +
(Em + Ee )i = 0
Z 0 (2V0+ sin kx)
2 0 2
= 2C0V0 + cos kx + 2C0V02+ sin2 kx
2 2
= 2C0V02+
So we have:
(Em )max = (Ee )max = (Em + Ee )i = 2C0V02+
7.5
For a real transmission line with a propagation constant γ , the forward current wave Ix+ at
position x is given by:
Ix+ = I0+e−γx = Ae−γx
where I0+ = A is the forward current wave at position x = 0 . So the forward voltage wave at
position x is given by:
Vx+ = Z0 Ix+ = Z0 Ae−γx
I
The backward current wave x− at position x is given by:
Ix− = I0−e+γx = Be+γx
where I0− = B is the backward current wave at position x = 0 . So the backward voltage wave
at position x is given by:
Vx − = −Z0 Ix − = −Z0 Be+γx

Therefore the impedance seen from position x is given by:
Z
−γx
=V x+ +V x− = Z 0 Ae − Z 0 Be+γx = Z Ae−γx − Be+γx
I +I
x
x+ x− Ae−γx + Be+γx 0 Ae−γx + Be+γx
If the line has a length l and is terminated by a load ZL , the value of ZL is given by:
V
L
V
l+
+V
l−
Ae−γl − Be+γl
Z = = =Z
I +I
L IL l+ l− 0 Ae−γl + Be+γl
7.6
The impedance of the line at x = 0 is given by:
A−γx − Be+γx A−B
Zi = Z
0 −γx +γx = Z0
Ae + Be x=0 A+B
Noting that:
ZL = Z0
Ae−γl − Beγl
−γl γl
Ae + Be
we have:
(Z0 − ZL ) Ae−γl = (Z0 + ZL )Beγl
i.e. A = (Z0 + ZL ) e2γl

B (Z0 − ZL )
so we have:
A B −1 Z0 (eγl − e−γl ) + ZL (eγl + e−γl ) Z0 sinh γl + ZL cosh γl

Zi = Z0 A B +1 = Z0 Z0 (eγl + e−γl ) + ZL (eγl − e−γl ) = Z0 Z0 cosh γl + ZL sinh γl
7.7
If the transmission line of Problem 7.6 is short-circuited, i.e. ZL = 0 , The expression of input
impedance in Problem 7.6 gives:
Z0 sinh γl
Zsc = Z0
Z0 cosh γl = Z0 tanh γl
If the transmission line of Problem 7.6 is open-circuited, i.e. ZL = ∞ , The expression of input
impedance in Problem 7.6 gives:
ZL cosh γl
Z =Z
oc 0 ZL sinh γl = Z0 coth γl
By taking the product of these two impedances we have:
Zsc Zoc = Z02 , i.e. Z0 = Zsc Zoc

which shows the characteristic impedance of the line can be obtained by measuring the
impedances of short-circuited line and open-circuited line separately and then taking the square
root of the product of the two values.
7.8
The forward and reflected voltage waves at the end of the line are given by:
Vl+ = −Vl− = V0+e−ikl
where V0+ is the forward voltage at the beginning of the line. So the reflected voltage wave at the
beginning of the line is given by:
V0− = Vl−e−ikl = −V0+e−i2kl

The forward and reflected current waves at the end of the line are given by:
Il+ = Vl+ Z0 = V0+e−ikl Z0 = I0+e−ikl

Il− = −Vl− Z0 = Vl+ Z0 = I0+e−ikl
where I0+ is the forward current at the beginning of the line. So the reflected current wave at the
beginning of the line is given by:
I0− = Il−e−ikl = I0+e−i2kl
Therefore the input impedance of the line is given by:

V +V V (1− e−i 2kl ) V (eikl − e−ikl ) sin kl L 2πl
Z = 0+ 0−
= 0+
= 0+
= iZ =i 0
tan
I +I
i
0+ 0− I0+ (1+ e−i2kl ) I0+ (eikl + e−ikl ) 0 cos kl C0 λ
The variation of the ratio Zi L0 C0 with l is shown in the figure below:
Zi
L0 C0
… …
−λ2 λ4 3λ 4
0
− 3λ 4 −λ4 λ2 l
7.9
The boundary condition at Z0Zm junction gives:
V +V = V +V
0+ 0− m0+ m0−
I +I =I +I
0+ 0− m0+ m0−
where V0+ , V0− are the voltages of forward and backward waves on Z0 side of Z0Zm junction;
I0+ , I0− are the currents of forward and backward waves on Z0 side of Z0Zm junction; Vm0+ ,
Vm0− are the voltages of forward and backward waves on Zm side of Z0Zm

junction; Im0+ , Im0− are the currents of forward and backward waves on Zm side of Z0Zm
junction;
The boundary condition at Zm ZL junction gives:
V +V = V
mL+ mL− L
I +I =I
mL+ mL− L
where VmL+ , VmL− are the voltages of forward and backward waves on Zm side of Zm ZL
junction; ImL+ , ImL− are the currents of forward and backward waves on Zm side of Zm ZL
junction; VL , IL are the voltage and current across the load.
If the length of the matching line is l , we have:
Vm0+ = VmL+eikl
Im0+ = ImL+eikl
Vm0− = VmL−e−ikl
Im0− = ImL−e−ikl
In addition, we have the relations:

V
L
= ZL
I
L
V0 = Z
0
I0
V V V V
m0+ m0− mL + mL −
=− = =− = Zm
I I I I
m0+ m0− mL + mL −
The above conditions yield:

V = V e−ikl
mL+ m0+
ImL+ = Im0+e−ikl
V mL−
= ZL − Z m V mL+
Z L + Zm

I = Z m − ZL I
mL− mL+
Z m + ZL
V =V e−ikl = ZL − Z m V e−ikl = V ZL − Zm e−i 2kl

m0+
m0− mL− ZL + Z m mL+ ZL + Zm
I =I e−ikl = Zm − Z L I e−ikl = I Zm − ZL e−i 2kl

m0+
m0− mL− ZL + Z m mL+ ZL + Zm
Impedance mating requires V0− = 0 and I0− = 0 , i.e.:
V = V +V
0+ m0+ m0−
I =I +I
0+ m0+ m0−
i.e.
ZL − Zm −i 2kl
V =V 1
0+ m0+ + e
ZL + Zm
Z m − ZL −i 2kl
I =I 1
0+ m0+ + e
Z
L + Zm
By dividing the above equations we have:
(ZL + Zm )eikl + (ZL − Zm )e−ikl ZL cos kl + iZm sin kl

Z0 = Zm (ZL + Zm )eikl + (Zm − ZL )e−ikl = Zm ZL sin kl + iZm cos kl
which is true if kl = π 2 , or l = λ 4 and yields:
Zm2 = Z0 ZL
7.10
Analysis in Problem 7.8 shows the impedance of a short-circuited loss-free line has an impedance
given by:
2 πl
Zi = iZ0 tan λ
so, if the length of the line is a quarter of one wavelength, we have:
2 πλ π
Zi = iZ0 tan λ 4 = iZ0 tan 2 = ∞
If this line is bridged across another transmission line, due to the infinite impedance, the
transmission of fundamental wavelength λ will not be affected. However for the second
harmonic wavelength λ 2 , the impedance of the bridge line is given by:

2π λ
Zi = iZ0 tan = iZ0 tanπ = 0
λ24
which shows the bridge line short circuits the second harmonic waves.
7.11
1
For Z0 to act as a high pass filter with zero attenuation, the frequency ω2 > , where
2LC
Z0 = L C .
The exact physical length of Z0 is determined by ω . Choosing the frequency ω1 determines
k1 = 2π λ1 .
For a high frequency load ZL and a loss- free line, we have, for the input impedance:
+ iZ0 sin kl
Z
L cos kl
Z
Zin = 0
Z0 cos kl + iZL sin kl

For n even, we have:
cos k l = cos 2π nλ1 = cos nπ = 1

1
λ1 2
For n odd, we have:
2π nλ
cos k l = cos 1 = cos nπ = −1
1 λ1 2
The sine terms are zero.
So Zin = ZL for n odd or even, and the high frequency circuits, input and load, are uniquely
matched at ω1 when the circuits are tuned to ω1 .
7.12
The phase shift per section β should satisfy:
Z iωL ω2 LC
cos β = 1+ 1
=1 + = 1−
2Z2 2 iωC 2
ω2 LC
i.e. 1− cos β =
2
2 β ω2 LC
i.e. 2sin =
2 2

For a small β , β ≈ sin β , so the above equation becomes:
β 2 ω 2 LC
2 =
2 2
i.e. β = ω LC = ω v = k
where the phase velocity is given by v = 1 LC and is independent of the frequency.
7.13
The propagation constant γ can be expanded as:
γ = (R0 + iωL0 )(G0 + iωC0 )

R G
0 0
= ω L0C0 ωL + i ωC +i
0 0
2 R0 G0 R0 G0
= ω L0C0 i + ωL + ωC i + ωL ωC
0 0 0 0
2 2 2 R G
R0 G0 R0 G0 0 0
= ω L0C0 i + 2ωL + 2ωC − 4ω L + 4ωC + ωL ωC

2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
Since R0 ωL0 and G0 ωC0 are both small quantities, the above equation becomes:
R0 G0
γ=ω L C i+
0 0 2ωL + 2ωC = α + ik
0 0
where α = R0 C0 + G0 L0 , and k = ω L C = ω v
0 0
2 L0 2 C0
If G = 0 , we have:
k = ω L0C0 = ω L0C0 = ωL0

2α R C L+G L C R C L R
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
which is the Q value of this transmission line.
7.14
Suppose R0 =G0 = K , where K is constant, the characteristic impedance of a lossless line is

L C
0 0
given by:
R0 + iωL0 KL0 + iωL0 L0

Z0 = = =
C
G0 + iωC0 KC0 + iωC0 0

which is a real value.
7.15
Try solution ψ = ψ meγx in wave equation:
∂ 2ψ + 8π 2m (E −V )ψ = 0
∂x2h2
we have:
γ2 = 8π 2m (V −
E) h2
For E > V (inside the potential well), the value of γ is given by:
2π
γ in = ±i 2m(E − V )
h
So the ψ has a standing wave expression given by:
2π 2π
ψ = Ae i
h
m(V −E )x + Be−i h m(V −E )x
where A , B are constants.
For E < V (outside the potential well), the value of γ is given by:
2 π
γout = ± h 2m(V − E)
So the expression of ψ is given by:
2π 2π
ψ = Ae h
m(V −E )x + Be− h m(V −E )x
where A , B are constants. i.e. the x dependence of ψ is e±γx , where
2π
γ= 2m(V − E)
h
7.16
Form the diffusion equation:
∂H = 1 ∂2 H
∂t μσ ∂x2
we know the diffusivity is given by: d = 1 μσ . The time of decay of the field is approximately
given by Einstein’s diffusivity relation:
L2 L2 2
t = d = 1 μσ = Lμσ
where L is the extent of the medium.

For a copper sphere of radius 1m, the time of decay of the field is approximately given by:
t = L2 μσ = 12 ×1.26×10−6 × 5.8×107 ≈ 73[s] < 100[s]
7.17
e−(rα ) in ∂f (α ,t) , we have:

2
Try solution f (α ,t) = r
π ∂t
∂f (α ,t) ∂ r −(rα )
2
= e
∂t ∂t π
= r e−(rα )2 (−2rα )α dr + 1 dr e−(rα )2
π dt π dt
=1− 2r α e−(rα )2 dr
2 2
π dt
= 2r α −1 e−(rα )2
2 2
4t πdt (A.7.17.1)
Try solution f (α ,t) = r e−(rα )2 in ∂f (α ,t) , we have:

π ∂x
∂f (α,t) = − 2r3α e−(rα )2

∂x π
so:
∂ 2 f (α ,t) = − 2r3 e−(rα )2 − 2r3α e−(rα )2 (−2rα )r
∂x2 π π
= − 2r3 (1− 2r2α 2 )e−(rα ) 2
π
= 2r2α 2 −1 e−(rα )2
4td πdt
(A.7.17.2)
By comparing the above derivatives, A.7.17.1 and 2, we can find the solution
r
f (α ,t) = π e−(rα )2
∂f = d ∂2 f
∂t ∂x2

8.1
Write the expressions of Ex and H y as:
2π
E = E sin (v t − z)
x 0 λE E
2π
H = H sin (v t − z)
y 0 λH H
where λE and λH are the wavelengths of electric and magnetic waves respectively,
and vE and vH are the velocities of electric and magnetic waves respectively.
By substitution of the these expressions into equation (8.1a), we have:

2π 2π 2π 2π
−μ vH H0 cos (vH t − z) = − E0 cos (vEt − z)
λHλHλEλE
vH E
H 0 2π (v t − z) = 0 2π (v t − z)
i.e. μ cos H cos E
λ λ λ λ
H H E E
which is true for all t and z , provided:

E0
vH = vE =
μH0
and λH = λE
so, at any t and z , we have:
E0
φE = φH = t−z
μH 0
Therefore Ex and H y have the same wavelength and phase.
8.2
Energy = Force⋅ Distance = Force = pressure
Volume L3 Area

C W A W C
Currents in W into page. Field lines at A cancel. Those at C force wires together.
Reverse current in one wire. Field lines at A in same direction, force wires apart.
Fig Q.8.2.a
W
C A Motion
Field lines at C in same direction as those from current in wire –

in opposite direction at A . Motion to the right
Fig Q.8.2.b
8.3
The volume of a thin shell of thickness dr is given by: 4πr2dr , so the electrostatic
energy over the spherical volume from radius a to infinity is given
1
by: ∫a 2 ε0 E2 (4πr2 )dr , which equals mc2 , i.e.:
+∞
1
∫a 2 ε0 E2 (4πr2 )dr = mc2
+∞
By substitution of E = e 4πε0r2 into the above equation, we have:
+∞ 1 e2 2 2
ε
∫a 2 0 (4πε0r2 )2 (4πr )dr = mc
e2 1
i.e. 8πε 0 ∫a+∞ r2 dr = mc2
e2
i.e. = mc2
8πε0a
Then, the value of radius a is given by:
e2 (1.6×10−19 )2
a= = ≈ 1.41×10−15 [m]
8πε0mc2 8π ×8.8×10−12 × 9.1×10−31 × (3×108 )2
Another approach to the problem yields the value:
a = 2.82×10−15[m]
8.4
The magnitude of Poynting vector on the surface of the wire can be calculated by
deriving the electric and magnetic fields respectively.
The vector of magnetic field on the surface of the cylindrical wire points towards the
azimuthal direction, and its magnitude is given by Ampere’s Law:
H=H e = I e
θ θ 2π r θ
where r is the radius of the wire’s cross circular section, and I is the current in the
wire.
Ohm’s Law, J = σE , shows the vector of electric field on the surface of the
cylindrical wire points towards the current’s direction, and its magnitude equals the
voltage drop per unit length, i.e.:
V IR
E = Ezez = l ez = l ez
where, l is the length of the wire, and the V is the voltage drop along the whole length
of the wire and is given by Ohm’s Law: V = IR , where R is the resistance of the wire.
Hence, the Poynting vector on the surface of the wire points towards the axis of the
wire is given by:
S = E× H = Ezez × Hθ eθ = −Ez Hθ er
which shows the Poynting vector on the surface of the wire points towards the axis of
the wire, which corresponds to the flow of energy into the wire from surrounding
space. The product of its magnitude and the surface area of the wire is given by:
IR I
S × 2πrl = Ez Hθ × 2πrl = 2πrl = I 2 R
l 2πr
which is the rate of generation of heat in the wire.
8.5
By relating Poynting vector to magnetic energy, we first need to derive the magnitude
of Poynting vector in terms of magnetic field.
The electric field on the inner surface of the solenoid can be derived from the integral
format of Faraday’s Law:
∫ Edl = −μ ∫ ∂∂Ht dS
where S is the area of the solenoid’s cross section. E is the electric field on the inner
surface of the solenoid, and H is the magnetic field inside the solenoid.
For a long uniformly wound solenoid the electric field uniformly points towards
azimuthal direction, i.e. E = Eθ eθ , and the magnetic field inside the solenoid

uniformly points along the axis direction, i.e. H = H zez . So the above equation
becomes
∂H z
Eθ × 2πr = −μ πr2
∂t
μr ∂H z
i.e. Eθ = − 2 ∂t
where r is the radius of the cross section of the solenoid.
Hence, the Poynting vector on the inner surface of the solenoid is given by:
μr ∂H z
E× H = Eθ eθ × H zez = − Hz er
2 ∂t
which points towards the axis of the solenoid and corresponds to the inward energy
flow. The product of its magnitude and the surface area of the solenoid is given by:
S × 2πrl = μr H ∂H z × 2πrl = πr2lH ∂H z
2 z ∂t z
∂t
where l is the length of the solenoid.
On the other hand, the time rate of change of magnetic energy stored in the solenoid
of a length l is given by:
d 1 ∂Hz
μH 2 ×πr2l = πr2lH
dt 2 z
∂t
which equals S × 2πrl
8.6
For plane polarized electromagnetic wave (Ex , H y ) in free space, we have the
relation:
Ex μ0
=
Hy ε0
Its Poynting vector is given by:
S=E H =E Ex = ε0 E2 = 1 ε E2 = cε E2
x y x μ ε μ x με 0 x 0 x
0 0 0 0 0
where c = 1 μ0ε0 is the velocity of light.

