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Comprehensive Review of Alkaline–Surfactant–Polymer (ASP)-Enhanced Oil

Recovery (EOR)
Chapter · January 2019
DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-7560-5_79

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 Chapter 79
Comprehensive Review of Alkaline– Surfactant–Polymer
(ASP)-Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)

Peng Yang1,2,3, Zi-an Li1,2,3(&), Bin Xia1,2,3,4, Ya-juan Yuan1,2,3(&), Qaing-tai

Huang1,2,3, Wei-liang Liu1,2, and Chi-yu Cheng1,2,3
1
School of Marine Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006,
China {13909263435,huangqiangtai}@163.com,
lizian88@126.com, {xb698xy,gigyjyuan,liuweiliang1976, 1281543424}@qq.com
2
Key Laboratory of Offshore Oil Exploration and Development of Guangdong
Higher Education Institutes, Guangzhou 510006, China
3
Offshore Oil Exploration and Development Center of Sun Yat-sen
University, Guangzhou 510006, China
4
State Key Laboratory of Ore Deposit Geochemistry Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Guiyang 550002, China

79.1 Introduction

For continental sandstone oil and gas fields, the oil recovery factor is commonly 5–
15% relying on the elastic energy of reservoir rock and fluid, the gravity of the liquid
itself, gas-cap gas pressure, and the pressure of edge water’s own natural energy. The
recovery efficiency of secondary oil recovery is generally 30–40% which drived by
water injection energy restore or maintain reservoir pressure. Recovery efficiency of
polymer flooding can be increased by 10% on the basis of water drive, but there are
still 50–60% of the remaining oil which has not been effective mining [1]. After water
flooding, polymer flooding, surfactant flooding after late into the development old oil

Copyright 2017, Shaanxi Petroleum Society.

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2017 International Field Exploration and
Development Conference in Chengdu, China, 21–22 September 2017.
This paper was selected for presentation by the IFEDC&IPPTC Committee following review of
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presented, have not been reviewed by the IFEDC&IPPTC Committee and are subject to correction
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Committee, its members. Papers presented at the Conference are subject to publication review by
Professional Committee of Petroleum Engineering of Shaanxi Petroleum Society. Electronic
reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the
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or paper@ipptc.org.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

Z. Qu and J. Lin (eds.), Proceedings of the International Field Exploration
and Development Conference 2017, Springer Series in Geomechanics and
Geoengineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7560-5_79
 Comprehensive Review of Alkaline–Surfactant–Polymer … 859

field, the moisture content is higher and the extract is difficult. Moreover, existing
single water flooding, polymer flooding, surfactant flooding, gas flooding, and
microbial flooding technology are difficult to meet the needs of oil field. Oil and gas
as currently the most widely used one of the important non-renewable fossil fuels, the
development of human society and the economy has a strong dependence on oil. The
existing technology limited to keep high and stable yield of oil and gas fields, espe-
cially for the high water cut of the old oil, and gas field is an urgent need to develop
new oil development to increase oil field recovery.
Beckstrom and van Tuyl (1927) [2] first realized that injected water with Na2CO3,
NaOH, and alkaline substances can drive of residual oil after water flooding and improve
oil recovery. Atkinson [3] reported that alkaline water flooding is suitable for crude oil in
which acid value is greater than 0.5 mgKOH/g. Degroot put forward the methods to
improve recovery efficiency of surfactants. With the rapid development of alkaline
waterflooding and surfactant flooding, the importance of mobility ratio for improve
recovery has been highlighted. The technology by adding polymer injection fluid vis-
cosity to improve the mobility ratio of alkali/polymer and surfactant/polymer binary was
put forward at the historic moment. However, alkali/polymer flooding technology is
difficult to improve oil recovery significantly with restricted of the crude oil acidity and
limited to reduce the interfacial tension. Although surfactant/polymer flooding technol-ogy
can greatly enhance oil recovery, there are still many problems such as large dosage, high
cost and liquid extraction processing difficulties in the industrialization promotion.
The alkaline–surfactant–polymer (ASP)-enhanced oil recovery (EOR) was put
forward on the basis of the development of the technology in the 1970s, and the
research [4–8] showed that alkali reaction with acid crude oil can form surfactant at
the ASP system, which can reduce oil–water interfacial tension, transformation of
rock wettability, converting the capillary resistance to flooding capillary resistance
can be converted to the flooding dynamic as the synergies interact with extra
surfactant. Emulsification can carry more holes in the roar of remaining oil, overall
enlarged the swept volume, improve the oil recovery. Domestic Daqing oil field takes
the lead in the twentieth century 80s to the research of ASP flooding, but because of
the low oil acid value which is 0.01 mg KOH/g oil, lead to optimal narrow scope of
ultra-low inter-facial tension, the surfactant screening is difficult, even formed error
theory that Daqing oil field was not suitable for ASP-enhanced oil recovery with low
acid value oil. After that, Daqing oil field has carried out a large number of scientific
research projects, and independent research and development of several suitable
surfactants such as petroleum sulfonate, petroleum carboxylate, lignin sulfonate, and
alkyl benzene sulfonate, which broke through the shackles of low acid and
successively carried out several pilot experimental study and gained good
effectiveness [1, 9, 10]. Cumulative oil production has exceeded 107 t via ASP
flooding in Daqing oil field by the end of 2013, which achieved industrialization
promotion conditions and showed a bright and promising application prospect overall.
ASP flooding technology has been developed into a hot spot and difficulty of tertiary
oil recovery technology. In this paper, a comprehensive review of the issues related to
ASP flooding and the application effects are provided. And we discussed the development
direction and prospect of the ASP flooding based on the “National Major Projects of
Science and Technology Demonstration Projects in 13th five-year plan”
860 P. Yang et al.

