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were assembled in the Soviet Union by a variety of ing color in fluorite. Nevertheless, many terms
researchers during the 1940s to 1960s. A theory persist (such as "chrome" fluorite from Muzo,
developed in 1929 to explain color in crystalline Colombia) that originate from erroneous beliefs
solids was first applied to mineralogy in the late about the origin of the color ("chrome" fluorite is
1950s and was widely employed to explain color in actually colored by samarium).
minerals in the 1960s. In the U.S., the application In the course of modern research, five basic
of the science of color to minerals experienced its mechanisms have been identified as causes of
major impetus around 1970, with the publication color in gem materials: dispersed metal ions,
of Mineralogical Applications of Crystal Field charge-transfer phenomena, color centers, band
Theory, by Roger Burns. At approximately the theory, and physical optics. The purpose of this
same time, the optical properties of various syn- series of articles is to review the current knowl-
thetic colored crystals were described (e.g., Kittel, edge of the origin of color in gems (see Fritsch,
1956; Farge and Fontana, 1979; Bill and Calas, 1985, for a broader discussion of the cause of color
1978). Some long-standing and widely accepted in minerals in general), illustrating each mecha-
explanations among gemologists were reevaluated nism with a number of examples and indicating
according to new understanding of the origin of briefly how treatment affects each type of colora-
color. For example, organic products had long been tion. First, however, it is important to understand
held to be responsible for the blue coloration of the external factors that may influence our percep-
fluorite, as mentioned in the 2nd edition of Web- tion of the coloration of a gem. Therefore, this
ster (1970).In 1978, however, Bill and Calas dem- initial article examines the role of light and the
onstrated the role of ionizing radiation in generat- human eye and then describes the best-known
.
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orbital. This process is called a transition, from the band (the missing wavelengths). With a spec-
ground state (low-energy initial configuration of trophotometer, it appears as a broad absorption
the electrons) to the excited state (a higher-energy band on the graph (again, see figure 5).
configuration). Figure 5 shows how an absorption The excited state is intrinsically unstable, so
band as seen with a hand-held spectroscope relates the electron must return to its normal ground
both to a (more accurate) spectrum recorded on a state. Generally, there are two ways for this to
spectrophotometer and to an energy diagram that happen. The more common way is for the electron
indicates the various energy levels involved. When to release the energy to the crystal lattice in the
the transmitted light is observed with a hand-held form of atomic vibrations (heat). The other way,
spectroscope, the absorption will give rise to a dark which can be of great gemological significance, is
-, -
Luminescence
1 (emission band)
ultimately lost when the electron re-
turns to its ground state by dissipat-
/ ing the energy either as heat in the
crystal or through the emission of
light (luminescence).
The Nature of the Neighboring Atoms Influences Ion Coordination. The coordination of an ion refers
Color. While the identity of the ion itself is to the number of atoms to which it is directly
inlportant, the nature of its neighboring atoms is of bonded and the geometry of this arrangement.
equal significance. In most gem materials, the Color-producing ions usually are surrounded by
color-producing ion is surrounded by and con- different numbers and arrangements of oxygen
nected to oxygen ions. Different neighboring ions. Only three types of coordination are com-
atoms, however, will lead to different colors. For monly encountered in gems (in order of fre-
example, both green sphalerite and blue spinel are quency): octahedral, tetrahedral, and distorted
colored by Co2+ in tetrahedral sites, but the Co2+ cubic (see figure 8). In an octahedron, the central
ion in green sphalerite (like the metal ions in all metal ion has six neighbors to which it is bonded; if
sulphides) is connected to sulphur, while that of no distortion occurs, they are all the same distance
blue spinel is connected to oxygen (Romeijn, 1953; from the atom. The tetrahedron provides four
Marfunin, 1979; Shigley and Stockton, 1984). surrounding ions; again, they are equidistant from
ill
ill
depends on the number of oxygen atoms, their depends on the particular electrostatic repulsion
distance from the central metal ion, and the experienced during this move. Consequently, the
particular orbital the electron is in. When an amount of repulsion will be different in the case of
electron in the central ion absorbs light and moves octahedral and tetrahedral environments and,
from one orbital to another, the energy required thus, they will produce different colors.
TABLE 1. Dispersed metal ions and the colors they cause in various gem materials.