Noting that:
1 1 μ0 2 1
ε 0E 2 =
x
ε 0
H y = μ 0
H2
y
2 2 ε0 2
we have:
1 2 1 2 2
S = Ex H y = c ε0 Ex + μ0 H y = cε E
0 x
2 2

Since the intensity in such a wave is given by:
1
I = Sav = cε0 E2 = 2 cε0 Emax2
we have:
1
S = 2 × 3×108 ×8.8×10−12 × Emax2 ≈ 1.327 ×10−3 Emax2
2 2
E = S 12 = S 1 2 ≈ 27.45 S 1 2[Vm−1 ]
max cε0 3 ×108 ×8.8×10−12
H = ε0 E = 2 S 12 = 2 S
12
≈ 7.3×10−2 S 1 2[ Am−1]
max μ0 max cμ0 3 ×108 × 4π ×10-7
8.7
The average intensity of the beam and is given by:
Power Energy 0.3

I = = = −3 2 −4
= 1.53×108[Wm−2 ]
area area × pulse duration π × (2.5 ×10 ) ×10
Using the result in Problem 8.6, the root mean square value of the electric field in the
wave is given by:
E2 = I = 1.53×108 ≈ 2.4 ×105[Vm−1]

cε0 3×108 × 8.8 ×10−12
8.8
Using the result of Problem 8.6, the amplitude of the electric field at the earth’s
surface is given by:
E0 = 27.45S 1 2 = 27.45× 1350 ≈ 1010[Vm−1 ]
and the amplitude of the associated magnetic field in the wave is given by:
H0 = 7.3×10−2 × 1350 ≈ 2.7[ Am−1 ]
The radiation pressure of the sunlight upon the earth equals the sum of the electric
field energy density and the magnetic field energy density, i.e.
1 1
prad = 2 ε0 E02 + 2 μ0 H02 = ε0 E02 = 8.8×10−12 ×10102 = 8.98×10−6[Pa]
8.9
The total radiant energy loss per second of the sun is given by:
Eloss = S × 4πr2 = 1350 × 4π × (15 ×1010 )2 = 3.82
×1026[J ] which is associated with a mass of:

3.82 ×1026
m = Eloss c2 = =
4.2×109[kg] (3×108 )2
8.10
At a point 10km from the station, the Poynting vector is given by:
P 105
S= = = 1.6×10−4[W m2 ]
2πr2 2×π × (10×103 )2
Using the result in Problem 8.6, the amplitude of electric field is given by:
E0 = 27.45× S1 2 = 27.45× 1.6×10−4 = 0.346[V m]

The amplitude of magnetic field is given by:
H0 = 7.3×10−2 S1 2 = 7.3×10−2 × 1.6×10−4 = 9.2×10−4[ A m]
8.11
The surface current in the strip is given by:
I = Qv
where Q is surface charge per unit area on the strip and is given by: Q = εEx , and
v is the velocity of surface charges along the transmission line.

Since the surface charges change along the transmission line at the same speed as the
1
electromagnetic wave travels, i.e. v = c = , the surface current becomes:
με
1 ε
I = Qv = εE = E
x με μ x
Analysis in page 207 shows, for plane electromagnetic wave, μ H y = ε Ex , so the
surface current is now given by:
μH =H ε
I= y y
μ ε
On the other hand, the voltage across the two strips is given by:
V = Ex L = Ex
where L = 1 is the distance between the two strips.

Therefore the characteristic impedance of the transmission line is given by:
Z = V = Ex = μ
I Hy ε
8.12
Write equation (8.6) in form:

∂2 ∂ ∂ ∂
E =μ εE +μ (σEx )
∂z x 2
∂t ∂t x ∂t
which can be dimensionally expressed as:
voltage length = inductance × displacement current + inductance × current area

length × length length time× area length time
Multiplied by a dimension term, length, the above equation has the dimension:
voltage current
= inductance×
area time× area
which is the dimensional form (per unit area) of the equation:
dI
V=L
dt
where V is a voltage, L is a inductance and I is a current.
8.13
Analysis in page 210 and 211 shows, in a conducting medium, the wave number of
electromagnetic wave is given by:
k= ωμσ
2
where ω is angular frequency of the electromagnetic wave, μ and σ are the
permeability and conductivity of the conducting medium.

Differentiation of the above equation gives:
dk = 1 2 μσ dω = 1 μσdω
2 ωμσ 2 2 2ω
i.e. dω = 2 2ω = 2 2 ω = 2ω
dk μσ ωμσ k
which shows, when a group of electromagnetic waves of nearly equal frequencies
propagates in a conducting medium, where the group velocity and the phase velocity
can be treated as fixed values, the group velocity, vg = dω dk , is twice the wave
velocity, vp = ω k .
8.14
σ σ 0.1
(a) = = × 36π ×109 = 720 > 100
ωε 2πνεrε0 2π × 50×103 × 50
which shows, at a frequency of 50kHz , the medium is a conductor

σ σ 0.1
(b) = = × 36π ×109 = 3.6×10−3 < 10−2
ωε 2πνεrε0 2π ×104 ×106 × 50
which shows, at a frequency of 104 MHz , the medium is a dielectric.
8.15
The Atlantic Ocean is a conductor when:
σ σ
= > 100
ωε 2πνεrε0
i.e. ν< σ = 4.3 × 36π ×109 ≈ 10[MHz]

2π ×100×εrε0 2π ×100×81
Therefore the longest wavelength that could propagate under water is given by:
v c
ν= λ = ε λ = 10×106
max r max
c 3×108
λmax =
i.e. εr ×10 ×106 = 81 ×10×106 ≈ 3[m]
8.16
When a plane electromagnetic wave travelling in air with an impedance of Zair is
reflected normally from a plane conducting surface with an impedance of Zc , the

transmission coefficient of magnetic field is given by:
Ht
T =
H Hi
Using the relations: E = Z H , E = Z H , and Et = 2Zc , the above equation

t c t i air i E Z +Z
i c air
becomes:
EZ Z 2Z
T = Ht = t air = air 2Zc = air
H
Z +Z Z +Z
Hi E i Zc Zc c air c air
The impedance of a good conductor tends to zero, i.e. Zc → 0 , so we have:

2Z
T ≈ air
= 2 or H ≈ 2H
H Z t i
air
After reflection from the air-conductor interface, standing waves are formed in the air

with a magnitude of Hi + Hr in magnetic field and a magnitude of Ei + Er in electric
field.
Using the relations: Hi + Hr = Ht , Ei + Er = Et , the standing wave ratio of magnetic
field to electric field in air is given by:
Hi + Hr = Ht = 1
E+ E E Z
i r t c
which is a large quantity due to Zc → 0 .
As an analogy, for a short-circuited transmission line, the relation between forward

(incident) and backward (reflected) voltages is given by: V+ +V− = 0 or Vi +Vr = 0 ,
the forward (incident) current is given by: Ii = I+ = V+ Z0 , and the backward
(reflected) current is given by: Ir = I− = −V− Z0 , so the transmitted current is given

by:
V+ V− V+ − V+ V+
It = Ii + Ir = − = − =2 = 2Ii
Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0
When a plane electromagnetic wave travelling in a conductor with an impedance of Zc
is reflected normally from a plane conductor-air interface, the transmission coefficient
of electric field is given by:
2Z
T = Et = air
E
Z +Z
Ei c air
The impedance of a good conductor tends to zero, i.e. Zc → 0 , so we have:

2Z
T ≈ air
= 2 or E ≈ 2E
E Z t i
air
As an analogy, for a open-circuited transmission line, the forward (incident) voltage

equals the backward (reflected) voltages, i.e. Vi = V+ = Vr = V− , the transmitted
voltage is given by:
Vt = Vi +Vr = V+ +V+ = 2V+
8.17
Analysis in page 215 and 216 shows, in a conductor, magnetic field H y lags electric

field Ex by a phase angle of φ = 45o , so we can write the electric field and magnetic
field in a conductor as:
Ex = E0 cosωt and H y = H0 cos(ωt −φ)
so the average value of the Poynting vector is the integral of the Poynting vector
Ex H y over one time period T divided by the time period, i.e.:
1
Sav = T ∫0T Ex H y
1
=T ∫0T E0 cosωtH0 cos(ωt −φ)dt
E0 H0 T 1
= T ∫0 2 [cos(2ωt −φ) + cosφ]dt
1E H 1
= 0 0 T cosφ = E0 H0 cos 45o[Wm2 ]
2 T2
Noting that the real part of impedance of the conductor is given by:
E0 E0
(real part of Zc ) = cosφ = cos 45o
H0 H0
H
0
i.e. E0 = × (real part of Zc )
cos 45o
so we have:
S = 1 E H cos 45o
av 2 0 0
1 H2
= 2 cos 45o × real part of Zc × cos 45o
0
= 1 H 2 × (real part of Z )[Wm2 ]

2 0 c
We know from analysis in page 216 that, at a frequency ν = 3000MHz , the value of
ωε σ for copper is 2.9×10−9 , hence, at of frequency of 1000MHz , the value of
ωε σ for copper is given by 2.9×10−9 3 = 9.7 ×10−10 , and μr ≈ εr ≈ 1. So, the real
part of impedance of the large copper sheet is given by:
2 Z
(real part of Zcopper ) = copper
2
2 μr ωε 2 − −
10
2 × 376.6 × εr σ = 376.6× 2 × 9.7 ×10
= = 8.2×10 3[Ω]
Noting that, at an air-conductor interface, the transmitted magnetic field in copper
Hcopper doubles the incident magnetic field H0 , i.e. Hcopper = 2H0 , the average

power absorbed by the copper per square metre is the average value of transmitted
Poynting vector, which is given by:
1
Scopper = 2 Hcopper2 × (real part of Zcopper )
1
= 2 (2Hcopper )2 × (real part of Zcopper )
= 2Hcopper2 × (real part of Zcopper )
E 2
= 2× 0
× (real part of Zcopper )
376.6
1 2
= 2× ×8.2×10−3 = 1.16×10−7[W ]
376.6
8.18
Analysis in page 222 and 223 shows that when an electromagnetic wave is reflected
normally from a conducting surface its reflection coefficient Ir is given by:
2ωε0
Ir = 1− 2
σ
Noting that εr = 1, the fractional loss of energy is given by:
2ωε 0
8ωε 0 8ω ε ε r 8ωε
1− I = 1− 1 −2 = = =
r
σ σ σ σ
8.19
Following the discussion of solution to problem 8.17, we can also find the average
value of Poynting vector in air.
The electric and magnetic field of plane wave in air have the same phase, so the
Poynting vector in air is given by:
Sair = Ex H y = E0 cosωt × H0 cosωt = E0 H0 cos2 ωt
and its average value is given by:
1
Sair = T ∫0T Ex H y
1
=T ∫0T E0 cosωtH0 cosωtdt
E0 H0 T 1
= T ∫0 2 [1+ cos(2ωt)]dt
1EH 0 1 1 E2 1 −
3
−
= 0
T= EH = × 0
= = 1.33 ×10 [Wm 1 ]
2 T 2 0 0 2 376.6 2× 376.6

So, the ratio of transmitted Poynting vector in copper to the incident Poynting vector
in air is given by:
S
copper = 1.16×10−7 = 8.81×10−5
Sair 1.33×10−3
which equals the fractional loss of energy Ir given by:
8ωε −10
Ir = σ = 8× 9.7 ×10 = 8.81×10−5
8.20
Ex and H y are in complex expression, we have:
1 * 1 −kz i(ωt−kz) σ 12 −kz −i(ωt−kz) iπ 4

E H = Ae e A e e e
2 x y 2 ωμ
1 σ 12
= A2 e−2kzeiπ 4
2 ωμ
So, the average value of the Poynting vector in the conductor is given by:
1 σ 12
1 *
Sav = real part of Ex H y = A2 e−2kz [Wm−2 ]
2
2 2ωμ
The mean value of the electric field vector, Ex , is a constant value, which contributes
to the same electric energy density at the same amount of time, i.e.:
1 2 1 T1 2
(average electric energy density) = ε Ex = εEx dt
i.e. 2 T ∫0 2
2 2 −2kz 1 T 2 2 −2kz 1 T 1 + cos 2ωt A2e−2kz

E
ωtdt = A e
x = Ae
T ∫0 cos T ∫0 2
dt =
2
E 2
or: x = 2 Ae−kz
Noting that:
∂S av 1 σ 12 − 2kz
= −2k × A2 e
∂z 2 2ωμ
12
2 ωμσ σ 12 −2kz
=−A e
2 2ωμ
= − A σ e−2kz = −σ Ex
2
2
2

we find the value of ∂Sav ∂z is the product of the conductivity σ and the square of
the mean value of the electric field vector Ex . The negative sign in the above equation
shows the energy is decreasing with distance.
8.21
Noting that the relation between refractive index n of a dielectric and its impedance
Zd is given by: n = Z0 , where Z0 is the impedance in free space, so, when light
Zd
travelling in free space is normally incident on the surface of a dielectric, the reflected
intensity is given by:
2 2 2
E Zd − Z 0
1− Z 0 Zd 1− n 2
I = r
= = =
r E Z +Z 1+ Z Z 1+ n
i d 0 0 d
and the transmitted intensity is given by:

Z E2 Z 2Z d 2 Z 2 2
22 4n
I = 0 t
= 0 = 0
=n =
t Z E2 Z Z +Z Z 1+ Z Z 1+ n (1 + n)2
d i d d 0 d 0 d
8.22
If the dielectric is a glass (nglass = 1.5) , we have:
2
2
I =
1 −n
glass
= 1 −1.5 =
r _ glass 4%
+n
1 glass 1 + 1.5
4n
glass 4 ×1.5
I = = = 96%
t _ glass (1 + nglass )2 (1 + 1.5) 2
Problem 8.15 shows water is a conductor up to a frequency of 10MHz, i.e. water is a
dielectric at a frequency of 100MHz and has a refractive index of:
nwater = εr = 81 = 9
So, the reflectivity is given by:
2 2
1− n 1−9
I =
1+ n
water
=
1+9
= 64%
r _ water
water
and transmittivity given by:
4n
water 4×9
I = (1 + n )2 = (1 + 9)2 = 36%
t _ water
water
8.23

The loss of intensity is given by:
I
loss = 1− It1It 2
I
where It1 is the transmittivity from air to glass and t 2 is the transmittivity from
glass to air. Following the discussion in problem 8.21, we have:

2 2 2 2
Zi Et Zd 2Z0 Zd 2 1 2 4n
It 2 = Z E2 = Z Z +Z =Z 1+ Z Z = n 1 +1 n = (1+ n)2 = It1
t i 0 0 d 0 d 0
So we have:
Iloss = 1− It21 = 1− 0.962 = 7.84%
8.24
Noting that c = 1 μ0ε0 = λω 2π , the radiating power can be written as:
dE q2ω4 x2
0
3
P = dt = 12πε0c
ω2 x2
ω2q2
0
=
12πε0c ⋅c2
2 2 2
= 4π ω x0 με I2
12πε0λ2ω2 00 0
2
1 2π μ 0 x
= × I2 0
2 3 ε0 λ 0
2π μ0 x 2 x2
i.e. R= 0
= 787 0
[Ω]
3 ε0 λ λ
By substitution of given parameters, the wavelength is given by:
ν 3×108
= λ= = 600[m] >> x0 =
30[m] c 5 ×105
So the radiation resistance and the radiated power are given by:
x2 30 2
R = 787 × 0
= 787 × = 1.97[Ω]
λ 600
1 1
P= 2 RI02 = 2 ×1.97 × 202 ≈ 400[W ]

9.1
∂2 z ∂ 2 z
Substituting the expression of z into + , we have:
2
∂x ∂y 2
∂2 z ∂2 z
+ = −(k 2 + k 2 )Aei[ωt−(k x+k y)] = −(k 2 + k 2 )z 1 2
∂x2∂y2 1 212
Noting that k 2 = ω2 c2 = k12 + k22 , we have:
∂2 z ∂2 z ω
=− 2
+ z
∂x2 ∂y2 c2
1 ∂2 z
Substituting the expression of z into , we have:
c2 ∂t2
1 ∂2 z
c2 ∂t2
ω2 = −c 2 Ae
[ωt−(k x+k y)]
1 2 = −c z
2
ω2
So we have:
∂2 z ∂2 z 1 ∂2 z
+ =
∂x2 ∂y2 c2 ∂t2
9.2
Boundary condition z = 0 at y = 0 gives:
A ei(ωt−k x) + A ei(ωt−k x) = 0 i.e.

1 1
A = −A
1 2 1 2
so the expression of z can be written as:
z = A1{ei[ωt−(k x+k
1 2
y)]
− ei[ωt−(k1x−k2 y)]} = A1[ei(ωt−k1x) (e−ik2 y − eik2 y )] = −2iA1 sin(k2 y)ei(ωt−k1x)
Therefore, the real part of z is given by:
zreal = +2A1 sin k2 y sin(ωt − k1x)
Using the above expression, boundary condition z = 0 at y = b gives:
z = −2iA1 sin k2bei(ωt−k1x) = 0
which is true for any t and x , provided: sin k2b = 0 , i.e. k2 = nπ .

b

9.3
As an analogy to discussion in text page 242, electric field Ez between these two planes is the
superposition of the incident and reflected waves, which can be written as:
E = E ei[(k x+k y)−ωt ] + E ei[(−kx x+ky y)−ωt ]
x y
z 1 2
where kx = k cosθ and ky = k sinθ
Boundary condition Ez = 0 at x = 0 gives:
(E + E )ei(k y−ωt ) = 0
y
1 2
which is true for any t and y if E1 = −E2 = E0 , so we have:

E = E ei[(k x+k y)−ωt ] − E ei[(−k x+k y)−ωt ] = E (eikx x − e−ikx x )ei(k y−ωt )
x y x y y
z 0 0 0
Using the above equation, boundary condition Ez = 0 at x = a gives:

−ik a i(k y−ωt )
E = E (e x − e x )e y
ik a
=0
z 0
i.e. sin kxaei(k y −ωt ) = 0

y
which is true for any t and y if sin kxa = 0 , i.e. kx = nπ a .
By substitution of the expressions for λ and λ into 1 + 1 , we have:

c g λ2 λ2
c g
2
1 1 kx k 2 k2 +k2 k2 ω 2
1
+ = + y = x y
= = =
λ2 λ2 2π 2 (2π )2 2πc λ2
c g 0
2π (2π )
9.4
Electric field components in x, y, z directions in problem 9.3 are given by:
E = E = 0 and E = E (eik x − e−ik x )ei(k y−ωt )
x x y
x y z 0
By substitution of these values into equation 8.1, we have:

−ik x i(k y−ωt )
− μ ∂ H = ∂ E = ik E (e x − e x )e y
ik x
∂t x ∂y z y 0
−ik x i(k y−ωt )
− μ ∂ H = − ∂ E = −ik E (e x + e x )e y
ik x
∂t y ∂x z x 0
which yields:

ky E0
H = (eikx x
− e−ikx x
)ei(ky y−ωt )
+ C
x μω
where C and D are constants, which shows the magnetic fields in both x and y directions
have non-zero values.
9.5
line integral ∫ B ⋅ dl
Current into
paper
B a
Current out of
paper
b
∫ B ⋅ dl = μI ∴ B = μI b
Closed circuit formed by connecting ends of line length l threaded by flux:
μIla
B= b
capacitance C per unit length = ε
a
∴ inductance L per unit length = μ b
b
a
L a μ
∴ Z0 = C = b ε Ω
9.6
Text in page 208 shows the time averaged value of Poynting vector for an electromagnetic wave
in a media with permeability of μ and permittivity of ε is given by:
1
I= 2 cεE02
Noting that, in the waveguide of Problem 9.5, the area of cross section is given by: A = ab , and
the velocity of the electromagnetic wave is given by: c = 1 με , the power transmitted by a
single positive travelling wave is given by:
P = IA = 1 cεE2ab = 1 ab 1 εE2 = 1 abE2 ε

2 με 2 μ
0
2 0 0

9.7
The wave equation of such an electromagnetic wave is given by:
∇2E = 1 ∂ E( y, z)
2
c2 ∂t2
∂2E ∂2E ∂2E 1 ∂2E

i.e. + + =
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 c2 ∂t2
By substitution of the solution E = E( y, z)n cos(ωt − kx x) into the above equation, we have:
2 ∂2 E( y, z) ∂2 E( y, z) ω2 ∂2 E( y, z) cos(ωt − kx x)
− kx
E( y, z) + + cos(ωt − kx x) = − 2
2 2 2
∂t
∂y ∂z c
which is true for any t and x if:
∂2 E( y, z) ∂2 E( y, z) 2 ω2
2 + 2 = kx − 2 E( y, z)
∂y ∂z c
or: ∂2 E( y, z) + ∂2 E( y, z) = −k 2 E( y, z)
∂y2 ∂z2
2
where k = ω − k
2 2
c2 x
9.8
Using the result of Problem 9.7, the electric field in x direction can be written as:
Ex = F ( y, z) cos(ωt − kx z)
and equation:
∂ 2 F ( y, z) + ∂2 F( y, z) = −k 2 F ( y, z)
∂y2∂z2
is satisfied.
Write F( y, z) in form: F( y, z) = G( y)H (z) and substitute to the above equation, we have:
1 ∂2G( y) 1 ∂2 H (z)
2 + 2
= −k 2
G( y) ∂y H (z) ∂z
The solution to the above equation is given by:
G( y) = C eiky y + C e
−ik y
y and H (z) = D eik z + D e−ik z
z z
1 2 1 2
where C ,C , D , D are constants and k 2 + k 2 = k 2

12 12 y z

So the electric field in x direction is given by:
Ex = F ( y, z) cos(ωt − kx x) = G( y)H (z) cos(ωt − kx x)

(9.8.1)
= (C e + C e− )(D e + D e− ) cos(ωt − k
ik y ik y ik z ik z
y y x) z z
1 2 1 2 x
Using boundary condition Ex = 0 at y = 0 in equation (9.8.1) gives: C1 = −C2 .
Using boundary condition Ex = 0 at z = 0 in equation (9.8.1) gives: D1 = −D2 .

So equation (9.8.1) becomes:
E = C D (eik y − e−ik y )(eik z − e−ik z ) cos(ωt − k
y y z z x)
x 1 1 x
or Ex = Asin ky y sin kz z cos(ωt − kx x) (9.8.2)
where A is constant.
Using boundary condition Ex = 0 at y = a in equation (9.8.2) gives: sin ky a = 0 , i.e.
ky = mπ a , where m = 1,2,3,L .
Using boundary condition Ex = 0 at z = b in equation (9.8.2) gives: sin kzb = 0 , i.e.
kz = nπ b , where n = 1,2,3,L .
Finally, we have:
Ex = Asin mπy sin nπz cos(ωt − kx x)

a b
where
2 2 2 2 m2 n2
k = ky + kz = π 2 + 2
a b
9.9
From problem 9.7 and 9.8, we know:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 m2 n2
kx = ω c−k =ω c−π 2 + 2
a b
For kx to be real, we have:
2 2 2 2 m2 n2
kx =ω c−π 2 + 2 >0
a b
m2 n2
i.e. ω ≥ πc +
a2 b2
Therefore, when m = n = 1, ω has the lowest possible value (the cut-off frequency) given by:

1 1
ωmin = πc a 2 + b 2
9.10
The dispersion relation of the waves of Problem 9.7 – 9.9 is given by:
2 2 2 2m2 n2
kx = ω c − π 2 + 2
a b
The differentiation of this equation gives:
2k dk = 2 ωdω
x x c2
ω dω = c2 or v v = c2
i.e. p g
kx dkx
9.11
Using boundary condition z = 0 at x = 0 in the displacement equation gives:
( A + A )ei(ωt−k y) + (A + A )ei(ωt+k y) = 0
2 2
1 4 2 3
which is true for any t and y if:
A1 = − A4 and A2 = − A3
so we have:
z = A1{ei[ωt−(k x+k 1 − ei[ωt−(−k1x+k2 y)]}+ A2{ei[ωt−(k1x−k2 y)] − ei[ωt−(−k1x−k2 y)]

2
y)]
= −2A i sin k xei(ωt−k2 y) + 2A i sin k xei(ωt+k2 y) (9.11.1)

1 1 2 1
i(ωt−k y) i(ωt+k y)
= −2i sin k1x[A1e 2 − A2e 2 ]
Using boundary condition z = 0 at y = 0 in equation (9.11.1) gives:
− 2i sin k1x( A1 − A2 )eiωt = 0

which is true for any t and x if:
A1 = A2
Therefore, equation (9.11.1) becomes:
z = −4A1 sin k1x sin k2 yeiωt
and the real part of z is given by:
zreal = −4A1 sin k1x sin k2 y cosωt (9.11.2)
Using boundary condition z = 0 at x = a in equation (9.11.2) gives:

n1π
sin k1a = 0 , i.e. k1 = , where n1 = 1,2,3,L .
a

Using boundary condition z = 0 at y = b in equation (9.11.2) gives:
n 2π
sin k2b = 0 , i.e. k2 = b , where n2 = 1,2,3,L.
9.12
Multiplying the equation of geometric progression series by e−hν kT on both sides gives:
e−hν kT N = e−hν kT ∑ Nn = N0[e−hν kT + e−2hν kT + e−3hν kT + L + e−(n+1)hν kT

]n
so we have:
N − e−hν kT
N = N0[1− lim e−(n+1)hν kT
]
= N0 n→∞
i.e.
N0
N = 1− e−hν kT
The total energy over all the n energy states is given by:
E = ∑En = ∑ Nnnhν = hν ∑ Nnn
n n n
= hνN0 (e−hν kT + 2e−2hν kT + 3e−3hν kT +L + ne−nhν kT )

Multiplying the above equation by e−hν kT on both sides gives:
Ee−hν kT = hνN0[e−2hν kT + 2e−3hν kT + 3e−4hν kT +L + ne−(n+1)hν kT ]

so we have:
E − Ee−hν kT = hνN0 lim[n→∞e−hν kT + e−2hν kT + e−3hν kT +L + e−nhν kT − ne−(n+1)hν kT ]
= hνN0e−hν kT lim[1+ e−hν kT + e−2hν kT +L + e−(n−1)hν kT −

ne−nhν kT ] n→∞
−nhν kT
−hν kT 1− e n
= hνN0e lim −hν kT − nhν kT
n→∞ 1− e e
= hνN e−hν kT 1
0 1− e−hν kT
hνe−hν kT
i.e. E = N0 (1− e−hν kT )2
Hence, the average energy per oscillator is given by:
hνe−hν kT
E N0 (1− e−hν kT )2 e−hν kT hν
ε =N = N0 = hν 1 − e−hν kT = ehν kT −1
1− e−hν kT
By expanding the denominator of the above equation for hν << kT , we have:
hν hν
ε = [1 + hν kT + (hν kT )2 2 + L] −1 ≈ hν kT = kT
which is the classical expression of Rayleigh-Jeans for an oscillator with two degrees of freedom.
Alternative derivation for E and ε :
∞
∑(nhνe−nhν kT )
E = Nε = N nhν where nhν = n=0 ∞
∑e−nhν kT
n=0
∞
∂
∴ nhν = − log
∂(kT )−1 ∑n=0 e−nhν kT
∂ 1
= − ∂(kT )−1 log 1− e−hν kT
hνe−hν kT
=
1− e−hν kT
N0hνe−hν kT
∴ E = N nhν = (1− e−hν kT )2
hν
and ε = nhν = e−hν kT −1

9.13
One solution of this Schrodinger’s time-independent equation can be written as:
ψ = X (x)Y ( y)Z (z)

Substituting this expression into the Schrodinger’s equation and dividing ψ on both sides of the
equation, we have:
1 ∂2 X (x) + 1 ∂2Y ( y) + 1 ∂2 Z (z) = − 8π 2m E

X (x) ∂x2 Y ( y) ∂y2 Z (z) ∂z2 h2
which yields:
∂2 X (x)
+ Ex X (x) = 0
2
∂x
∂ 2Y ( y) + E Y ( y) = 0
y
2
∂y
∂ 2Z (z)
+ Ez Z (z) = 0
2
∂z
2
where E , E , E are constants and satisfy: E + E + E =8π m E
x y z x y z h2
By solving the above three equations, we have:

X (x) = Cxei E x
x + Dxe−i E x
x
Y ( y) = Cyei E y
y + Dye−i E y
y
Z (z) = Czei E z
z + Dze−i E z
z
and
ψ = (Cxei E x
x + Dxe−i E x
x )(Cyei E y
y
+ Dye−i E y
y )(Czei E z
z
+ Dze−i E z
z )
where Cx , Dx ,Cy , Dy ,Cz , Dz are constants.
Boundary condition ψ = 0 at x = 0 gives Cx = −Dx , boundary condition ψ = 0 at
y = 0 gives Cy = −Dy , boundary condition ψ = 0 at z = 0 gives Cz = −Dz , so we

have:
ψ = CxCyCz (ei E x
x − e−i E x
x )(ei E y − e−i E y )(ei E z − e−i E z )
y y z z
= Asin Ex x sin Ey y sin Ez z

2
Using the above expression ψ , boundary condition ψ = 0 at x = Lx gives: Ex = lπ
L ,
rπ 2
boundary condition ψ=0 at x=L gives: E = , boundary condition ψ = 0 at
y y
L
y
2
nπ
x = Lz gives: E=
z L , where l, r, n = 0,1,2,L, so we have:
z
2 2 2
lπ rπ nπ 8π 2 m
+ + =
L L L h2 E
x y z
h2 l2 r2 n2
+
i.e. E = 8m L2 L2 + L2
x y z
When L = L = L = L , E = h2 (l 2 + r2 + n2 ). If E = E for l = 1 , r = n = 0 , the

2
x y z 8mL 0
next energy levels are given by:
E = 3E0 for l = r = n = 1.
E = 6E0 for l = r = 1,n = 2 ; l = n = 1, r = 2 and n = r = 1,l = 2 , which is a three-fold

degenerate state.
E = 9E0 for l = r = 2, n = 1 ; l = n = 2, r = 1 and n = r = 2,l = 1 which is a three-fold

degenerate state.
E = 11E0 for l = r = 1, n = 3 ; l = n = 1, r = 3 and n = r = 1,l = 3 which is a three-fold

degenerate state.
E = 12E0 for l = r = n = 2 .
E = 14E0 for l = 1, r = 2, n = 3 ; l = 1, n = 3, r = 2 ; l = 2, n = 1, r = 3 ;
l = 2, n = 3, r = 1 ; l = 3, n = 1, r = 2 and l = 3, n = 2, r = 1 which is a six-fold degenerate
state.
9.14
Planck’s Radiation Law is given by:
8πν 2 hν
Eν dν = dν
c3 ehν kT −1
At low energy levels hν << kT , by expansion of ehν kT in series, the above equation
becomes:
8πν 2 hν
Eν dν = dν
c3 hν 1 hν 2
1+ + +L −1
kT 2 kT
8πν 2 hν 8πν 2kT
≈ dν = dν
3
c hν kT c3
which is Rayleigh-Jeans expression
9.15
Using the variable x = ch λkT , energy per unit range of wavelength can be written as:
8πch(kTx)5 8π (kTx)5
Eλ = =
(ch)5 (ex −1) (ch)4 (ex −1)
Substitute the expression of Eλ into integral ∫0∞ Eλ dλ and, we have:

∞ ∞ 8π (kTx)5 ch
E dλ =
∫0 λ ∫0 (ch)4 (ex −1) d xkT
= ∫∞ 8π (kT )4 x3 dx
3
0 (ch) (ex −1)
= 8π (kT )4 × π 4
(ch)3
15
= 8π 5k 4 T 4
15c3h3
i.e.
∫0∞ Eλ dλ = aT 4
= 8π 5k 4
where a
15c3h3
9.16
Using the expression of Eλ in Problem 9.15, the wavelength λm at which Eλ is maximum should
satisfy the equation:
d E =0
dx λ
which yields:
d x5
dx (ex −1) = 0
i.e.
5x4 (ex −1) − ex x5
=0
(ex −1)2
x x
i.e. 1 − e =1
5
ch
where x = λ kT
9.17
The most sensitive wavelength to the human eye can be given by substituting the sun’s
temperature T = 6000[K ] into equation ch λm = 5kT , i.e.:
8 −34
λ = ch = 3×10 × 6.63×10 ≈ 4.7 ×10−7 [m]
m 5kT 5×1.38×10−23 × 6000
which is in the green region of the visible spectrum.
9.18
Substituting the tungsten’s temperature T = 2000[K ] into equation ch λm = 5kT , i.e.:
8 −34
λ = ch = 3×10 × 6.63×10 ≈ 14×10−7[m]
m 5kT 5×1.38×10−23 × 2000
which is well into infrared.
9.19
ν state shown in text page 250, 251, the
k + dk is given by:
As an analogy to the derivation of number of points in
number of points in k space between k and
1 (volume of spherical shell)
8 volume of cell
= 4πk 2dk ⋅ L 3
=
8π
Noting that for each value of k there are two allowed states, the total number of states in k space
between k and k + dk is given by:
4πk 2dk L3
P(k) = 2 ⋅ ⋅
8 π
From E = (h2 2m* )k 2 , we have k = (2m* h2 )E . By substitution into the above equation,
we get the number of states S(E)dE in the energy interval dE given by:
4π (2m* h 2 )3 2 Ed E L 3
S (E)dE = 2 ⋅
8 π
3 * 2 32 3 * 2 32
= L (2m h ) E dE = L (2m h ) E dE
2π 2 E 2π 2
Provided m ≈ m* and A = L3 , we have:
A 2m 3 2
S(E) = 2π 2 h2 E
Since Fermi energy level satisfies the equation:
∫0E f
S(E)dE = N
By substitution of the expression of S(E) , we have:
E
f A 2m 3 2
∫0 2π 2 h2 EdE = N
i.e.
A 2m 3 2 E3f 2
=N
2 2
2π h 32
which gives:
h2 3π 2 N 23
Ef = *
2m A
provided m ≈ m*

10.1
The wave form in the upper figure has an average value of zero and is an odd function
of time, so its Fourier series has a constant of zero and only sine terms. Since the
wave form is constant over its half period, the Fourier coefficient bn will be zero if
n is even, i.e. there are only odd harmonics and the harmonics range from 1,3,5 to
infinity.
The wave form in the lower figure has a positive average value and is a even function
of time, so its Fourier series has a constant of positive value and only cosine terms.
Since τ T ≠ 1 2 , there are both odd and even harmonics. The harmonics range from
1,2,3 to infinity.
10.2
Such a periodic waveform should satisfy: f (x) = − f (x − T 2) , where T is the period
of the waveform. Its Fourier coefficient of cosine terms can be written as:
2 T 2πnx
an = f (x) cos dx
T ∫0 T
2 T2 2πnx T 2πnx
= ∫0 f (x) cos dx +
∫T 2 f (x) cos dx
T T T
2 T2 2πnx T 2πnx
= ∫0 f (x) cos dx +
∫T 2 − f (x − T 2) cos d (x − T 2)
T T T
If n is even, we have
2πn(x − T 2) 2πnx 2πnx
cos = cos − nπ = cos
T T T
Hence, by substituting into an and using u = x − T 2 , we have:

du = 0
2 T2 2πnx T2 2πnu
dx −
an = ∫0 f (x) cos ∫0 f (u) cos
T T T
Similarly, the coefficient of sine terms is given by:
b = 2 T f (x)sin 2πnx dx
n
T ∫0 T
2 T2 2πnx T 2πnx
= ∫0 f (x)sin dx + ∫T 2 f (x)sin dx
T T T
2 T2 2πnx T 2πnx d (x − T 2)
= ∫0 f (x)sin +
dx ∫T 2 − f (x − T 2)sin
T T T
If n is even, using u = x − T 2 , we have:
2 T2 2πnx T2 2πnu
dx −
∫0 f (x)sin
bn = ∫0 f (u)sin du = 0
T T T
Therefore, if n is even, the Fourier coefficients of both cosine and sine terms are zero,
i.e. there are no even order frequency components.
10.3
The constant term of the Fourier series is given by:
1 1 2π 1 π h
a
2 0 = 2π ∫0 ydx = 2π ∫0 hsin xdx = π
The Fourier coefficient of cosine term is given by:
1 2π h π π ∫0 π∫
0
an = y cos nxdx = sin x cos nxdx

when n = 1, we have:
a = h π sin x cos xdx = h π sin 2xdx = 0
2π ∫0
1
when n > 1, we have: π ∫0

h
an = π ∫0π sin x cos nxdx
h
= 2 π ∫ 0π sin(1+ n)x + sin(1− n)xdx
π
h 1 1
=− cos(1 + n)x + cos(1 − n)x
2π 1 + n 1− n 0
which gives:
a =−h 2 ,a=0, a =− h 2 , a=0, a =−h 2 ,…
2 π 1⋅3 3 4 π3⋅ 5 5 6 π 5 ⋅7
The Fourier coefficient of sine term is given by:
1 2π h π
π ∫0 π ∫0
b= y sin nxdx = sin x sin nxdx
n
when n = 1, we have:
π π
b= h sin x sin xdx = h sin2 xdx = h
π ∫0 π ∫0
1
when n > 1, we have: 2
h
bn = π ∫0π sin x sin nxdx
h
=2 π ∫ 0π cos(1− n)x − cos(1+ n)xdx
π
h 1 1
= sin(1 − n)x + sin(1 + n)x
2π 1 − n 1+ n 0
=0

Overall, the Fourier series is given by:
∞ ∞
y = a0 + ∑an cos nx + ∑bn sin nx

1
2 1 1
h π 2 2 2
= 1 + sin x − cos 2x − cos 4x − cos 6xL
π 1⋅2 1⋅3 3 ⋅5 5⋅7
10.4
Such a wave form is a even function with a period of π . Hence, there are only
constant term and cosine terms.
The constant term is given by:
1 1 π 2h
a
2 0 = π ∫0 hsin xdx = π
which doubles the constant shown in Problem 10.3
The coefficient of cosine term is given by:
4h π 2 2πnx
an = π ∫0 sin x cos π dx
4 h π
= π ∫0 2
sin x cos 2nxdx
2 h
= π ∫ 0π 2
[sin(1+ 2n)x + sin(1− 2n)x]dx
2h 1 1 π2
=− cos(1 + 2n)x + cos(1 − 2n)x
π 1 + 2n 1− 2n 0
which gives:
a =− h 2 , a =−h 2 , a=− h 2 ,…
1 π 1⋅3 2 π 3⋅5 3 π 5⋅7
Therefore the Fourier series is given by:
∞
y = a0 + ∑an cos
1 2πnx
2 1 π
h 2 2 2
= 1− cos 2x − cos 4x − cos 6xL
π 1⋅3 3⋅5 5⋅7
h
Compared with Problem 10.3, the modulating ripple of the first harmonic sin x
2
disappears.
10.5
f (x) is even function in the interval ± π , so its Fourier series has a constant term
given by:
1 1 π 1 π 2 π2
x
2 a0 = 2π ∫ −π f (x)dx = 2π ∫−π dx = 3

2 π 2πnx
an = π ∫0 f (x) cos 2π dx
2
=π ∫0π x2 cos nxdx = n2π ∫0π x2d sin nx
2 2 π π 2 4 π
= x sin nx 0 − ∫0 sin nxdx = 2
∫0 xd cos nx
nπ nπ
4 π π 4 n 4
−
=
2 x cos nx 0 ∫0 cos nxdx = 2 cos nπ = (−1) 2
nπ n n
Therefore the Fourier series is given by:
∞ ∞
a0 + ∑an cos = π 2 + ∑(−1)n 2 cos nx

1 2πnx 1 4
f (x) =
2 1 2π 3 1 n
10.6
The square wave function of unit height f (x) has a constant value of 1 over its first
half period [0,π ], so we have:
f (π 2) = 1
By substitution into its Fourier series, we have:
4 π 1 3π 1 5π
f (π 2) ≈ sin + sin + sin =1
π 2 3 2 5 2
i.e.
1 1 1 π
1− 3+ 5− 7= 4
10.7
It is obvious that the pulse train satisfies f (t) = f (−t) , i.e. it is an even function. The
cosine coefficients of its Fourier series are given by:
4 τ 2πnx 4 T 2πnx τ 2 2π
an = cos dx = ⋅ sin = sin nτ
T ∫0 T T 2πn T 0 nπ T
10.8
As τ becomes very small, sin 2π nτ → 2π nτ , so we have:
T T
2 2π 2 2π 4τ
an = sin nτ ≈ ⋅ nτ =
nπ T nπ T T
We can see as τ → 0 , an → 0 , which shows as the energy representation in time

domain → 0 , the energy representation in frequency domain → 0 as well.
10.9
The constant term of the Fourier series is given by:
1 1 T2 1 1 τ 1 1
a
2 0 = T ∫−T 2 2τ dt = T ∫ −τ 2τ dt = T
τ
4 1 2πnt 4 T 1 2πnt τ 1 2πnτ
an = cos = ⋅
⋅ sin = sin
T ∫0 2τ T T 2τ 2πn T 0 nπτ T
As τ → 0 , we have:
1 2πnτ 1 2πnτ 2
sin an =≈ ⋅ =
nπτ T nπτ T T
Now we have the Fourier series given by:
∞ ∞
f (t) = a0 + ∑an cos
1 2πnt
=
1
+
2
∑cos 2πnt
2 n=1 T T T n=1 T
10.10
Following the derivation in the problem, we have:
1
f (t) = 2 π ∫−+∞∞F(ω)eiωt dω =
1 1
2 π ∫−+∞∞i ω (1− eiωT )eiωt dω =
1 1
2 π ∫−+∞∞i ω (1− eiωT )eiωt dω
1 +∞ 1 iωt 1 iω (t−T )
= ∫−∞ e dω − e
2π iω iω
Using the fact that for T very large:
1 iω (t−T ) 1
∫−+∞∞ iω e dω = ∫−+∞∞ iω e−iωT dω = −π
we have:
1 1 +∞ 1 iωt
f (t) = 2 + 2π ∫ −∞ iω e dω
10.11
Following the derivation in the problem, we have:

F (ν ) = ∫−+∞∞ f (t′)e−i 2πνt′dt′
= ∫−+ττ 22 f0e−i 2π (ν −ν0 )t′dt′

f +τ 2 −i 2π (ν −ν )t′
=
0
e 0 d[−i2π (ν −ν 0 )t′]
− i2π (ν −ν 0 ) ∫−τ 2
f0 −i 2π (ν −ν0 )τ 2 i 2π (ν −ν0 )τ 2
= − i2π (ν −ν 0 ) (e −e )
sin[π (ν −ν 0 )τ ]
= f0 τ
π (ν −ν 0 )τ
which shows the relative energy distribution in the spectrum given by:
sin2[π (ν −ν )τ ]
F (ν ) 2 = ( f τ )2 0
0 [π (ν −ν 0 )τ ]2
follows the intensity distribution curve in a single slit diffraction pattern given by:
2
I = I sin (πd sinθ λ)
0
(πd sinθ λ)2
10.12
The energy spectrum has a maximum when:
sin2[π (ν max −ν 0 )τ ]
2 =1
[π (ν max −ν 0 )τ ]
i.e. π (ν min −ν 0 )τ = 0 or ν min = ν 0
The frequencies for the minima of the energy spectrum are given by:
2
F (ν ) = ( f τ )2sin [π (ν min −ν 0 )τ ] = 0
min 0 [π (ν min −ν 0 )τ ]2
i.e. π (ν minn −ν 0 )τ = nπ or ν minn −ν 0 =n

τ
where n = −∞,L,−3,−2,−1,1,2,3,L,+∞
Hence, the total width of the first maximum of the energy spectrum is given by:
2 1
2 ν = ν min+1 −ν min−1 = τ or ν = τ
c
Using the differentiation of the relation ν = λ :
c
ν=λ 2 λ
we have

c 1 λ2
λ= or cτ =
λ2τλ
which is the coherence length l of Problem 10.11.
10.13
λ2
Use the relation λ = 0
ν , we have:
c
λ = (6.936×10−7 )2 ×104 ≈
1.6×10−17[m] 3×108
Then, using the result in Problem 10.12, the coherence length is given by:
λ2 (6.936×10−7 )2
= 3×104[m]
0
l= =
λ 1.6×10−17
10.14
Referring to pages 46 and 47 of the text, and in particular to the example of the
radiating atom, we see that the energy of the damped simple harmonic motion:
E = E0e−ω0t Q = E0e−1 where Q ω0 = t , the period for which the atom radiates
before cut off at e−1 .