named ASP flooding under different injection parameters and injection mode charac-
teristics of fluid migration and displacement efficiency.

79.2 Mechanisms and Technical Characteristics of

ASP Flooding EOR
79.2.1 Mechanisms of ASP Flooding EOR
Oil recovery (Eor) is a comprehensive index depends on the oil reservoir geology, fluid
properties, and corresponding measures of exploitation [11]. It is the ratio of the recovered
amount of oil (Nro) to the original amount of oil in place (Noop), and the ratio depends on
the volumetric sweep efficiency (Evse) and the displacement efficiency (Edie). It is defined
as relations among parameters as shown in the Eqs. 78.1 and 78.2 [12].
N
ro

N
Eor ¼ oop ð78:1Þ
E E E
or ¼ vse die ð78:2Þ
According to the basic principle of improving oil recovery (Eor), improving the
displacement fluid viscosity can increase the volumetric sweep efficiency and improve
the oil displacement efficiency to a certain extent. On the other hand, reducing the
interfacial tension can significantly improve oil displacement efficiency and increase
the rate of oil recovery.
The mechanisms of each individual component in the system of ASP flooding are
discussed.

79.2.2 Mechanisms of Alkaline Flooding EOR

The mechanisms of alkaline flooding include emulsification, oil entrainment, bubble
entrapment, and wettability reversal [13]. One mechanism is that an alkaline solution
reacts with the acid component in a crude oil that can generate a surfactant, and the
reaction equation is

HA þ OH ! A þ H2O ð78:3Þ
(HA is a pseudo-acid component and A—is the soap component). More impor-
tantly, when an alkali is added with a surfactant like in an ASP process, the alkali can
reduce the adsorption of surfactant on the grain surfaces. This makes surfactant work
more efficiently, and less surfactant needs to be injected [14].
The concrete function of alkaline in ASP flooding system is mainly embodied in
the following aspects:
 Comprehensive Review of Alkaline–Surfactant–Polymer … 861

(1) Alkane carboxylic acid soap and naphthenic acid organic acid react with alkali in
crude oil adsorbed on the oil–water interface, the interfacial tension decreased,
decrease the capillary force blocking effect, so that to be captured in the flow of
crude oil.
(2) With alkali-added surfactants have synergistic effect, increase the interfacial
activity, alkali as a “salt” forcing more surfactant molecules into the oil–water
interface, thus increasing the interfacial layer surface-active agent concentration,
broaden the scope of activity of surfactant.
(3) The reaction of base with organic polar substance in colloid, asphaltene, paraffin,
and porphyrin at oil–water interface makes the rupture of rigid film and disso-
lution of organic compound on oil–water interface and improves the output of
crude oil.
(4) The oil beads moving under alkali can spontaneously emulsify O/W emulsions
of different sizes and are entrained into flowing water.
(5) Alkali and rock minerals on the surface to produce ion exchange, the surface of
rock mineral composition changes, rock particle surface electric improvement,
reduce the higher prices of surfactant and polymer retention loss in adsorption on
the surface of the rock.
(6) The addition of base promotes the hydrolysis of polymer and increases the con-
centration of ASP system.