Ion and Ion and
coordination Color and gem material coordination Color and gem material
Ti3+ No known gems where the origin of color has Mn2+ Pink: beryllmorganite (Woods and Nassau,
octahedral been positively proved to be dispersed Ti3+, octahedral 1968); rhodocrosite (Lehrnann, 1978); lep-
although the case of rose quartz is under idolite (Faye, 1968); titanite (Mottana and
discussion (see Cohen and Makar, 1985) Griffin, 1979)
v4 + Blue: zoisitelheat treated = tanzanile Greenish yellow: some rare elbaites (Ross-
octahedral (Hurlbut, 1969) man and Mattson, 1986)
Green: apophyllite (Rossman, 1974) Mn2+ Orange: spessartine (Manning, 1967a)
v3 + Blue: axinite (Schmetzer, 1982) dist. cubic
octahedral Brown-violet: zoisiteluntreated (Hurlbut, 1969) Fe3+ Yellow: chrysoberyl (Loeffler and Burns,
Green: beryllvanadium emerald (Wood and octahedral 1976)
Nassau, 1968); grossularllsavorite (Gubelin Yellow green: jadeite (Rossman, 1981); epi
and Weibel, 1975); some kyanites, diopsides, dote (Burns, 1970); andradite (Manning,
uvites, spodumenes and kornerupines 1967b)
(Schmetzer, 1982) F@+ Yellow: orthoclase and other feldspars
Color-change effect: corundum and some tetrahedral (Hofmeister and Rossman, 1983); sillimanite
rare pyropes and pyrope-spessartines (Rossman et al., 1982)
(Schmetzer et al., 1980)
Fe2+ Blue: elbaitelindicolite (Dietrich, 1985)
Cr3+ Blue: kornerupine (Schmetzer, 1982) octahedral Yellowish green to green: olivinelperidot
octahedral Green: beryllemerald, spinel (Vogel, 1934); (Loeffler and Burns, 1976); diopside,
spodumenelhiddenite, diopsidelchrome actinolitelnephrite (Burns, 1970); natural
diopside, jadeitelchrome jadeite, nephrite, glasseslmoldavite, tektite (Pye et al., 1983)
euclase, andraditeldemantoid, some rare
olivines, variscite (Anderson, 1954-55); Fez + Blue: gahnite and "gahnospinel" (Dickson and
titanitelchrorne sphene, zoisite (Schrnetzer, tetrahedral Smith, 1976)
1982); uvarovite (Calas, 1978) Fe2 + Red: pyrope, pyrope-almandine (rhodolite),
Color-change effect: chrysoberyllalexandrite dist. cubic almandine (Manning, 1967a)
(Farrell and Newnham, 1965); some pyropes co2+ Pink: calcitelcobaltocalcite (Webster, 1970)
(Schmetzer el al., 1980) octahedral Green: sphalerite (Marfunin, 1979)
Red t o violet: corundum/ruby, spinel (Vogel,
1934); some pyrope (Manning, 1967a); co^ Blue: spinel (Shigley and Stockton, 1984);
taaffeite (Schrnetzer, 1983); topaz tetrahedral staurolite (Cech et a l , 1981)
(Anderson, 1954-55); stichtite Ni2+ Green: clay inclusions in chrysoprase and
Mn3+ Red t o violet t o pink: beryllred beryl octahedral some opals, e.g., prase opal (Koivula and
octahedral (Shigley and Foord, 1984); piemontite (Burns, Fryer, 1984)
1970); some elbaiteslrubellites, sugilite cu2+ Blue: turquoise and chrysocolla (Lehmann,
(Shigley et al., 1987); rhodonite (Gibbons et octahedral 1978); azurite (Marfunin, 1979)
al., 1974); zoisitelthulite Green: malachite and dioptase (Lehmann,
Green: andalusitelviridine (Smith et al., 1982) 1978)
color caused by dispersed metal ions is by modify- ters. These two causes of color will be examined
ing the valence state. In recent years, we have and illustrated with a number of examples in the
become aware of the importance of other types of next article in this series. The least common
coloration, such as charge transfer and color cen- origins of color in gem materials, band theory and
ters. Heat treatment can induce or increase charge physical optics, will be discussed in the third and
transfers, and irradiation often creates color cen- last part.
pH. Ribbe, Ed., Reviews in Mir~eralogy,Vol. 2, 2nd ed.: Beitrag zur Kristallchemie des Vanadiums. Neiies Jahr-
Feldspar Mineralogy, Mineralogical Society of America, bucli fiir Mineralogie Abhandlungen, Vol. 144, pp.
Washington, DC, pp. 271-280. 73- 106.
Hurlbut C.S. (1969) Gem zoisite from Tanzania. American Schmetzer K. (1983) Crystal chemistry of natural Be-Mg-Al-
Mineralogist, Vol. 54, pp. 702-709. oxides: taaffeite, taprobanite, musgravite. NeuesJahrbtich
Kittel C. (19561Introduction to Solicl State Physics, John Wilcy fur Mineralogie AL~I~aiidl~rngen, Vol. 146, No. 1, pp. 15-28.
& Sons, New York. Shigley J.E., Stockton C.M. (1984) "Cobalt-blue" gem spinels.
Koivula 1.1. (1987)Gem news. Gems in) Gemology, Vol. 23, No. 2, Gems Gemology. Vol. 20, pp. 3 4 - 4 .
pp. 122-124. Shiglcy J.E., Foord E.E. (1984) Gem-quality red beryl from the
Koivula J.!., Fryer C.W. (1984) Green opal from East Africa. Wah-Wall Mountains, Utah. Gems 01 Gemology, Vol. 20,
Gems &> Ceniology, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 226-227. No. 4, pp. 208-221.
Kunz G.F. (1913) The Curious Lore of Precious Stones. Rc- Shigley J.E., Koivula J.I., Fryer C.W. (1987)The occurrence and
printed by Dover Publications, New York, 1971. gemological properties of Wessels Mine sugilite. Gems 0)
Lehmann G. (1978)Farben von Mineralien und ihre Ursachen. Gemology, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp 78-90.
Fortschritte der Mineralogic, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 172-252. Smith G., Hilenius U., Langer K. (1982) Low temperature
Locffler B.M., Burns R.G. (1976)Shedding light on the color of spectral studies of Mn-^-bearing andalusite and epidote
gems and minerals. American Scientist, Vol. 64, pp. type minerals in the range 30000-5000 cm I. Physics a n d
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