The length of the wave train radiated by the atom is l = ct where c is the velocity of
light and l is the coherence length which contains Q radians.
Since the coherence length is finite the radiation cannot be represented by a single
angular frequency ω0 but by a bandwidth ω centred about ω0 .
Now Q = ω0 ω so Q ω0 = t = 1 ω . Writing t = t we have ωt

=1 or
ν t = 1 2π .
The bandwidth effect on the spectral line is increased in a gas of radiating atoms at
temperature T . Collisions between the atoms shorten the coherence length and the
Doppler effect from atomic thermal velocities adds to ν .
10.15
The Fourier transform of f (t) gives:
F (ν ) = ∫−+∞∞ f (t)e−i 2πνt dt = ∫−+∞∞ f0ei 2πν t e−t τ e−i 2πνt dt = ∫−+∞∞ f0e[i2π (ν
0 0
−ν )−1 τ ]t
dt
Noting that t ≥ 0 for f (t) , we have:

+∞
F (ν ) = ∫0
[i2π (ν 0 −ν )−1τ ]t
f 0e dt
f
=
i2π (ν 0 −ν ) −1 τ
0 {e [ i 2π (ν0 −ν )−1 τ ]t +∞ }
0
f0 f0
= − i2π (ν 0 −ν ) −1 τ = 1 τ + i2π (ν −ν 0 )
Hence, the energy distribution of frequencies in the region ν −ν 0 is given by:
2 f 2
f 2 f2 f2
F (ν ) = 0
= 0
2 = 2
0
2 = 2
0
2
1 τ + i2π (ν −ν 0 ) r (1 τ ) + [2π (ν −ν 0 )] (1 τ ) + (ω − ω0 )
10.16
In the text of Chapter 3, the resonance power curve is given by the expression:
F2 F 2r F 2r
P = 0
cosφ = 0
= 0
2
av 2Zm 2Zm 2[r + (ωm − s ω)2 ]
2
In the vicinity of ω0 = s m , we have ω ≈ ω0 , so the above equation becomes:
Pav ≈ F 2r 2[r2 + (ωm − s ω) 2 ] = 2[r2 + m2

F 2r(ω − ω0 )2
] = (1 τ )2 + (ω − ω0 )2 =
f2 F (ν ) 2
0 0 0
F 2r m
where f 2 = 0 and τ =
0 2m2 r
The frequency at half the maximum value of F (ν ) 2 is given by:
F (ν ) 2 f2 = (1 τ ) 2 + (ω − ω0 ) 2 =
( f τ )2 2
0 o
i.e. ω − ω0 = ±1 τ
so the frequency width at half maximum is given by:
ω = 2 τ or ν = 1 πτ
In Problem 10.12 the spectrum width is given by:

ν′=1τ
so we have the relation between the two respectively defined frequency spectrum
widths given by:
ν′
ν= π

λ0 2 2
′ λ0 ′
Noting that λ= c ν and λ =c ν , we have:
λ= λ′
π
where λ and λ′ are the wavelength spectrum widths defined here and in
Problem 10.12, respectively.
If the spectrum line has a value λ = 3×10−9 m in Problem 10.12, the coherence
length is given by:
2 −7 2
l = λ0 = λ0 2 = (5.46×10 ) ≈ 32×10−6 [m]
λ′ λπ 3×10−9 ×π
10.17
The double slit function (upper figure) and its self convolution (lower figure) are
shown below:
τ τ
2τ d −τ 2τ d −τ 2τ
Fig. A.10.17
10.18
The convolution of the two functions is shown in Fig. A.10.18.1.
⊗ =
d d d d
Fig. A.10.18.1

The respective Fourier transforms of the two functions are shown in Fig. A.10.18.2.
F( ) = 2d
d
1d
2d
F( ) =
d
1d
Fig. A.10.18.2
Hence, the Fourier transform of the convolution of the two functions is the product of
the Fourier transform of the individual function, which is shown in Fig. A.10.18.3

F( ⊗ )
d d
= F( ) × F( )
d
d
2d 2d
= ×
1d 1 d
2d
=
1d
Fig. A.10.18.3
10.19
The area of the overlap is given by:
1 1
A=2 r ⋅2θ − ⋅2r sinθ ⋅r cosθ
2 2
2
= r (2θ − 2sinθ cosθ )
where cosθ =
R
and sinθ = 1 −
R2
2r 4r 2
Hence the convolution is given by:
1
2 −1 R R 2 2 R
O(R) = r 2cos −21 − 2
2r 4r 2r

The convolution O(R) in the region [0,2r] is sketched below:
O(R)
πr2
0 2r R
Fig. A.10.19

11.1
r2
2R
1 z
′
A
B′
2
r r
2R
2 A B O
d f
R2
R1
Fig A.11.1
In a bi-convex lens, as shown in Fig A.11.1, the time taken by the wavefront to travel
through path AB is the same as through path A′B′ , so we have:
nd r 2 1 n r 2 r2 1 r 2
+ ⋅ = d+ − + z+
2R 2R
c 2R2 c c 2R2 1 c 1
which yields:
2
1 1 r
z = (n −1) R −R 2
1 2
1 1 1
i.e. P=f = (n −1) R −R
1 2
11.2
A
′ z B′
A B O
d f
Fig A.11.2
As shown in Fig A.11.2, the time taken by the wavefront to travel through path AB

′′
is the same as through path A B , so we have:
n d (n −αr2 )d z
=0 0
+
c c c
which yields:
z = αr2d
1
i.e. f =
2αd
11.3
Choosing the distance PF = λ 2 then, for the path difference BF − BF′ , the phase
difference is π radians.
Similarly for the path difference AF′ − AF the phase difference is π radians.
Thus for the path difference AF′ − BF′ the phase difference is 2π radians and the
resulting amplitude of the secondary waves is zero.
′ ′ x λ
Writing F F = x 2 , we then have in the triangle F FP : 2 sinθ = 2 , so the width of
λ
the focal spot is x = .
sinθ
11.4
If a man’s near point is 40cm from his eye, his eye has a range of accommodation of:
1
0. 4 = 2.5[dioptres]
Noting that a healthy eye has a range of accommodation of 4 dioptres, he needs
spectacles of power:
P = 4 − 2.5 = 1.5[dioptres]
If anther man is unable to focus at distance greater than 2m, his eye’s minimum
accommodation is:
1
2 = 0.5[dioptres]
Therefore, he needs diverging spectacles with a power of -0.5 dioptres for clear image
of infinite distance.
11.5
y′ l′ l′
Noting that = , we have the transverse magnification given by: MT = . The
y l l
β yl d0
angular magnification is given by: Mα = = = . Using the thin lens power
γ y d0 l

1 1 1 1 ′
equation: P = − l′ − − l , we have l = P + l′ , i.e. Mα = d0 (P + 1 l ) = Pd0 + 1
11.6
The power of the whole two-lens telescope system is zero, so we have:
P = P1 + P2 − LP1P2 = 0
where L is the separation of the two lenses. Noting that P= 1 and P = 1 , we

1 2
f0 fe
have:
1 + 1 −L 1 1 =0
f0 fe fo fe
which gives: L = f0 + fe
Suppose the image height at point I is h , we have:
α = d 2 L = h fo and α′ = D 2 L = h fe
which yields:
α′ fo D
Mα = = =
α fe d
11.7
As shown from Figure 11.20, the magnification of objective lens is given by:
M = − x′
f′
. Suppose the objective
o
lens is a thin lens, we have: P = 1f ′ o
i.e.
o o
M o = −Po x′ .
do
Similarly, the magnification of eye lens is given by: M = . Suppose the eye lens
e
fe′
is a thin lens, we have: P = 1f ′ i.e. M = P d .

e
e o e o
So we have the total magnification given by:

M = Mo M e = −Po Pedo x′

11.8
P α
Air
I O C n
Glass
Fig.A.11.8(a)
As shown in Fig.A.11.8(a), Snell’s law gives:

nsin ∠OPC = sinα = sin ∠IPC
In triangle OCP , we have:
OC PC
sin ∠OPC = sin ∠POC
R R
i.e. nsin ∠OPC = sin ∠POC
R R
i.e. sin ∠IPC = sin ∠POC
i.e. ∠IPC = ∠POC
i.e. ’s OPC and PIC are similar
OC PC
i.e. =
PC IC
PC 2 R2 = nR
i.e. IC = =
OC Rn
Alternative proof using Fermat’s Principle:
P α
Air
I O C B
n
Glass

Fig.A.11.8(b)
Equate optical paths
IP
n
i.e.
i.e.
that is
11.9
(a) The powers of the two spherical surfaces are given by:
P= n′ − n
1
Suppose a parallel incident ray

height of y1 . By using matrix method, we can find the ray angle
at the back surface of the system given by:
α
′
y
2
= 0
1 1
So the focal length is given by:

f=
The principal plane is located at a distance d

of the system, which is given by:
(b) The powers of the four spherical surfaces are given by:
1 R
2 R
3
R

P = n − n′ = 1 −1.5 = 0
4
R ∞
Suppose a parallel incident ray (α1 = 0) strikes the front surface of the system at a
′ ′
height of y1 . By using matrix method, we can find the ray angle α4 and height y4
α4′ α1
′ = R4T34 R3T23R2T12 R1
y y
4 1
1 P 1 0 1 P1 0 1 P 1 0 1 P α
= 4 3 2 1 1
0 1− d3′ 1 0 1 − d2′ 1 0 1 − d1′ 1 0 1 y

1
1 0 1 0 1 − 0.5 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
=
0 −
1 − 0.15 1 0 1 0.2 1 0 1 − 0.15 1 0 1 y1
= 0.6 y1
0.71y1
y y
f= 1
= 1 = 1.67[m]
α4 ′ 0.6 y1
The principal plane is located at a distance d to the left side of the right-end surface
′
d= y4 − y1 = 0.71y 1 − y1 = 0.48[m]
α 4′ 0.6 y1
(c) The powers of the four spherical surfaces are given by:
P = n′ − n = 1.5 −1 = 0
1 R ∞
P = n − n′ = 1−1.5 = 1
2 R − 0.5
P = n′ − n = 1.5 −1 = 1
3 R 0.5
P = n − n′ = 1 −1.5 = 0
4
R ∞
Suppose a parallel incident ray (α1 = 0) strikes the front surface of the system at a
′ ′
height of y1 . By using matrix method, we can find the ray angle α4 and height y4

α4′ α1
= R4T34 R3T23R2T12 R1
′
y y
4 1
1 P 1 0 1 P1 0 1 P 1 0 1 P α
11
= 4 3 2
0 1 y
0 1 − d3′ 1 0 1 − d2′ 1 0 1 − d1′ 1 1
1 01 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
=
0 1 − 0.15 1 0 1 − 0.6 1 0 1 − 0.15 1 0 1 y1

= 1.4 y1
0.19 y1
y y
f= 1
= 1 = 0.71[m]
α4′ 1.4 y1
The principal plane is located at a distance d to the left side of the right-end surface
′
d= y4 − y1 = 0.19 y 1 − y1 = 0.58[m]
α 4′ 1.4 y1

12.1
R R2
1
t
t2
t1
r
Fig.A.12.1
As shown in Fig.A.12.1, the air gap thickness t is given by:

2 2
t=t −t= r − r
2 1
2R2 2R1
Noting that there is a π rad of phase shift upon the reflection at the lower surface of
the air gap, the thickness of air gap at dark rings should satisfy:
2t = nλ
r2 r2
R −R
i.e. = nλ
2 1
which yields the radius rn of the nth dark ring given by:
R R nλ
r2 = 1 2
n R1 − R2
12.2
The matrix relating reflection coefficient r and transmission coefficient t for the
λ 4 film is given by:
cosδ i sin δ n 0 in
M= 2 = 2
in
in2 sin δ cosδ 2 0
where the phase change δ = π 2 for the λ 4 film.
Following the analysis in text page 352, we can find the coefficient A and B are given
by:
A = n1 (M11 + M12n3 ) = in1n3 n2

B = (M 21 + M 22n3 ) = in2
A perfect anti-reflector requires:

A − B in n n − in
R= = 1 3 2 2 =0
A + B in1n3 n2 + in2
which gives:
n22 = n1n3
12.3
As shown in page 357 of the text, the intensity distribution of the interference pattern
is given by:
δ
I = 4a2 cos2 2
where δ is the phase difference between the two waves transmitted from the two radio
masts to a point P and is given by:
2π 2π
δ = kf sinθ = f sinθ = × 400× sinθ = 4π sinθ
λ 3×10 1500×103
8
so we have:
4π sinθ
I = 4a2 cos2 = 2I0[1+ cos(4π
sinθ )] 2
where I0 = a2 represents the radiated intensity of each mast.
The intensity distribution is shown in the polar diagram below:
θ = 90o Imax = 4I0
θ = 150o θ = 30o
θ
θ = 180o θ = 0o
θ = 210o θ = 330o
θ = 270o
Fig.A.12.3

12.4
(a)
Analysis is the same as Problem 12.3 except:
2 π λ
δ = δ0 + kf sinθ = π + λ ⋅ 2 sinθ = π +
π sinθ Hence, the intensity distribution is given by:
2 2 δ 2 2 π + π sinθ 2 π sinθ
I = 4a cos = 4a cos = 4Is sin
2 2 2
where Is = a2 is the intensity of each source.

The polar diagram for I versus θ is shown below:
θ = 90o Imax = 4Is
θ
θ = 180o θ = 0o
θ = 270o
Fig.A.12.4(a)
(b)
In this case, the phase difference is given by:
δ = δ0 + kf sinθ = π + 2π ⋅ λ sinθ = π + π sinθ
2 λ 4 2
Hence, the intensity distribution is given by:
2 2 δ 2 2 π + π sinθ 2 π
I = 4a cos = 4a cos = 4Is cos (1 + sinθ )
2 4 4
where Is = a2 is the intensity of each source.