79.2.3 Mechanisms of Surfactant Flooding EOR

The key mechanism for surfactant flooding is low interfacial tension (IFT) effect [14].
r is the IFT between the displacing fluid and the displaced fluid (oil), which can be
given as Eq. 78.4
vl
r ¼ ð78:4Þ cos hNc

where v is the brine velocity (or Darcy’s velocity), l is the brine viscosity, h is contact
angle between the wetting phase and the rock and N c is capillary number which can
be described the ratio of viscous to capillary forces [14, 15].
Many experimental data show that as the capillary number is increased, the
residual oil saturation is decreased [11, 16]. Adding surfactants can change wettability
which has been proved in oil-wet carbonate reservoirs, and the change of wettability
can be described by an essential parameter that is contact angle [14, 17].
The concrete function of alkaline in ASP flooding system is mainly embodied in
the following aspects:
(1) Surfactant as the main oil displacement agent to reduce the oil–water interfacial
tension, so that the residual oil changes into the movable oil.
(2) Surfactant changes the wettability of rock surface and increases the force
between oil droplets and water trapped in rock pores. The rock surface
adsorption of crude oil is reduced, increasing the water displacement efficiency.
(3) Surfactant micelles can solubilize crude oil, can also emulsify crude oil, and
increase its flowability, so as to achieve miscible displacement effect.
862 P. Yang et al.

(4) Adding surfactant is more favorable for saponification reaction, and the syner-
gistic effect of them further reduces the interfacial tension.
(5) Surfactant plays a compensate role for the high ionic strength and the high
concentration of two valence cations, broadens the range of interfacial activity of
the system and the range of salt (or pH) in the spontaneous emulsification of oil
and water which can effectively improve oil recovery.

79.2.4 Mechanisms of Polymer Flooding EOR

The process of polymer flooding is same as water flooding.
However, adding polymer into the water can increase the solution viscosity which
is the key factor that mechanisms of surfactant flooding can enhance oil recovery.
According to the fractional flow Eq. 78.5

1 1
fw ¼
1þ k rw lo ¼
1 þ kw ð 78:5 Þ
kro lw
ko

where fw is the sweep efficiency, lw is the water viscosity, lo is the oil viscosity, kro is the
oil permeability, kro is the water permeability, kw is the water mobility, and ko is the oil
mobility. The mechanisms of polymer flooding are that the injection of polymer flooding
would make the sweep efficiency improved via effecting the relative perme-
ability and viscosity to reduce the mobility ratio of water to oil ko [18]. It is well
kw
known that the sweep efficiency is improved and more oil will be recovered as the
mobility ratio is reduced.
The concrete function of polymer in ASP flooding system is mainly embodied in
the following aspects:
(1) Adding polymer can increase the viscosity of water flooding, reduce water
ko
mobility, thereby greatly reducing the mobility ratio of water to oil kw , which
would reduce the fingering phenomenon, improve the heterogeneous of reservoir
micro-pore structure. Finally, increase the sweep area and efficiency via allevi-
ating the phenomenon of cross-flow and streaming
(2) Improve the ratio of displacement water distribution in the vertical direction
between the reservoir, adjust the water injection profile, and increase the
capacity of absorbing in the low-permeability layer and upper-positive rhythm
sedimentary layer, thus slowing the phenomenon of water cross-flow along the
high-permeability layer, improve the sweep efficiency.
(3) The moderate concentration of polymer can protect the surfactant from being
reacting with high-valence cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+. The reacting with
high-valence cations will result in through settlement make surfactant losing
active. The reaction equation is
 Comprehensive Review of Alkaline–Surfactant–Polymer … 863

2S þ ½M2 þ & ¼ ½MS2& # ð78:6Þ

−
(S is a anionic surface-active agent, M is divalent metal ions such as Ca2+ and
2+

Mg2+, and MS2 is precipitate) [19].