The polar diagram for I versus θ is shown below:

θ = 90o Imax = 4Is
I = 2Is θ I = 2Is
θ = 180o θ = 0o
θ = 270o
Fig.A.12.4(b)
12.5
(a)
θ θ
d
Fig.A.12.5(a)
Fig.A.12.5(a) shows elements of a vertical column and a horizontal row of radiators
in a rectangular lattice with unit square cells of side d . Rays leave each lattice point at
an angle θ to reach a distant point P . If P is simultaneously the location of the mth
spectral order of interference from the column radiation and the nth spectral order of
interference from the row radiation, we have from pages 364/5 the relations:
d sinθ = mλ and d cosθ = nλ
Thus
sinθ m
= tanθ =
cosθ n
where m and n are integers.
(b)

θ θ
d A C
d sinθ
B
Fig.A.12.5(b)
Waves scattered elastically (without change of λ ) by successive planes separated by
a distance d in a crystal reinforce to give maxima on reflection when the path
difference 2d sinθ = nλ . In Fig.A.12.5(b), the path difference ABC between the
incident and the reflected rays = 2d sinθ .
12.6
Using the Principal Maximum condition:
f sinθ = nλ
π
at θ = ± , we have: f = nλ , which shows the minimum separation of equal 2
When N = 4 , the intensity distribution as a function of θ is given by:
= sin2 (4π sinθ )

I Is
sin2 (π sinθ )
The N −1 = 3 points of zero intensity occur when:
f sinθ = λ , λ , 3λ
4 2 4
1 1 3
i.e. sinθ = , ,
4 2 4
The position of the N − 2 = 2 points of secondary intensity maxima should occur
between the zero intensity points and should satisfy:
dI = 0
dθ
dI d sin2 (4π sinθ )
I
i.e. = s 2 =0
dθ dθ sin (π sinθ )
2
i.e. 6cos (π sinθ ) −1 = 0

1 1
which yields: sinθ = arccos ±
π 6
i.e. secondary intensity maxima occur when θ = 21.5o and θ = 39.3o .

The angular distribution of the intensity is shown below:
I
θ = 90o max = 16Is
I
θ = 150o θ = 30o
θ
θ = 180o θ = 0o
θ = 210o θ = 330o
θ = 270o
12.7
The angular width of the central maximum δθ is the angular difference between +1
and -1 order zero intensity position and should satisfy:
2λ 2 × 0.21 −3 ′
sinδθ = Nf = 32 × 7 = 1.875 ×10 or δθ = 6
The angular separation between successive principal maxima θ is given by:
λ 0.21 o ′
sin θ = f = 7 = 0.03 or θ = 1 42

12.8
90o 90o
120o 60o 120o 60o
150o 30o 150o 30o
180o 0o 180o 0o
210o dλ=1 330o 210o dλ=2 330o
240o 300o 240o 300o

270o 270o
90o 90o
120o 60o 120o 60o
150o 30o 150o 30o
180o 0o 180o 0o
dλ=4
210o dλ=3 330o 210o 330o
240o 300o 240o 300o
270o 270o
Fig.A.12.8
The above polar diagrams show the traces of the tip of the intensity of diffracted light
I for monochromatic light normally incident on a single slit when the ratio of slit
width to the wavelength d λ changes from 1 to 4. It is evidently shown that the
polar diagram becomes concentrated along the direction θ = 0 as d λ becomes larger.
12.9
It is evident that α = 0 satisfies the condition: α = tanα .
By substitution of α = 3π 2 − δ into the condition: α = tanα we have:
3π 2 − δ = tan(3π 2 − δ )

i.e. 3π 2 − δ = cotδ
i.e. (3π 2 − δ )sinδ = cosδ
when δ is small, we have:

δ2
(3π 2 − δ )δ = 1 −
2
The solution to the above equation is given by: δ = 0.7π .
Using the similar analysis for α = 5π 2 − δ and α = 7π 2 − δ , we can find
δ = 0.041π and δ = 0.029π respectively. Therefore the real solutions for α are
α = 0,±1.43π ,±2.459π ,3.471π ,etc .
12.10
If only interference effects are considered the intensity of this grating is given by:
sin2 3β
I = I0 2
sin β
The intensity of the principal maximum is given by: Imax = 9I0 when β = 0 .
The β for the secondary maximum should satisfy:

d sin2 3β
=
0 dβ sin2 β
i.e. sin2 β = 1
β
i.e. = (2n +1) π , where
sec_ max n is integer
2
Hence, at the secondary maximum:
sin2 3βsec_ max 1
I =I =I = I
sec_ max 0 sin2 βsec_ max 0 9 max
12.11
Suppose a monochromatic light incident on a grating, the phase change dβ required
to move the diffracted light from the principal maximum to the first minimum is
given by:
πf sinθ πf πf λ π
dβ = d = d (sinθ ) = ⋅ =
λ λ λ Nf N

Since N is a very large number, we have:
π
≈0 dβ =
N
Then, suppose a non-monochromatic light, i.e. λ is not constant, incident on the
same grating, the phase change dβ required to move the diffracted light from the
principal maximum to the first minimum should be the same value as given above, so
we have:
πf sinθ πf 1
dβ = d = d (sinθ ) + πf sinθd
λ λ λ
πf πf sinθ π
= cosθdθ − dλ = ≈0
2
λλ N
which gives:
dθ = (nN cotθ )−1
12.12
(a)
The derivative of the equation:
f sinθ = nλ
gives:
f cosθdθ = ndλ
when θ is a small angle we have:

d θ n
d λ= f
When the diffracted light from the grating is projected by a lens of focal length F on
the screen, the relation between linear spacing on the screen l and the diffraction angle
θ is given by:
l = Fθ
Its derivative over λ gives:
dl d θ nF
d λ=F d λ= f
(b)
Using the result given above, the change in linear separation per unit increase in
spectral order is given by:
dl Fdλ 2× (5.2×10−7 − 5×10−7 )
= = = 2×10−2[m]
n f 2×10−6

12.13
(a)
Using the resolving power equation:
λ
= nN
dλ
we have:
λ (5.89 ×10−7 + 5.896 ×10−7 ) 2
N= = ≈ 328
ndλ 3× (5.896 ×10−7 − 5.89 ×10−7 )
(b)
Using the resolving power equation:
λ
= nN
dλ
we have:
−7
dλ = λ = 6.5×10 = 2.4×10−12[m]
nN 3× 9×104
12.14
When the objects O and O′ are just resolved at I and I′ the principal
maximum of O and the first minimum of O′ are located at I . Rayleigh’s criterion
thus defines the path difference:
′ ′ ′ ′
O BI − O AI = O B − O A = 1.22λ (BI = AI )
Also OB = OA giving
′ ′
(O B − OB) + (OA − O A) = 1.22λ
Fig.Q.12.14 shows OA parallel to ′ and OB parallel to
OA
′ O B , so:
′ ′ = OO ′ sin i = s sin i
OA − O A = O C
and
′ ′ ′ ′ sin i = s sin i
O B − OB = O C = OO
We therefore write:
1.22λ 1.22λ
s ≈ 2sin i or s = 2sin i if i = 45o
O′
C C′
ii
i
O
B

Fig.A.12.14
13.1
For such an electron, the uncertainty of momentum p roughly equals the magnitude of
momentum p , and the uncertainty of radius r roughly equals the magnitude of radius r . So
we have:
p ≈ p = h ≈h
r r
By substitution of the above equation into the expression of electron energy, we have:
2 2 2 2 2
E= p − e =h r − e
2m 4πε0r 2m 4πε0r
(13.1.1)
The minimum energy occurs when dE dr = 0 , i.e.:
2
d r2 e2
−
h
=0
r
dr 2m 4πε 0
e2
− h +
2
i.e. =0
mr3 4πε0r2
which yields the minimum Bohr radius given by:
r = 4πε0h2 = ε0h2
me2 πme2
By substitution into equation 13.1.1, we find the electron’s ground state energy given by:
2
h 2
πme 2 e 2 πme 2 − me 4
E0 = 2 − 2 = 2 2
h
2m ε 0 4πε0 ε0h 8ε0 h
13.2
Use the uncertainty relation px≈h we have:
x≈ h ≥ h
p p
Photons’ energy converted from mass m is given by:
E = pc = mc2

So, the momentum of these photons is given by:
p = mc
Therefore, these photons’ spatial uncertainty should satisfy:
h
x ≥ mc
which shows the short wavelength limit on length measurement, i.e. the Compton wavelength, is
given by:
h
λ = mc
By substitution of electron mass: m = 9.1×10−31[kg] into the above equation, we have the
e
Compton wavelength for an electron given by:
h 6.63×10−34
λ = m c = 9.1×10−31 × 3×108 ≈ 2.42×10−12[m]
e
13.3
The energy of a simple harmonic oscillation at frequency ω should satisfy:
2 2
E = p + 1 mω2 x2 ≥ p + 1 mω2 x2
2m 2 2m 2
2
The relation: ( x2 )( p2 ) ≈ h gives: p2 ≈ h2 , by substitution into the above equation,
4 4 x2
we have:
p2 1 h2 1 h2 1
E≥ + mω 2 x 2 = + mω 2 x 2 ≥ 2 mω 2 x 2
2m 2 8m x2 2 8m x2 2
1 1
= 2 hω = 2 hν
1
i.e. the simple harmonic oscillation has a minimum energy of hν .
2
13.4
When an electron passes through a slit of width x , the intensity distribution of diffraction
pattern is given by:
sin2 α π
I=I , where α = x sinθ
0 α 2 λ
The first minimum of the intensity pattern occurs α=π,
π
when i.e. α= x sinθ = π
λ
Noting that λ = h p , we have:

π
α= xp sinθ = π
h
i.e. xp=h
where p = p sinθ is the change of the electron’s momentum in the direction parallel to the
plane of the slit. This relation is in accordance with Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
13.5
The angular spread due to diffraction can be seen as the half angular width of the principal
maximum θ of the diffraction pattern. Use the same analysis as Problem 13.4, we have:
α = π d sinθ ≈ π d θ = π
λ λ
λ 10−5 o ′
i.e. θ = d = 10−4 = 0.1 ≈ 5 44
13.6
The energy of the electron after acceleration across a potential difference V is given by:
E = eV , so its momentum is given by: p = 2me E = 2meeV , therefore its de Broglie

wavelength is given by:
λ= h = h = 6.63×10−34 = 1.23×10−9V −1 2[m]

p 2meeV 2× 9.1×10−31 ×1.6×10−19V
13.7
From problem 13.6 we have:
1.23×10−9 1.23×10−9
V12 = = = 4.1
λ 3×10−10
∴V = 16.81[V]
13.8
2
The energy per unit volume of electromagnetic wave is given by: E = 1 ε E , where E is the
E = mc2 = pc ,
2 0 0 0
electric field amplitude. For photons of zero rest mass, the energy is given by:
where p is the average momentum per unit volume associated with this2electromagnetic wave.
So we have:
1
2 ε0 E02 = pc
i.e. p = 1 ε E2 c
2 0 0
The dimension the above equation is given by:
C ⋅ W ⋅ m-2 = A ⋅s ⋅ kg ⋅ m2 ⋅ m-2 = kg ⋅ m-1 ⋅s-1

F ⋅ V2 ⋅ m-2 C ⋅ V ⋅ m-2 =
=
m ⋅s-1 m ⋅s-1 m ⋅s-1 ⋅ Am ⋅s-1 ⋅s3 ⋅ A
which is the dimension of momentum.
13.9
When the wave is normally incident on a perfect absorber, all the photons’ velocity changes from
c to 0, the radiation pressure should equal the energy density of the incident wave, i.e.:
1
P = cp − 0 = cp = 2 ε0 E02
When the wave is normally incident on a perfect reflector, all the photons’ velocity changes to the
opposite directing but keeps the same value, hence, the radiation pressure is given by:
P = cp − (−cp) = 2cp = ε0 E02
13.10
Using the result of Problem 13.9, we have the radiation pressure from the sun incident upon the
perfectly absorbing surface of the earth given by:
P = 1 × 1 ε E2 = 1 × I = 1 × 1.4 ×103 = 1.5 ×10−6[Pa] ≈

10−11[atm] 3 2 0 0 3 c 3 3×108
13.11
Using the result of Problem 13.3, we have the minimum energy, i.e. the zero point energy, of such
an oscillation given by:
1 1
2 hν = 2 × 6.63×10−34 × 6.43×1011 = 2.13×10−22[J] = 1.33×10−3[eV]
13.12
The probability of finding the mass in the box is given by the integral:
a a
1 π 2x 2 2
∫−a ψ (x)
2 dx =
∫−a 1 − 2
dx
1 π x a π
x 8a
a 2 2 4 4
=
∫−a 1 − 2 + 4 dx
a 4a 64a
2π 2 2π 4
=2− + ≈
0.96 12 320
The general expression of the wave function is given by: ψ = Ceikx + De−ikx , where A, B are
constants. Using boundary condition at x = a and
x = −a , we have:

ψ (a) = Ceika + De−ika = 0
ψ (−a) = Ce−ika + Deika = 0
which gives: C = D , so we have:
ψ = Ceikx + Ce−ikx = Acos kx

where A = 2C .
Boundary condition: ψ = 0 at x = a gives: cos ka = 0 , i.e.:
1π
k =n + , where n = 0,1,2,3,L
2a
Hence, the ground state equation is given by letting n = 0 , i.e.:
πx
ψ = Acos
2a
By normalization of the wave function, we have:
2
∫−+∞∞ ψ (x) dx = 1
+∞ 2 2 πx
i.e. ∫−∞ A cos dx = 1
2a
i.e. ∫−+aa A2 1+ cos(πx a) dx = 1

2
i.e. A=1 a
Therefore the normalized ground state wave function is:
ψ (x) = (1 a ) cos(πx 2a)

which can be expanded as:
2 2
2
1 1 πx 1 πx
ψ (x) = 1− + L≈ 1 − 2
a 2 2a a 8a
n1 = n2 = n3 = 1.
13.13
At ground state, i.e. at the bottom of the deep potential well,
By normalization of the wave function at ground state, we have:

πx πy πz 2
∫∫∫ ψ (xyz) 2
dV = ∫0 c
∫0 ∫0
b a
Asin a
sin
b
sin
c
dxdydz
2 a πx 2 a πy 2 a πz 2
=A ∫0 sin dx ⋅∫0sin dy ⋅∫0 sin dz
a b c
2 a 1 1 2πx b 1 1 2πy c 1 1 2πz
=A ∫0 − cos dx ⋅∫0 − cos dy ⋅∫0 − cos dz
2 2 a 2 2 b 2 2 c
= A2 ⋅a ⋅b ⋅c = 1
2 2 2
i.e. A = 8 abc
13.14
Text in page 426 shows number of electrons per unit volume in energy interval dE is given by:
2 × 4π (2m 3 )1 2 E 1 2
dn = dE
h3
and the total number of electrons given by:
3 12
N = 16π (2m ) e
E3 2
F
3
3h
so we have the total energy of these electrons given by:
dn
U = ∫ Edn = ∫0E f E dE dE
Ef 2× 4π (2m3 )1 2 E3 2
=
∫0 h 3 dE
3 12 52
= 16π (2m ) EF = 3 NE
5h3 5 F
13.15
Noting that Copper has one conduction electron per atom and one atom has a mass of m0 =
1.66×10−27 kg , the number of free electrons per unit volume in Copper is given by:
n = ρ = 9×103 ≈ 8×1028[m-3 ]
0 64m 64×1.66×10−27
0
Using the expression of number of electrons per unit volume in text of page 426, we have the
Fermi energy level of Copper given by:
− 23
n ⋅3h3 23 8×1028 × 3× (6.63×10 34 )3 −
EF = 0
= ≈ 1.08×10 18[J] = 7[eV]