79.2.5 Technical Characteristics of ASP Flooding EOR

The ASP flooding EOR is a multicomponent compound flooding technology which
originates from 1970s to 1980s. In the three displacement agents, the alkali about
NaOH, Na2CO3, and NaSiO3 is the most widely used at home and abroad, and alkyl
benzene sulfonate and petroleum sulfonate are the most commonly used surfactants.
The polymer is mainly partial hydrolysis polyacrylamide. The materials are with fea-
tures of wide source, low price, relative mature synthesis, and easy to industrial
production.
ASP flooding-enhanced oil recovery is developed on the basis of one element
flooding (alkaline water flooding) and binary flooding (surfactant/polymer binary
flooding, alkaline/polymer), which give full play to synergism of each chemical agent
in raising oil displacement efficiency greatly via mixed alkaline, surfactant, and
polymer in proper proportion as a flooding agent. As a whole, ASP flooding combines
with the multiple advantages about higher oil displacement efficiency and low cost of
alkaline flooding, high sweep efficiency of polymer. In addition, ASP flooding over-
comes the disadvantages of low viscosity and high alkali consumption of alkaline
flooding system and the greatly loss of polymer by adsorption on rock surface in
polymer flooding system.
The technical characteristics of ASP flooding EOR compared with one element
flooding and binary flooding may be summarized as follows.
(1) Combining with the alkali and surfactant can effectively reduce the oil–water
interfacial tension, improve oil displacement efficiency. Adding polymer can
increase the displacement fluid viscosity, improve the mobility ratio between oil
and water, and sweep efficiency. ASP flooding has a dual effect of physical and
chemical combination and can greatly increase oil recovery.
(2) The dosage of chemical agent was greatly reduced in the ASP flooding system,
especially the amount of surfactant which is relatively expensive.
(3) The alkali used in the ASP flooding system can be either a strong alkali or a
weak alkali.
(4) The organic compound of alkali/surfactant/polymer in the ASP flooding system
can broaden the range of concentration and salt concentration of low interfacial
tension surfactant and more adaptable to the reservoir.
(5) The ASP flooding system can be used in crude oil with high acid value and also
be used in crude oil with low acid value or even acid value near zero.
(6) The interfacial tension can quickly reduce to below 0.001 mN/m when the three
element composite displacement agent of ASP flooding system contact with oil.
864 P. Yang et al.

The process of ASP flooding has the advantages of high speed, large sweep
efficiency and volume, greatly reduced the water content, low chromatographic
separation degree, and high oil displacement efficiency. Although the phe-
nomenon of emulsification has occurred, the exploitation effect is more
favorable than the disadvantages.

79.3 Status of ASP Flooding EOR Application

ASP flooding-enhanced oil recovery can be considered as candidates to improve the

recovery from some of the geologically challenging reservoirs. Several ASP EOR
methods have been extensively documented in the literature during the last two dec-
ades. ASP flooding has been studied and tested in Daqing for more than 20 years
though with several pilots of different scales [20–24]. The other oil fields also con-
ducted ASP EOR projects such as Karamay and Shengli fields documented in the
literature [25, 26]. Additional ASP flooding EOR has also been reported in the Eng-
land, the USA, South Korea, India, and so on.

79.3.1 Status of ASP Flooding EOR in China

The ASP flooding EOR is adopted relative extensively in China especially in the
Daqing oil field. Until now, 13 field pilots and commercial applications have been
conducted in China, and five of them are from Daqing.

79.3.2 Status of ASP Flooding EOR in Daqing Oil field

At present, Chinese oil fields have been studied ASP flooding EOR, and some of them
have realized scale applications. The Daqing oil field first carried out
alkali/surfactant/polymer (ASP) flooding EOR-related research since 1994; there are five
oil wells which have been used in Daqing oil field with ASP flooding oil dis-placement
technique. In these applications pilots, the highest storage temperature is 86 °C, and the
viscosity of crude oil ranges from 6 to 13 mPa s, salinity is below 7000 mg/kg [27]. In
addition, experts from the Daqing oil field and the Northeast Petroleum University have
conducted further research on the ASP flooding-enhanced oil recovery technology. Yang
et al. [28] compared the residual oil images of waterflooding with residual oil images of
ASP flooding system, analyzed the change of stress in the process of oil displacement, and
discussed the displacement mechanism of the ASP flooding-enhanced oil recovery
technology. The results show that the residual oil is mainly included columnar, tufted,
membranous and island arc occurrence state. The interfacial tension of waterflooding is 36
mN/m can be reduced to 10−3 mN/m, and transform capillary resistance into displacement
power by changing the wettability, which achieve the displacement of columnar and tufted
residual oil. In addition, the ASP flooding EOR system can reduce the adhesion force and
cohesive force, which can achieve the displacement of membranous and island arc
occurrence state residual oil via wire drawing, peel off, emulsified into smaller oil droplets
after. Li et al. [29]
 Comprehensive Review of Alkaline–Surfactant–Polymer … 865

discussed the adsorption effects on oil sands of ASP flooding system via analyzing the
each component of alkali/surfactant/polymer (ASP) flooding system static adsorption
capacity of oil sands and the in-field test area as well as the dynamic retention in the
reservoir core. Wu et al. [30] developed for thermochemical dehydration of the high
water-cut crude oil (O/W emulsions) produced from an ASP flooding reservoir in
Daqing (the surfactant in ASP flooding solution—Witco’s ORS-41 and alkaline
NaOH). The performance properties of the demulsifier were evaluated both in
artificial 30/70 O/W emulsions and in produced fluid taken from a gathering plant. We
used the test and simulation of oil droplet coalescence and water phase viscosity,
interfacial tension, oil bead Zeta potential and rheological property of oil–water
interface of Daqing oil field surfactant ORS-41 to study the mechanism of thermal
chemical demulsification about the surfactant O/W in the ASP flooding. Mechanism
of scaling and the scale inhibitor have also been studied in the literature [31–37]. The
optimum injection procedure and chemical plug size of alkaline/surfactant/polymer
(ASP) used in Block North 1 Daqing oil field have been designed based on the
laboratory for-mulation and earlier field tests and using the reservoir simulator COMP
[38, 39]. The economy of ASP flooding oil displacement technology has been studied
in Daqing oil field, which provides a reference for large-scale development of ASP
flooding [40, 41]. The development process of ASP flooding EOR in Daqing oil field
has through indoor research, pilot test, and industrial test, and has entered the
industrial demonstration stage. As of 2012, the ASP flooding technology is still in the
pilot phase, but the Daqing oil field is the first to have realized the industrialization
which has been ahead of other oil fields at home and abroad.

79.3.3 Status of ASP Flooding EOR in Chinese Others Oil field

In addition to the Daqing oil field, ASP flooding technology has also been applied to
other oil fields in China, such as Shengli oil field, Karamay oil field, Bohai oil field,
Henan oil field. In early 1980s, Shengli oil field began using ASP flooding technology
to enhance oil recovery, and then began to test the application of the ASP flooding
technology at 1992 year in a small well spacing oil field such as Gudong oil field. The
research test results showed that the water cut in the well can be greatly reduced at the
end of water flooding, and the recovery rate of crude oil will be increased by 11.6%,
and recovery efficiency of residual oil up to 26% after ASP flooding [42]. The Shengli
oil field has finished expanded combination chemical flooding test in Gudao area and
has obviously improved the effect of development [43]. Karamay oil field ASP
flooding oil pilot test began in 1995 year. Through the injection of NaCl solution
preflush slug, then injected ASP flooding composites system and polymer protective
slug, finally conducted the conventional water flooding, which make the oil recovery
increment reached 24% Original Oil in Place (OOIP) [44–46]. A large number of
experiments such as emulsification, core flow, and sand filling pipe verification were
carried out, which aimed at solving the problem about the high viscosity of crude oil
and difficult to drive in Bohai oil field, and have obtained the formula of ASP flooding
agent which is suitable for high-viscosity oil field. The research showed that the
formula of ASP flooding agent has a good prospect of application because the average
oil recovery can be increased by 15% on the basis of water flooding [47].
866 P. Yang et al.

79.3.4 Status of ASP Flooding EOR in Other Countries

With the large demand for oil in North America and the low amount of new
discoveries in recent decades, it has led to the development of scientific research on
residual oil recovery in North America. This is the reason why ASP flooding is
concentrated in North America except China, mainly the USA and Canada. In 1970s,
when crude oil prices soared, the US Department of Energy gave financial support to
national research institutions and universities concerned and shared the cost of oil
field trials by oil companies. These policies have effectively promoted the
development of EOR tech-nologies. The West Kiehl oil field in Wyoming has
launched a pilot test of ASP flooding for the first time in 1987, and the final extraction
rate in the test area is 63.9% OOIP, and the recovery rate is up to 30% OOIP [48].
Subsequently, the USA con-ducted ASP flooding test at 1993 in Wyoming Cambridge
oil field. In this year, the production capacity of ASP flooding technology increased
from 5.9 m3/d to the highest 175.4 m3/d, increased by 43.4% OOIP [49]. In addition,
the ASP flooding test with formula of 1.0wt% NaOH alkaline solution /1.0wt%
surfactant /1000 mg/g polymer has been carried out in sandstone reservoirs in Tanner
oil field, which achieved the goal that crude oil recovery has increased by 12.8% [50].
The ASP flooding project began in February 1998, at the Sho-Vel-Tun oil field, in the
subsequent 1.3 years, the test project total production of 10444 barrels of crude oil
(equivalent to 1660 m3), the chemical agent at a cost of $67,017 (production of
10,444 barrels of crude oil), the equivalent of 1 barrels of crude oil per cost $6.41, the
improved cost can be reduced to $4/barrel, while crude oil prices of $18/barrel, which
prove that the ASP project is economically feasible [51].
Canada firstly launched the ASP flooding technology on the scale of oil field in 2006.
Before 2006, the South Taber oil field produced 300 barrels of oil per day. The oil field
began injecting ASP three yuan oil displacement agent in June 2006, and by October
2007, the oil output reached 1500 barrels per day. The test shows that the proportion of
ASP flooding in the reservoir application of chemical flooding technol-ogy to mature water
injection is feasible. However, the project also encountered some problems such as
equipment scale, injection drug loss. In order to solve these problems, the researchers
conducted a modification of pharmacy. The test also showed that due to the different
geological conditions of the reservoir, the ASP technology under the current technical
level may not be suitable for some oil fields, and the related research needs further
development [15]. In order to study the feasibility of the application of chemical flooding
technology in complex formation, Heskey Oil Company takes the ASP flooding test in
globulitic layer in February 2008. The surfactant used in the displacement agent is a
mixture of lignosulfonate and alkyl glucoside which is derived from agricultural waste
straw. Lignosulfonate can be used as dispersant and binder, which can increase oil
displacement efficiency of ASP system. The alkyl glucoside which is polymerized from
fatty acids with glucose has the advantages of thermosta-bility, alkali-resisting, and
mineral resistance. Glauconite oil layer reservoir is expected to increase 762 10 3 m3, and
enhanced oil recovery rate can reach 15% OOIP in the Taber oil field, Canada. The oil
displacement of ASP system using biomass-based surfactant is about 10% higher than that
of traditional ASP system. Recently years, aiming at the feasibility of the application of
green ASP flooding system in complex
 Comprehensive Review of Alkaline–Surfactant–Polymer … 867

reservoirs which the characteristics of high water cut, medium density and high vis-
cosity, Canada has carried out Suffield ASP composite flooding project and the
research shows that the green ASP system can greatly reduce the amount of
freshwater in the process of oil displacement while improving the displacement rate
[52]. Some ASP flooding projects have also been conducted in India [53, 54].

79.4 Problems and Challenges Associated with ASP

Flooding EOR Technology

Although the ASP flooding technology has been successful in some oil fields in China
and the other countries, it still faces many problems in commercial, industrialized, and
large-scale application. The following are the problems and challenges of associated
with ASP flooding EOR technology.

79.4.1 Operational Difficulties

In the actual operation, ASP flooding EOR technology still exist many difficulties,
such as plugging of injection well or low volume injection, polymer degradation or
disso-lution is inadequate, and corrosion of oil reservoir and equipment by composite
flooding agent [55]. Because the complex composition of ASP flooding agent results
in the necessary to consider the physicochemical properties of oil, water, and rock for-
mations when design optimization, which increased the difficulty of formulation
design of ASP flooding agent. At present, ASP composite oil displacement agent used
in the process of high demand, high economic costs, and the lack of displacing agent
of high temperature resistance, alkali resistance and salt tolerance characteristics, not
suitable for thermal reservoirs, carbonate reservoir, or brine reservoir [15, 19].

79.4.2 Scaling and Precipitation in the Process of ASP Flooding

The scaling and precipitation would be caused by the reaction between the alkali and
divalent metal cations such as calcium and magnesium, the alkali with the rock min-
erals and formation water the especially the carbonate minerals in the rock, and
anionic surfactant with divalent cations [56, 57]. Some reaction equations are
3 þ 3 ! 3 # þ 3 ð Þ

FeCO SiO2 FeSiO CO2 78:7

3þ ! ð Þ2# þ 3 ð Þ

MgCO 3 þ
2OH3 !
Mg OH 3 #þ
CO2
3 ð
78:8 Þ

CaCO SiO2 CaSiO CO2 78:9

The precipitation in hard brines of surfactant has been stated by Eq. 78.6. This
reaction leads to retention, and effects of the precipitation of anionic surfactants
include cation valence, salt concentration, surfactant concentration, alcohol
concentration, temperature [58].
868 P. Yang et al.

79.4.3 Other Problems and Challenges Associated with ASP

Flooding EOR Technology
Operation difficulties and scaling and precipitation during flooding have limited the
development and popularization of ASP flooding EOR to a certain extent. In addition,
difficulties in treating produced emulsions and water disposal are also the important
reasons to hinder its large-scale application.
When it comes to the offshore application of ASP flooding EOR technology,
some unique challenges must be considered such as remote location, expensive wells
and large well spacings, space and weight limitations in the deck, seawater injection
source [59–63].
All the above-listed problems and challenges affect subsurface efficiency,
logistics, injection, production, and environmental aspects of ASP EOR, which
hindered the development of the ASP flooding EOR technology and so far, have
limited ASP flooding EOR to relatively few pilots and partial field projects.

79.5 Prospects and Futures Associated with ASP

Flooding EOR Technology

However, the ASP flooding technology still faces many problems in commercial,
industrialized, and large-scale application. The prospects associated with ASP
flooding EOR technology are very bright when it comes to stability and increasing oil
pro-duction at pilots and partial field projects. Daqing oil field is one of the well-
known and large oil and gas fields, which masters the international leading
technology of ASP flooding EOR.
In order to complete the task of demonstration project of enhanced oil recovery at
extra high water-cut oil field in Daqing placanticline, experimental research on char-
acteristics of fluid migration and displacement effect under different injection param-
eters and injection modes of ASP flooding EOR technology will be conducted. The
above statements indicated that prospects and futures associated with ASP flooding
EOR technology could be summarized as follows.
(1) Materials with the comprehensive characteristics of high temperature resistance,
alkali resistance, and salt tolerance characteristics should be developed and
applied to the pilots and partial field projects.
(2) The low-cost alkali and surfactant should be developed as a better alternative to
other chemical flooding methods when it comes to large-scale mass industrial
and commercial applications in the long term.
(3) Numerical simulation can evaluate ASP process and direct the oil field applica-
tions of EOR techniques efficiently, which also minimize numbers and
complexity of flooding experiments and help researchers to understand the
characteristics of the ASP process. In a word, numerical simulation can be one
of the focuses of future development.
 Comprehensive Review of Alkaline–Surfactant–Polymer … 869

(4) The mechanism of saponification and emulsification reaction should be deeply

and studied to solve the side effect, thus improving oil displacement effect of
ASP flooding EOR.
(5) Strengthen research the fluid migration characteristics and displacement effects
under different injection parameters (concentration, molecular weight, viscosity)
and injection mode (conventional rate, high speed, and low velocity), the com-
bination method which can improve the flooding effect of synergistic enhance-
ment to the maximum extent will paly a key role in the process of ASP flooding
EOR development. It is also the main research direction of the demonstration
project of Daqing oil field and national science and technology major demon-
stration project in the 13th five-year plan project.

79.6 Conclusion

ASP flooding EOR technology is a promising flooding technology and expected to be

used in a large scale in the future of energy shortage, which can greatly improve the
oil displacement efficiency by synergistic enhancement. So far, ASP flooding
technique has shown to be an economically viable technology in comparison with
single flooding of A (alkali), S (surfactant), P (polymer) and binary compound
flooding of (A/S, A/P, S/P). ASP flooding is still facing some major problems and
challenges on its way to commercial application. However, more and more countries
are carrying out and planning ASP evaluations at pilot scale such as China, the USA,
Canada, India, and Venezuela. Because they view the prospects and futures associated
with ASP flooding EOR technology. As stated above, the ASP flooding EOR
technology can increase oil recovery because of the synergistic enhancement between
its components (A/alkali, S/surfactant, P/polymer). It will be an important technical
means for high stability and increasing production in the future, in addition to the
international hot spot about the technology of enhanced oil recovery.

Acknowledgements. The research was supported by Major National Science and Technology
Project (No. 2016ZX05054013), The National Nature Science Foundation of China (Project
No. 41372208 and No. 40534019), and The Open Found of the State Key Laboratory of Ore
Deposit Geochemistry, CAS (Project No. 201304).

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