16π 2m3 16π × 2× (9.1×10−31 )3
e

13.16
By substitution of values of x , V − E , and m into the expression e−2αx , we have:

For an electron:
−31 −19 −34 −10
e−2αx = e−2[ 2me (V −E ) h ]x = e−2 2×9.1×10 ×1.6×10 (6.63×10 )

2π ×2×10 = e−2.05 ≈ 0.1
For a proton:
−27 −19 −34 −10
−2
e −2αx = e [ 2mp (V −E ) h ]x = e
−2 2×1.67×10 ×1.6×10 (6.63×10 )
2π ×2×10 = e −87.4 ≈ 10 −38
13.17
Text in page 432-434 shows the amplitude reflection and transmission coefficients for such a
particle are given by:
r = B = k1 − k2 and t = C = 2k1
A k +k A k +k
1 2 1 2
where,
k = 2mE and k = 2m(E − V )

1 2
h h
If V is a very large negative value at x > 0 , we have the amplitude reflection coefficient given by:
r = lim 2mE − 2m(E −V ) = −1

→−∞ 2mE + 2m(E −V )V
and the amplitude transmission coefficient given by:
t = lim 2 2mE =0
V →−∞ 2mE + 2m(E −V )
i.e. the amplitude of reflected wave tends to unity and that of transmitted wave to zero.
13.18
The potential energy of one dimensional simple harmonic oscillator of frequency ω is given by:
1
V= 2 mω2 x2
By substitution into Schrödinger’s equation, we have:
d 2ψ 2m 1 2 2
2 + 2 E− mω x ψ = 0
dx h 2
(13.18.1)
Try ψ (x) = a π e−a2x2 2 in dψ dx :

2 2
−a x
dψ = −a2 x a e 2
dx π
so:
2 −a2x2 −a2x2 −a2x2
dψ a a a
2
= −a2 e 2 + a4 x2 e 2 = (a4 x2 − a2 ) e 2
dx π π π
In order to satisfy the Schrödinger’s equation (13.18.1), we should have:
2mE m2ω2
a2 = 2 and 2
= a4
h h
which yields:
h2 a 2 1
E0 = = hω
2m 2
Try ψ (x) = a2 π 2axe−a x 2 2

2 in dψ dx :
−a2x2 −a2x2 −a2x2
dψ = 2a a e 2 − 2a x a e
3 2
2 = (2a − 2a x ) a e
3 2
2
dx 2π 2π 2 π
so:
2 −a2x2 −a2x2 − a2x2
dψ a a a
2
= −4a3 x e 2 + (2a5 x3 − 2a3 x) e 2 = (2a5 x3 − 6a3 x) e 2
dx 2π 2π 2π
In order to satisfy the Schrödinger’s equation (13.18.1), we should have:
2 2
3a2 = 2mE and m ω = a4
h2 h2
which yields:
E = 3h2a2 = 3 hω
1 2m 2
13.19
When n = 0 :
N0 = (a π 1 2 200!)1 2 = a π
H0 (ax) = (−1)0 ea2x2 e−a2x2 = 1

Hence:
ψ 0 = N0 H0 (ax)e−a2x2 2 = a π e−a2x2 2
When n = 1:
N = (a π 1 2 211!)1 2 = a 2 π
1

2 2
1a x d −a2x2 a2x2 −a2x2
H1 (ax) = (−1) e d (ax) e = −e ⋅e ⋅ (−2ax) = 2ax
Hence:
ψ = N H (ax)e−a2x2 2 = a2 π 2axe−a x 2 2
2
1 1 1
When n = 2 :
a2π
N2 = (a π 1 2 222!)1 2 = a 8 π =
2
d2
H (ax) = (−1) e 2 a2x2
e−a x = −2 + 4a2 x2
2 2
2 d (ax)2
Hence:
ψ 2 = N2 H2 (ax)e−a2x2 2 = a 2 π (2a2 x2 −1)e−a2x2 2
When n = 3 :
a3π
N3 = (a π 1 2 233!)1 2 = a 48 π =
4
d3
H (ax) = (−1)3 ea2x2 e−a x
2 2
= 8a3 x3 −12ax
3 d (ax)3
Hence:
ψ 3 = N3H3 (ax)e−a2x2 2 = a 3 π (2a3 x3 − 3ax)e−a2x2 2
13.20
The reflection angle θr and reflection wavelength λd should satisfy Bragg condition:
2a sinθr = λr
where a is separation of the atomic plane of the nickel crystal. Hence the reflected electron
momentum pr should satisfy:
pr = h = h
λr 2a sinθr
Hence, the reflected electron energy is given by:

p2 h2
E = = r
r 2m 8m a2 sin2 θ
e e r
(6.63×10−34 )2
= 8× 9.1×10−31 × (0.91×10−10 )2 × sin2 65o
= 8.88×10−19[J] = 55.5[eV]
The difference between the incident and scattered kinetic energies is given by:
E −E
r i = 55.5 − 54 ×100% = 2.8% < 3.9%
Ei 54
13.21
For ψ = sin ka :
Since ψ ,ψ * ,V are all periodic functions with a period of a , we have:
a 2 2πmx
∫0
*
∫ψ Vψdx
∞ sin kxVm cos dx
= −∑
a
E= * a
∫ψ ψdx m=1 ∫ sin2 kxdx

0
1− cos (2πnx a)
a 2πmx
= − ∑ Vm
∞
∫0 2
cos
a
dx
a 1− cos (2πnx a)
∫0
m=1
2 dx
1 a 2πnx 2πmx
∞ − 2 ∫0 cos ⋅cos dx
= −∑Vm
a a
m=1 a2
1 a 2π (m + n)x 2π (m − n)x
2 ∫0
∞ cos + cos dx
= a a
∑Vm
m=1 a
The above equation has non-zero term only when m = n , so we have:
a
4πnx
∫0 cos a +1 dx a 1
E = Vn 2a = Vn 2a = 2 Vn
For ψ = cos ka :

a 2 2πmx
∫0 ∞ cos kxVm cos dx
*
∫ψ Vψdx
= −∑
a
E= * a
∫ψ ψdx m=1 ∫0 cos2 kxdx

a 1+ cos (2πnx a) 2πmx
= −∑Vm
∞
∫0 2
cos
a
dx
a 1+ cos (2πnx a)
∫
m=1
0
2 dx
1 ∫0a cos 2πnx ⋅cos 2πmx dx
∞
= −∑Vm
2 a a
m=1 a2
1 a 2π (m + n)x 2π (m − n)x
cos
∞
2 ∫ 0
a + cos a
dx
= −∑Vm
m=1 a
The above equation has non-zero term only when m = n , so we have:
a 4πnx
∫0cos a +1
dx
a 1
E = −Vn 2a = −Vn 2a = − 2 Vn

14.1
For θ0 < 30o , we have:
1 2 30o
T < T0 1 + sin = 1.017T0
4 2
i.e. T − T0 = 1.7% < 2%

T
0
For θ0 = 90o , we have:
1 2 90o
T = T0 1 + sin = 1.125T0
4 2
i.e. T − T0 = 12.5%
T0
14.2
Multiplying the equation of motion by 2 dx dt and integrating with respect to t gives:
dx 2 x
m = A − 2∫0 f (x)dx
dt
dx
where A is the constant of integration. The velocity dt is zero at the maximum
displacement x = x0 , giving A = 2∫0x0 f (x)dx .

dx 2 x0 x
i.e. m =2
∫0 f (x)dx − 2∫0 f (x)dx = 2F (x0 ) − 2F (x)
dt
i.e. dx = 2 [F (x ) − F(x)]
0
dt m
Upon integration of the above equation, we have:

m dx
t=∫ 2 F (x ) − F(x)
0
If x = 0 at time t = 0 and τ 0 is the period of oscillation, then x = x0 at t = τ 0 4 ,

so we have:
m x0 dx
τ0 = 4 2 ∫ F (x ) − F (x)
0
0
14.3
By substitution of the solution into &x& :
∞
n2 n n2 n
& x& = ∑ − a n cos φ − bn sin φ
n=1 9 3 9 3
Since s3 << s1 , we have s(x) ≈ s1x , so:
∞ n2 n n 2
n
&x& + s(x) = ∑ an s1 − cos φ + bn s1 − sin φ = F0 cosωt
n=1 9 3 9 3
∞
n2 n n 2
n
i.e. ∑
a s
n 1 − cos φ +b s
n 1
− sin φ = F0 cosφ
n=1 9 3 9 3
i.e.
The above equation is true only if bn = 0 and the even numbered cosine terms are
zero. By neglecting the zero terms, we have:
a3 (s1 −1) cosφ + a9 (s1 − 9) cos3φ +L = F0 cosφ
i.e. a3 (s1 −1) cosφ + a9 (s1 − 9)(4cos3 φ − 3cosφ) +L = F0 cosφ
i.e. [a3 (s1 −1) − 3a9 (s1 − 9)]cosφ + 4a9 (s1 − 9) cos3 φ +L = F0 cosφ
As we can see, only a3 and a9 are the main coefficients in the solution, i.e. the
fundamental frequency term and its third harmonic term are the significant terms in
the solution.
14.4
Since V = V0 at r = r0 , by expanding V at r0 , we have:
= + dV V dV
2
(r − r0 ) 2 +L
(r − r0 ) + 2
V0 dr r0 dr r
0

Noting that:
dV r6 r12
= 12V 0
− 0
=0
dr 0 r7 r13
r0 0 0
dV
2 12
13r0 7r0
6 V0
dr 2 = 12V0 r14 − r8 = 72 r2
r 0 0 0
0
We have:
72V
V = V0 + 0 (r − r0 )2 +L
r0 2
The expression of potential energy for harmonic oscillation is
given by:
1 72V
V = V0 + sx2 , hence s = 0 , and the oscillation frequency is given by:
2r02
s 72V
ω2 = = 0m
mr02
14.5
The restoring force of this oscillator is given by:
dV (x)
F (x) = − = −kx + ax2
dx
Hence, the equation of motion is given by:
m&x& = F(x)
k a
i.e. &x& + x − x2 = 0
m m
At ω02 = ω2 = k m , using α = a m , the equation of motion becomes:
&x& + ω02 x − αx2 = 0
2
try the solution x = Acosω t + B sin 2ω t + x in the above equation with x= A
2
0 0 1 1 2ω0
αA2 αx
1
and B = − 2 =− , we have:
6ω0 3
x& = x&1 − ω0 Asinω0t + 2ω0 B cos 2ω0t

4
&x& = &x&1 − ω02 Acosω0t − 4ω02 B sin 2ω0t = &x&1 − ω02 Acosω0t − αω02 x1 sin 2ω0t (a)
3
x2 = x2 + A2 cos2 ωt + B2 sin 2 2ω t + 2AB cosω t sin 2ωt + 2(Acosω t + B sin 2ω t)x
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

− αx2 = −αx12 −αA2 cos2 ω0t −αB2 sin2 2ω0t − 2αAB cosω0t sin 2ω0t
− 2α (Acosω0t + B sin 2ω0t)x1
where
−αA2 cos2 ω t = −2αω 2 x cos2 ω t (b)
0 0 1 0
2
−αB2 sin2 2ω t = − α x2 sin2 2ω t (e)
0 9 1 0
2 2
− 2αAB cosω t sin 2ω t= α Acosω t sin 2ω t x (c)
0 0 3 0 0 1
− 2αAx1 cosω0t − 2αBx1 sin 2ω0t = −2αAx1 cosω0t (d)
2
+ 3 α 2 x12 sin 2ω0t (f)
Using (a)(b)(c)(d) the coefficients of x1 are:
4
ω0 2 − 3 αω02 sin 2ω0t − 2αω02 cos2 ω0t − 2α 2 Acosω0t sin 2ω0t −
2αAcosω0t which with α << ω02 leaves ω02 x1 as the only significant term.
Similarly using (e) and (f) the coefficients of x12 are:
α2 2
−α − sin 2ω0t + α 2 sin 2ω0t
93
with −αx2 the dominant term. (Note x2 ∝ 1 ).

1 1 ω4
0
We therefore have &x&1 + ω02 x1 −αx12 = 0 as a good approximation to the original

equation.
14.6
Extending the chain rule at the bottom of page 472 and noting that the fixed point x0
is the origin of the cycle: x* → x* → x* → x* which are fixed points for f 2 when
1 2 1 2
λ > 3 and also noting that x = f (x ) and x*= f (x* ) , we have:

* *
1 2 2 1
4
2' * ′ * ′ * 2' * ′ * ′ *
f (x2 ) = f (x1 ) f (x2 ) and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) f (x1 )
So the slopes of f 2 at x* and x* are equal.
1 2

14.7
The fractal dimension of the Koch Snowflake is:
log 4
d= = 1.262
log3
The Hausdorff–Besicovitch definition uses a scaling process for both integral and
fractal dimensions to produce the relation:
c = ad
where c is the number of copies(including the original) produced when a shape of
dimensions d has its side length increased by a factor a .
Thus, for a = 2
(i) a line d = 1 has c = 2
(ii) a square d = 2 has c = 4
(iii) a cube d = 3 has c = 8
(iv) an equilateral triangle with a horizontal base produces 3 copies to give
= log3 =
d 1.5849 (a fractal)
log 2

15.1
In the energy conservation equation the internal energy:
e=cT= 1 p
V
γ −1 ρ
so the two terms:
p γ p
e+ =
ρ γ −1 ρ
p
In the reservoir there is no flow energy, so its total energy is internal = γ = 1 c2 , 0
γ −1 ρ0 γ −1 0
where c0 is the velocity of sound in the reservoir.
When the diaphragm where is flow along the tube of velocity u and energy 1 2u2 so the total
energy of flow along the tube is:

1 2 γ p* 1 *
2
1 *
2
1 1 *
2
u + = c + c = + c
2 γ −1 ρ* 2 γ −1 2 γ −1
*
* 2 *2 γp
where u = c ,u =c = .
ρ*
Hence,
1 2 + (γ −1) *2 γ +1 *
2
c 2= c = c
γ −1 0 2(γ −1) 2(γ −1)
If the wavefront flows at a velocity u1 with a local velocity of sound c1 , the energy
conservation condition gives:
1 u2 + 1 c 2 = γ + 1 c * 2
2 1 γ −1 1 2(γ −1)
2 2
1 1 c1
γ +1 c
*
i.e. 2 + γ −1 u
=
2(γ −1) u
1 1
1 1 γ +1
i.e. + =
2 (γ −1)M s2 2(γ −1)M *2
(γ +1)M s2
i.e. M *2 =
(γ −1)M s2 + 2
15.2
Energy conservation gives
1 1 1 1 γ+1
c2 + u2 = γ −1 c2 + 2 u2 = c*2 from Problem 15.1
γ −1 1 21 2 2 2(γ −1)
So
c2 + γ −1 u2 = c2 + γ −1 u2 =γ + 1 c*2
1 2 1 2 2 2 2
(A)
Momentum conservation gives
u
c + γu = ρ2 (c2 + γu2 ) =
2 2 1
(c2 + γu2 )
1 1 2 2 u 2 2
ρ1 2
(B)
2
Combine equations A and B to eliminate c and c 2 and rearrange terms to give
1 2
γ + 1 c*2 − γ −1 u2 + γu2 = u1 γ + 1 c*2 − γ −1 u 2 + γu2

1 1 2 2
2 2 u2 2 2
γ +1 u γ +1
i.e. (c*2 + u2 ) = 1
(c*2 + u2 )
1 2
2 u2 2
i.e. (u − u )c*2 = (u u2 − u u2 ) = u u (u − u )
1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
i.e. c*2 = u u
1 2
15.3
The three conservation equations are given by:
ρ1u1 = ρ2u2
(15.3.1)
p + ρ u2 = p + ρ u2
1 1 1 2 2 2
(15.3.2)
1 u2 + e + p1 = 1 u2 + e + p2
21 1 ρ 2 2 2 ρ
1 2
(15.3.3)
Using equation 15.3.1 and 15.3.2 to eliminate u1 gives:

ρ2 −ρ ρ 2
2 1 u2 =p−p
2 2 1
ρ1
(15.3.4)
Using equation 15.3.1 and 15.3.3 and the relation
e=cT= 1 p
V
γ −1 ρ
to eliminate u1 gives:
ρ2 − ρ1
2 2
2 γ p
2
p1
2ρ 2 u2 = γ −1 ρ − ρ
1 2 1
(15.3.5)
Then, using equation 15.3.4 and 15.3.5 to eliminate u2 , we have:
ρ2 + ρ 1 = γ ( ρ p − ρ p ) 1
2 γ −1 1 2 2 1 p − p
2 1
ρ2 ρ1 +1 γ p 2 p 1 − ρ2 ρ 1
i.e. 2 = γ −1 p p −1
2 1
i.e. [(1+ ρ2 ρ1 )(γ −1) − 2γ ] p2 p1 = (1+ ρ2 ρ1 )(γ −1) − 2γβ
i.e. [β (γ −1) − (γ +1)] p2 p1 = (γ −1) − β (γ +1)

which yields:
p2 = β −α
p 1− βα
1
where α = (γ −1) (γ +1) and β = ρ2 ρ1 .
15.4
Using the result of Problems 15.1 and 15.2, we have:
2
u u2 u (γ +1)M 2
M* 2
= 1
= 1
= 1
= s
c* uu u (γ −1)M 2 + 2
1 2 2 s
(15.4.1)
Using equation 15.3.1 and 15.3.2 to eliminate ρ1 gives:

p −p u
1 2 = 1− 1
ρ2u22 u2

(15.4.2)
1 2
1 γ
−
u u
= p1
1 1
−p
1
2 2 2
u u
2 2 ρ2u2 γ −1 2
(15.4.3)
1 u y
+y 1
= +1
α u2 α
(15.4.4)
where y = p2 p1 and α = (γ −1) (γ +1) .
Then, using equation 15.4.1 and 15.4.4 to eliminate u1 u2 we have:

u
1 y+α
Ms= =
c1 1+ α
(15.4.5)
Frome equation 15.4.4 and 15.4.5 we have:
u2 = 1+ αy
c
1 1+ α y+α
(15.4.6)
Hence, from equations 15.4.5 and 15.4.6 we have the flow velocity behind the shock give by:
c1 (1 −α )( y −1)
u = u1 − u2 =
1(1+ α )( y + α )
15.5
In the case of reflected shock wave, as shown in Fig.(b), the shock strength is p3 p2 and the
velocity of sound ahead of the shock front is c2 . Hence, using the result of Problem 15.4, we have
the flow velocity ur behind the reflected wave given by:
ur = (1−α )( p3 p2 −1)
c (1+ α )( p p + α )
2 3 2
(15.5.1)
In Fig.(a) the flow velocity u behind of the incident shock front is given by:

= (1−α )( y −1)
u
c1 (1+ α )( y + α )
(15.5.2)
Using equation 15.5.1 and 15.5.2 together with the relation u + u =0, c c = (T T )1 2 and
r 2 1 1 2
T2 =y
1+ αy , where y=p p , we have:
T α+y 2 1
1
( y −1)2 ( p p + α )
3 2 = y(1+ αy)
2
( p3 p2 −1)
which yields:
p
3 = (2α +1) y −α
p2 αy +1
15.6
p3 − p1 = p3 p2 − p1 p2 = p3 p2 −1 y = y p3 p2 −1
p −p 1− p p 1−1 y y −1
2 1 1 2
By substitution of y = p p and p3 = (2α +1) y −α into the above equation, we have:

2 1
p2 αy +1
(2α +1) y2 −αy

−1
p−p αy +1 (2α +1) y2 − 2αy −1
=
3 1
=
p −p y −1 ( y −1)(αy +1)
2 1
In the limit of very strong shock, i.e. y >> 1 , we have:
p−p (2α +1) y2 1

≈
3 1
= 2+
p −p αy 2
α
2 1
15.7
ut = −(u + tut ) f ′
uf ′
i.e. ut = −
1 + tf ′
From equation 15.9 in the text, we have:
f′
ux =
1 + tf ′

so we have:
uf ′ uf ′
ut + uux = − + =0
1+ tf ′ 1 + tf ′
15.8
Using u = −2ν ψ x ψ , we have:
ψ xtψ −ψ tψ x
ut = −2ν ψ2
ψ ψ −ψ xx
2
x
ux = −2ν ψ2
u ψ
3ψ xψ xx 2ψ x
3
= −2ν −
xxx
xx 2 + 3
ψ ψ ψ
By substitution of the above expression into Burger’s equation, we have:
ψ xtψ −ψ tψ x 2 ψψ xψ xx −ψ x
3
2 3ψ xψ xx 3
− 2ν −
ψ
+ 4ν + 2ν
2ψ x
+ =0
xxx
2 3 2 3
ψ ψ ψ ψ ψ
ψψ
i.e. ψψ xt −ψ tψ x = ν xxx −ψ xψ xx
ψ2 ψ2
ψt ψ xx
i.e. =ν
ψ
ψ x x
which yields:
ψ t = νψ xx
15.9
Using the relation tanh′φ ≡ sech2φ and sech′φ = sechφtanhφ, where φ = α(x – ct), we have the
derivatives:
ut = 4α3 c sech2φ tanhφ = 2αuc tanhφ
ux = –4α3 sech2φ tanhφ = –2αu tanhφ
uxx = 8α4 sech2φ tanh2φ – 4α4 sech4φ = 4α2u tanh2φ – u2
uxx = –16α5 sech2φ tanhφ + 48α5 sech4φ tanhφ = –8α3u tanhφ + 12αu2 tanhφ
Then, using the relation c = 4α 2 we have:

ut + 6uux + uxxx
= 2αuc tanhφ −12αu2 tanhφ − 8α 3u tanhφ +12αu2 tanhφ
=0
15.10
At the peak of Figure 15.5(a), φ = 2α (x − ct) = 0 , and near the base of Figure 15.5(a),
φ = 2α (x − ct) >> 0 , i.e. e−φ ≈ 0 . Hence, the solution of the KdV equation can be written as:
u(x,t) = 2
∂2 log[1+ e−2α ( x−ct ) ] ≈ 2 ∂ 2 e−2α ( x−ct ) = 8α 2e−2α ( x−ct )
2 2
∂x ∂x
Then, we have the derivatives,
ut = 16α 3ce−2α ( x−ct)

uxxx = −64α 5e−2α ( x−ct)
Therefore, if c = 4α 2 ,
u +u
t xxx =0
15.11
Using the substitution z = x − ct and the relation tanh′φ ≡ sech2φ and sech′φ ≡ –sechφtanhφ,
where φ = α (z − z0 ) , we have the derivatives:
ut = –4α3c sech2φ tanhφ = 2αuc tanhφ
ux = –4α3 sech2φ tanhφ = –2αu tanhφ
uxx = 4α4 sech4φ + 4α2u tanh2φ = 4α2u tanh2φ + u2
uxx = –16α5 sech2φ tanhφ + 48α5 sech4φ tanhφ = –8α3u tanhφ – 12αu2 tanhφ
Then, using the relation c = 4α 2 , we have:
ut − 6uux + uxxx
= 2αuc tanhφ +12αu2 tanhφ + 8α 3u tanhφ −12αu2 tanhφ
= −8α 3u tanhφ + 8α 3u tanhφ
=0
15.12
If v2 + vx = u , then:

ux = 2vvx + vxx
uxx = 2(vx2 + vvxx ) + vxxx
u = 2(2v v + vv + v v ) + v = 6v v + 2vv + v
xxx x xx xxx x xx xxxx x xx xxx xxxx
ut = 2vvt + vxt
The left side terms of equation mark in equation 15.13 give:
∂ 2
+ 2v(v − 6v v +v )
∂x t x xxx
= vxt − 6(2vvx + v vxx ) + vxxxx + 2v(vt − 6v2vx + vxxx )

2 2
= 2vvt −12v3vx + vxt −12vvx2 − 6v2vxx + 2vvxxx + vxxxx

The right side terms of equation mark in equation 15.13 give:
ut − 6uux + uxxx
= 2vvt + vxt − 6(v2 + vx )(2vvx + vxx ) + 6vxvxx + 2vvxxx + vxxxx
= 2vvt −12v3vx + vxt −12vvx2 − 6v2vxx + 2vvxxx + vxxxx
So we have:
∂ 2
+ 2v (v − 6v v +v )=u − 6uu +u
∂x t x xxx t x xxx
15.13
By substitution of v = ψ x ψ into u(x) = vx + v2 , we have:
ψ ψ −ψ 2 ψ2 ψ xx
u(x) = v + v2 =
xx x x
+ =
x ψ2 ψ2 ψ
hence,
ψ ψ
xx
xx − u(x)ψ = ψ xx −ψ =0
ψ
15.14
ψx = –αA sechα (x – x0) tanhα (x – x0)
ψxx = α2A sechα(x – x0) – 2α2A sech3α (x – x0)
Using the soliton solution

u = –2α2 sech2α (x – x0)
we have:

ψxx + (λ – u(x))ψ
= α2A sechα(x – x0) – 2α2A sech3α (x – x0) + [–α2 sech2α (x – x0)]A sechα (x – x0)
=0
15.15
Using transformation u → u* − λ and x → x* + 6λt , where u* and x* are the variables before
transformation, we have: u* = u + λ and x* = x − 6λt , hence:
ut = (u* − λ)t = ut*
ux = (u* − λ)x* xx∗ = u*x*
uxx = u*x x x*x = u*x x

* * * *
uxxx = ux∗ x x x*x = u∗x x x

* * * * * *
Using the above relations, equation ut + 6uux + uxxx = 0 is transformed to its original form:
ut* + 6u*u*x* + u*x* x* x* = 0
15.16
y = a sinπx
D B
Fig.A.15.16
In Fig.A.15.16, A is the peak and B is the base point of the leading edge of the right going wave: y
= a sinπx . The phase velocity of any point on the leading edge is given by:
∂y 1 2 1 ∂y 1
v = c1 + εa = c1 + εa = c1 + εaπ cosπx
0 ∂x 0 2 ∂x 0 2

π
∴ phase velocity at A : v =c cosπx = cos =0
A 0 2
1
and phase velocity at B : v =c 1 − εaπ(cosπx = cosπ = -1)
B 0 2
∴phase velocity of A related to B :
1 1
v −v = c− c1 − εaπ = c εaπ = du
A B 00 2 2 0
The phase distance dx between A and B =π2
∴Time for A to reach the position vertically above B is :
dx π 1 1
= = [secs]
du 2 1 2c εaπ c εa
0 0

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Solutions Manual for

The Physics of Vibrations and Waves –

In association with the author

© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

By substitution of relation sinθ = x l into the above equation, we have:

© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

i.e. &x& + 2Tx lm = 0

mass of ρAx , so the stiffness is given by:

In Figure 1.1(f), by taking logarithms of equation pV γ = constant , we have:

© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Newton’s second law gives:

x = a cos(ωt − φ) are given by: A = a cosφ and B = a sinφ .

Try solution x = a cos(ωt + φ) in expression &x& + ω2 x , we have:

&x& + ω2 x = −aω2 cos(ωt + φ) + ω2a cos(ωt + φ) = 0

Try solution x = a sin(ωt −φ) in expression &x& + ω2 x , we have:

&x& + ω2 x = −aω2 sin(ωt −φ) + ω2a sin(ωt −φ) = 0

Try solution x = a cos(ωt −φ) in expression &x& + ω2 x , we have:

&x& + ω2 x = −aω2 cos(ωt −φ) + ω2a cos(ωt −φ) = 0

© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

If the solution x = a cos(ωt + φ) satisfies x = a at t = 0 , then, x = a cosφ = a

If the solution x = a sin(ωt −φ) satisfies x=a at t=0 , then,

x = a sin(−φ) = a i.e. φ = − π 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation asin(ωt + π 2) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = π 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , ωt = π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .

If the solution x = a cos(ωt −φ) satisfies x=a at t=0 , then,

x = a cos(−φ) = a i.e. φ = 0 . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation a cosωt = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = π 4 . Similarly, we can find: for

(b) If the solution x = a sin(ωt +φ) satisfies x = −a at t=0 , then,

x = a sinφ = −a i.e. φ = − π 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position

© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

solution of equation asin(ωt − π 2) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = 3π 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , ωt = 2π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .

If the solution x = a cos(ωt + φ) satisfies x = −a at t=0 , then,

x = a cosφ = −a i.e. φ = π . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation a cos(ωt + π ) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = 3π 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , ωt = 2π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .

If the solution x = a sin(ωt −φ) satisfies x = −a at t=0 , then,

x = a sin(−φ) = −a i.e. φ = π 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation asin(ωt − π 2) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = 3π 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , ωt = 2π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .

If the solution x = a cos(ωt −φ) satisfies x = −a at t=0 , then,

x = a cos(−φ) = −a i.e. φ = π . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation a cos(ωt − π ) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = 3π 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , ωt = 2π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .

ω0 = m = 4πε r3m = 4×π ×8.85×10−12 × (0.05×10−9 )3 ×9.1×10−31 ≈ 4.5×10 [rad ⋅ s ]

Its radiation generates an electromagnetic wave with a wavelength λ given by:

© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

s′ = − F x = s 2 . Hence the frequency is given by ωa2 = s′ m = s 2m .

(b) The frequency of the system is given by: ωb2 = s m

Therefore, we have the relation: ωa2 : ωb2 : ωc2 = s 2m : s m : 2s m = 1: 2 : 4

The time spent in moving from x to x + dx is given by: dt = dx vt , where vt is

© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

of oscillation. We have the probability η of finding it between x to x + dx given

the phase difference δφ between two oscillators a distance x apart given is

amplitude, ω is the angular frequency and φ is the initial phase. So we have:

© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

stiffness is given by: s = mg sinθ x = mg l . So the energy is given by:

In Figure 1.1(c), the energy is directly given by:

by: s = 2T l . So the energy is given by:

In Figure 1.1(e), the liquid of a volume of ρAl is displaced from equilibrium

position by a distance of l 2 , so the stiffness of the system is given by

s = 2ρgAl l = 2ρgA . So the energy is given by:

© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd