Notes written by Ven.

 Chhon Bun Thoeun,
 corrected by ven. Czech Sara n
   a
  

The Origin and the development of Abhidhamma

The scholars mentioned that Abhidhamma can be separated into two main groups;
1. Those who follow two stanzas meantioning Abhidhamma as the Buddha’s teaching.
2. Abhidhamma as not the Buddha’s teaching.

The scholars represented these two groups.

Generally there are selected the stanzas given in Vinaya Piṭaka - Cullavagga Pāḷi,

»Upāli vinayam pucchi suttā nanda panditam

piṭakāni tīni saṅgītim akuṃ su jina sāvakā.«

The scholars, those who wanted to prove that Abhidhamma is the Buddha’s teaching, highlighted
the first two lines of the stanza - »Upāli vinayam pucchi suttā nanda panditam.« And then they took the
third line which states that there are three piṭakas. Considering the third line of the stanza they proved that
there are three piṭakas, namely: Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma as they were rehearsed at the First Buddhist
Council. Those who wanted to say that Abhidhamma is not the Buddha’s teaching, selected only the first
two lines and they did not accept the third line. Accordingly they proved that at the First Buddhist Council
only Dhamma and Vinaya were reheard.

Three Headings
Prof. Sumanapāla Galmaṅgoḍa and many other scholars claimed that Abhidhamma is a
development of early Buddhist teaching. The process development of Abhidhamma can be explained under
three headings:
1. As a process of systematization of the Buddha’s teachings.
2. As a process of searching for a reliable basis for human actions, responsibility and rebirth.
3. As a process of searching methodology for accurately interpreting the early Buddhist discourses.
As an example for the first heading, Navāṅga Satthu Sāsana (the nine-fold teachings of Buddha),
Dhamma and Vinaya Piṭaka could be mentioned as the Navāṅga satthu sāsana or 1. Sutta, 2. Geyya, 3.
Veyyākaraṇa, 4. Gāthā, 5. Udāna, 6. Itivuttaka, 7. Jātaka, 8. Abhūtadhamma, 9. Vedalla.

In early Buddhism there were two kinds of discourses:

1. Neyyattha (conventional teaching 'Sammuti Desanā')
2. Nītatta (subtle teaching or 'Paramatha Desanā')
As a result of Nītatta suttas, Abhidhamma was developed.

The second heading mentioned that Abhidhamma was developed as a result of abstracting doctrinal
teaching from discourses. The abstracted teachings are:
a) 5 aggregates (pañcakkhandha)
b) 4 great elements (Cattāro mahābhūtā)
c) 5 senses (pañcindriya)
d) 12 bases (dvādasāyatana)
e) 18 elements (aṭṭhādasadhātu)
f) Nibbāna the final extinction1

The third heading is methodology. The methodology regarding dhammās can be seen with the early
Buddhism. The Sutta Piṭaka that was composed at the First Buddhist council is a systematized process. The
best examples in these regard may be Saṅgīti Sutta and Dasuttara Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya, Aṭṭhaka Vagga
and Pārāyana Vagga of Saṃyutta Nikāya and whole Aṅguttara Nikāya can be mentioned. Following these
three methods, Abhidhamma was developed at the Third Buddhist Council which was a council where the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka was composed. At the council Abhidhamma Piṭaka was made with seven texts
(pakaraṇa):
1. Dhammasaṅganī 5. Yamaka
2. Vibhaṅga 6. Kathāvatthu
3. Dhātukathā 7. Mahapaṭṭhāna
4. Puggalapaññatti

Controversies of Abhidhamma
The Third Buddhist Council was council where the controversies arose and were discussed. Before the
Theravada monks always discussed next existence, but here the monks understood the next life as occurring
because of different reasons and thus that they could not come to a final conclusion. The monks began to
separate into several groups. The most prominent groups of these schools were four in number:
1. Sarvāstivāda
2. Sammītiya
3. Vibhajjavāda
4. Sautrāntika
Venerable Moggaliputtatissa thera and Sthaviravāda monks held the Third Buddhist Council. The aim of
this council was eradication of heretical views that arose against the Sthaviravāda (Theravāda) tradition.
However, though the Sthaviravāda (Theravāda) monks stated that all heretical views were eradicated in the
council, each of other groups of monks stated and spread their own views.

Sarvāstivādins claimed that the five aggregates transmigrate from this life to next life. As the view the
aggregates can take the life by changing its form. However, the Theravāda monks did not accept these views
and further they mentioned that it could not be accepted. The Sarvāstivādins proved their views giving an
example. The example is a white cloth that would becomes red after applying red color on it. Early that cloth
would have been white and now it has become red. They asked whatever the color of cloth was changed, its
shape did not change. Therefore, they argued with Theravāda that though the color of cloth was changed its
'clothness' did not change. In the same way the five aggregates transmigrate from existences to existences by
changing their form.

Another group of monks that separated from the Theravāda tradition was Sammītiya. Another name given
to them is Pudgalavāda. Pudgalavādins were of the view that though the five aggregates disappear with the
death, the concept of Pudgala can take the next life. Therefore, as they believed, the Pudgala is
transmigrating from existence to existence. According to the Pudgalavādins the concept of Pudgala is
responsible for deeds done by an individual.

1 Nibbāna is not extinction (uccheda) and those who think otherwise have no idea what is the Buddha's teaching about.
 Another group of monks is Vibhajjavāda. They were called with the name because they accepted the
interest in classification. Later the Theravāda monks were also named as Vibhajjavādins. They would
classified the individual until the concept of soul would disappeared. That is how Vibhajjavādins were
spreading their teachings with regard to individual.

Sautrāntikas were the group of monks separated from the Theravāda tradition. Having seen the
controversial methods arisen in Theravāda Abhidhamma, they rejected the Abhidhamma. Though they
rejected the Abhidhamma, they always discussed and answered the questions that appear throughout
Abhidhamma. Later these Sautrāntikas were named as Kṣaṇavādins. They were called Kṣaṇavādins because
they accepted uppāda and vaya, and they rejected ṭhiti. Therefore, the transmigrating was nothing but the
process of uppāda and vaya (arising and cessation). In this way later schools of monks interpreted the
Buddha's teachings in different ways. The controversies regarding the Abhidhamma appeared in the
Sāsana.

The Analysis and Synthesis of Dhammās

The first discourse delivered by the Buddha is Dhammacakkappavatana Sutta. In the sutta, Buddha
rejected the two extremes that are eternalism and annihilationism. During the time of the Buddha there
were 62 dogmas (views). All of those dogmas were classified into two: Sassatavāda (eternalism) and
Ucchedavāda (annihilationlism).

Eternalists believed that being is external and they introduced the concept of soul which goes from
existence to existence. Annihilationalists believed that there is no life after death. Eternalists followed the
practice of Attakilamathānuyoga (self-mortification), while annihilationists followed the practice of
Kāmesukhallikānuyoga (self-indulgence). In the sutta, the Buddha stated the following:
»Dve me bhikkhave antā pabbajitena na sevi tabbā.«

According to quotation given above, the meaning is that there are two extremes that should not be
followed by Bhikkhu. In this way, Buddha was able to reject the concept of ātmavāda (the theory of soul)
and anattavāda (the theory of soullessness).2 The method of analysis was used by the Buddha in many
suttas to reject the concept of soul. And method of synthesis was used by the Buddha for rejection of non-
soul (anattavāda).3

The Theory of Analysis

In early Buddhism, theory of analysis can be seen in many of discourses. Buddha wanted only the
individual to reject the concept of soul. Buddha did that using many classifications of individual. Among
those classifications the followings are prominent,
1. Nāma and Rūpa = name and form
2. Pañcakkhanda = five aggregates

2 Anattavāda (soullessness) is one of the main characteristics of the Buddha's teaching. The Buddha not only not rejected
anātmavāda, he taught it, explained it, established it and introduced it as one of the most important things that must be
understood. The Buddha appeared in the world to introduce three things – aniccā, dukkha, anattā. Not to reject them.
3 Anattavāda (soullessness) is one of the main characteristics of the Buddha's teaching. The Buddha not only not rejected
anātmavāda, he taught it, explained it, established it and introduced it as one of the most important things that must be
understood. The Buddha appeared in the world to introduce three things – aniccā, dukkha, anattā. Not to reject them.
 3. Cha āyatana = six senses
4. Dvādasāyatana= twelve bases
5. Aṭṭhārasadhātu4 = eighteen elements
In Abhidhamma, above mentioned classifications had been discussed since Abhidhamma had originated
through the early Buddhist teaching. Abhidhamma is the systematization made to the Abhidhamma. All these
methods mentioned above are discussed in the Vibhaṅga, the second text of Abhidhamma. The text of
Vibhaṅga discussed them following these three methods:
1. Suttabhājaniya
2. Abhidhammabhājaniya
3. Pañhapucchakanāya

In the Suttabhājaniya the classifications are given according to the early Buddhist teaching. In the
Abhidhammabhājaniya the classifications are given according to Abhidhamma. Finally each of those factors
discussed are given in the form of question and answer (Pañhapucchakanāya).
The text of Vibhaṅga discussed the following topics:
1. Khanda 10. Bojjhanga
2. Āyatana 11. Magga
3. Dhātu 12. Jhāna
4. Sacca 13. Appaññā
5. Indriya 14. Sikkhāpada
6. Paccayakāra 15. Paṭisambhidhā
7. Satipaṭṭhāna 16. Ñāna
8. Sammappadāna 17. Khuddhakavatthu
9. Iddhipāda 18. Dhammahadaya

In Abhidhammabhājaniya the text of Vibhaṅga discussed the above mentioned 18 topics using three
methods, namely Suttabhājaniya, Abhidhammabhājaniya and Pañhāpucchakanāya. For the sake of study
we should discuss further few headings.

Dhātu Vibhanga
In the Dhātuvibhanga, eighteen elements are discussed depending on the three headings.5 According to the
Suttabhājanaya the eighteen elements are;
1. Paṭhavī 7. Sukha 13. Kāma
2. Āpo 8. Dukkha 14. Vyāpāda
3. Tejo 9. Somanassa 15. Vihiṃsā
4. Vāyo 10. Domanassa 16. Nekkhamma
5. Ākāsa 11. Upekkhā 17. Avyāpāda
6. Viññāṇa 12. Avijjā 18. Avihiṃsā

According to Abhidhammabhājaniya the eighteen elements are:

1. Cakkhu 7. Rūpa 13. Cakkhu-viññāṇa
2. Sota 8. Sadda 14. Sota-viññāṇa
3. Ghāna 9. Gandha 15. Ghāna-viññāṇa
4. Jivhā 10. Rasa 16. Jivhā-viññāṇa

4 Aṭṭhārasadhātu is the older version of the word Aṭṭhādasadhātu.

5 Three headings are: Suttabhājanaya, Abhidhammabhājanaya, Pañhapucchakanāya
5. Kāya 11. Phassa 17. Kāya-viññāṇa
6. Mano 12. Dhammā 18. Mano-viññāṇa

The Theory Synthesis

According to the early Buddhist teaching, everything happens according to the 'theory of dependent
origination'. The formulas are;
Imasmim sati idam hoti When this is, that is.
Imasmin asati idam na hoti When this is not, that is not.
Imassa uppāda idam uppajjati When this arises, that arises.
Imassa nirodha idam nirujjhati When this ceases, that ceases.

In early Buddhism the interrelatedness among five aggregates is mentioned and also relation between
name and form in Aggivacchagotta Sutta as the reality of the world.
Abhidhamma also follows the same method used in the Sutta Piṭaka. Depending on the cause and effect
theory, interrelatedness among each of classification is mentioned. The text of Paṭṭhāna introduced different
relations. Under 24 relations the reason for arising it is called paccaya. In Abhidhamma there are many
paccayas and thus those paccayas are given under 24 headings. According to the content we can discuss a
few of those headings.

Hetu Paccaya
Hetu means the root. The characteristic of the root is to stay as the root to help for the arising of a
dhamma. The roots are: lobha, dosa and moha, and alobha, adosa and amoha. The roots belonging to
kāmāvacara spheres are lobha, dosa and Moha. The remaning alobha, adosa and amoha belong to all the
spheres.

These six kinds of root are classified under following headings:

1. Kusala
2. Vipāka
3. Kriyā
4. Akusala
When the consciousness contacts with a wholesome deed there arises 'kusala citta'. In this way 21
consciousnesses arise as a result of these roots. But there are consciousnesses, that do not have root causes.
They called 'ahetu citta'.

1. Ārammaṇa Paccaya
We get objects through the senses. Because of those senses and their respective objects we can get
feelings. Therefore, all the 89 cittas arise because of ārammaṇas (objects). In the text of Paṭṭhāna 7
ārammanas are mentioned:
1. Kusala 5. Rūpa
2. Akusala 6. Nibbāna
3. Vipāka 7. Paññati
4. Kiriya

2. Antarā Paccaya
 The nature of the world is uppāda, ṭhiti and bhaṅga. Always we can get consciousnesses because of a
suitable consciousness. For example, after a wholesome consciousness, there arises wholesome resultant
consciousness (kusala vipāka citta). Usually the tree grows because it was a plant. Before the plant it was a
seed, in other words the process of tree is seed becoming a plant, the plant becoming a tree. When an
individual attains Nibbāna by following a method, for the attainment of Nibbāna he should usually follow
the following stages:
1. Jhāna consciousness
2. Gotrabhū consciousness
3. Magga consciousness
4. Phala consciousness
Further antarā paccaya should be connected with Nibbāna. As a being one gets kāmāvacara kusala citta.
Than he gets its own vipāka. After the kāmāvacara disappears he touches the rūpāvacara. After that
disappears, arūpāvacara appears. Lokuttara resultant consciousness arises because of ñāna sampayutta,
kāmāvacara kusala citta.

Four Ultimate Realities

According to the Abhidhamma, existence is a process of mental and physical states. The world which
appears as a unity is actually a plurality of constitutions. They are called real elements of existence because
they are the result of analyzing the thing in the world. They are called real because they can not be analyzed
further into any realities. In the Theravāda Abhidhamma, these real elements of existence are classified into
three groups:
1. Citta (mind)
2. Cetasikā (mind-concomitants)
3. Rūpa (form)

None of them can exist independently. Mind and mental concomitants have 4 kinds of relationship:
1. They arise together
2. They perish together
3. They take the same objects
4. They arise in the same senses organ.

Mind and mental concomitants always arise in connection with the physical senses of the body. Therefore,
mind and form never exist separately.

Citta
Abhidhammatthasanghadīpanī defined the term citta as derived from the root 'citta'. 'Citta' means to think.
According to the text the ways of thinking are three-fold:
1. Ihāna Cinta = thinking which comes an the vitakka (initial application).
2. Vijāṇana Cinta = thinking endowed with understanding which applies to viññāna.
3. Pajānana Cinta = thinking endowed with realization which applies to paññā.

The second one of the above mentioned is applicable to the term citta, because it is defined as having the
sense of 'understanding the object'. The text further stated that the term citta in the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha
is used in the sense of viññāṇa.
 Visudhimagga states the term citta, mana and viññāna as refering to the same thing - consciousness (in
other words, the word viññāna, citta and mana are one in the meaning). However, it seems that these three
terms have been used to indicate several functions or states of the mind.
Mind (citta) is so called because it is knowing measure of object and mental action, where as mana is just
mind. Atthasālinī further states that a single consciousness is introduced by three names:
1. Mana in sense of misery.
2. Viññāṇa in sense of discrimination
3. Dhātu in the philosophical sense of ultimate reality.

In later Abhidhamma literature the term citta has been referred to viññāna to indicate the general meaning
of consciousness. Citta has been described in detail under 4 different meanings:
1. Citta as an adjective (variegated)
2. Citta as a noun (thinking)
3. Citta as to collect
4. Citta as protecting of what is collected

The above mentioned 4 meanings are given in Abhidhammatthasaṅgha Sannaya. According to Atthasālinī
by consciousness is meant that which thinks of an object and is aware. This word of consciousness is
common to all stages or classes of consciousness, that which is known as worldly, moral, immoral or the
great. In operative, it is termed consciousness because it arises itself in a series, or in series or continually by
way of apperception in processes of thought. The resultant is also termed consciousness because it is
accumulated by kamma and corruption. Moreover, all four classes are termed as consciousness because they
arrange various circumstances. The meaning of consciousness may also be understood from its capacity of
producing a variety or diversity of effect.
In many of the commentaries, what have been described again and again as the various meaning of the
term citta closely related to the above definition. The meaning variegation is applicable to citta for several
reasons. All the varieties of things in the world are produced simply as the result of thinking, thought
processed production. Therefore, the term citta is used in sense of making various things.

Cetasikā
The term cetasika is used in the sense of originating in consciousness, accompanied with consciousness.
According to this definition cetasika is not something different from consciousness but comprises
characteristic of it. This fact is further classified by the common definition of cetasika as comprising these 4
characteristics:
1. Those arise together
2. Perish together
3. Arise from the same way
4. Take the same object.

The mental stages that bear these characteristics are generally considered to be 52 as these stages arise and
perish together with consciousness; this characteristic does not apply to the material-dhamma (rūpa). Does a
material-dhamma last longer than a material-dhamma.(?) In particular the second characteristic mentioned
above means going to different spheres from material element. The avinibhogarūpas (inseparable material-
dhamma) which arise and perish together with consciousness can process the first and second characteristic
of mental stage. Therefore, the third is given to different spheres from avinibhogarūpa. Further, this
cetasika arises in different ways as the same with consciousness, the 4 characteristics are given.
1. Phassa (contact) 5. Ekaggatā (one-pointedness)
 2. Vedanā (feeling) 6. Jīvitindriya (mental life faculty)
3. Saññā (perception) 7. Manasikāra (attention)
4. Cetanā (volition)

The above mentioned 7 mental dhammās are called sabbacitta sādhārana (universal). These cetasikas are
common to all the 89 consciousnesses as they arise with them together. The cetasika can be defined as 'that
which is made by mind' or as 'that which arises from the mind'. But if cetasika is defined in this way, its
meaning applies even to citta sabhutthāna rūpa (mind-born material phenomena). Therefore, cetasika is to
be described as comprising 3 groups:
1. Vedanā = feeling
2. Saññā = perception
3. Sankhārā = mental formation

Cetasika as derivative noun (tadhita) has 3 meanings:

1. That which is arisen in the mind
2. That which is associated
3. That which is engaged

According to 4 ways of definition the characteristic of cetasika should be considered:

1. The characteristics of cetasika's association with mind.
2. Its function is not to arise without mind.
3. Its manifestation is given the same object as mind.
4. Its proximate course is the arising of mind.

When all the details given to cetasika are considered, it is clear that cetasika has come to being as the
result of the explanation of the different functional characteristics of consciousness.

In the analysis of five aggregates, viññāna represented citta. Vedanā and saṅkhāra represented cetasika. In
Abhidhamma what has been described under heading 'citta' is the classification or division of consciousness
according to bhūmi (spheres), jāti (kind) etc. It seems that under heading 'cetasika', the eternal functional
characteristics of consciousness have been described separately. Therefore, these two Abhidhammic
concepts, namely citta and cetasika are but one and the same concept that is consciousness. It appears that
division into citta and cetasika were made for the convenience of definition and not because they would be
two clearly separate entities in reality. This is shown by the four characteristics of cetasika explained above.

It is interesting to know that some cetasikas themselves can be considered as different characteristics of
consciousness rather than as different cetasika. For example, manasikāra (attention), cittekaggata (one
pointedness of mind), cittapassadhi (tranquility of mind) etc. In defining some of cetasikas it seems that
what is presented is the characteristic of mind. This is illustrated by following example.
– Uddhacca (excitement, distraction) means nature of restlessness, that is the characteristic restlessness
of mind
– chanda (intention) means nearly mind’s desire of hanging on to.
– Thīna (sloth, stolidity) means characteristic of non-adaptability of mind.

Thus, cetasika signifies some functional characteristics of first reality that is consciousness. In this way
Prof. Sammanapala Golamangoda stated that the difference between citta and cetasika cannot be clearly
mentioned.
Rūpa (matter)
In the early Buddhism, rūpa was one of five main aggregates.6 With the development of Abhidhamma it is
developed as one of the four ultimate realities. That is quite considerable point. Because in the early
Buddhism, rūpa was a conventional truth. Buddha explained the nature of the world according to the
conventional form of the world. However, later developed Abhidhamma realized svalakkhana of the five
aggregates. As the result of this, five aggregates were grouped under four categories or four ultimate realities
(paramatha dhamma).

Being is a combination of both psycho and physico. Rūpa is a material form being and world. It represents
the physical nature of the world and being. Prof. Y. Karunādāsa compared studies of the matter with other
Buddhist schools. This is the most valuable research in this subject. The Abhidhamma concept of the rūpa
represents a physical aspect of the person or individual and world of experience. The common definition of
rūpa, as stated in the canon, as well as in the commentary is “matter means that which is subject to
molestation.” Here molestation means becoming transformed with effect of all cold, heat and other affecting
forces. That means arising of another form when the opposite condition such as cold and heat are presented.
Prof. Y. Karunādāsa lists seven meanings of the term rūpa as recorded by the two celebrated
commentators, Buddhaghosa and Dhammapāla Thera:
1. Rūpakkhanda = material aggregates
2. Sarīra = physical body of a living being
3. Vaṇṇa = color
4. Santhāna = form
5. Kasīna nimitta = the object of meditation
6. Paccaya = condition, cause
7. Sabhāva = nature

Rūpas comprise of two groups:

1. Primary = Bhūta
2. Secondary = Upādāya

The rūpas altogether are 28 in number. All these rūpas are of one nature according to eight characteristics:
1. Ahetuka = rootless ( because they are having no root such as non-greed, non-hatred and non-
delusion)
2. Sāsava = with defilement (being connected with defilements, which arise regarding themselves)
3. Sapaccaya = causal (being related their condition, kamma, citta etc.)
4. Saṅkhata = cause, condition (being is conditioned by causes)
5. Lokiya = world, mundane (being engaged with the world of five aggregates)
6. Kāmāvacara = pertaining sensuous sphere (being is subject to graving)
7. Anārammaṇa = objectless (not having an object like mental element)
8. Appahātabha = can’t be eradicated (that which can’t be eradicated gradually)

Prof. Y. Karunādāsa says after discussion that the nippanarūpas (all the different teams(?) combined to
show only elements) are true rūpa-dhammā. Nippanarūpa means the rūpa that are arise because of the
causes and kamma. Accordingly, nippanarūpa has four ways of being defined:
1. The characteristic of rūpa is molestation
2. It function is scattering
3. If manifestation is abyākata (unexplainable)
4. Its proximate cause is consciousness.

6 Probably paṭhavī, āpo, tejo, vāyo, ākāsa.

Nibbāna
The final goal of Buddhism is Nibbāna. When early discourses are considered, there are differences with
Abhidhamma. According to early Buddhist discourses, the Nibbāna is the complete detachment from the
defilements. In the early Buddhist discourses explain Nibbāna. They used words of negation. However, in
Abhidammic interpretation the commentators have made an attempt to describe it in the positive way,
thereby categorizing it as a real dhamma. In Visuddhimagga there is presented a quotation from the
discourse which includes several expressions couched in negative terms:

“Bhikkhus, in so far as there are dhammās, whether formed or unformed, fading away is pronounced the
best of them, that is to say, disillusionment of vanity, the illumination of thirst, the absolute reliance, the
termination of the round, the destruction of craving, fading away, cessation and Nibbāna.”

Commenting on it the author said that virāga means not nearly “fading away of attachment”, but it implies
an unconditioned dhamma. Therein, fading away is not mere absence of greed, but rather it is that
conformed dhamma which, while given the names of disillusionment of vanity etc., in the close of “that is to
say, the disillusionment of vanity,” Nibbāna is treated basically as fading away. Abhidhammāvatāra also
contributes to the above mentioned idea. According to it, to say that “there is no nature called Nibbāna” can
be obtained by the person following the relevant practices and investigating it through the eyes of wisdom.
Something should not be denied nearly because untrained person (puthujjana) does not obtain it. Craving
(taṇhā) is called vāna in the sense of weaving or combining the dhammā etc. The separation from that vāna
or taṇhā is designed by term Nibbāna (ni+vāna = Nibbāna).

The Visudhimagga elaborates on this: “It is called Nibbāna because it has gone away from, has escaped
from, is dissociated from craving which had been acquired. In common it is used the word vāna because by
insuring successive becoming, craving serves as a joining together, a binding together of the four kinds of
generation, five destinies, seven stations”.

While mentioning that Nibbāna means to be free from craving which is called vāna. The
Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha presents two characteristics of it as follows: “Nibbāna, however, is termed as
supra-mundane, it to be realized by the wisdom of the four paths. It becomes an object to the path and fruit,
and is called Nibbāna because it is departure from cord-like craving. Nibbāna is one-fold according to its
intrinsic nature. According to the way it is two-folds, namely the element of Nibbāna with and without the
substrate remaining. It is three-fold according to its different aspects, namely: voidness, signlessness and
longing-free.”

There are other three divisions of Nibbāna:

a) Suñña (void), because it is devoid of attachment, hatred and delusion either by way of object or of
accompaniment
b) Animitta (signless) as it is free of the signs such as attachment and hatred
c) Appanihita (longing-free) as it is free from longing such as attachment and hatred.

Nibbāna is also described by some other names, such as accuta (deathless), accanti (exceeding the end),
asaṅkhāta (unconditioned) and anuttara (matchless).

The commentators have made and attempted to describe Nibbāna as having a nature too, as they have
described the other dhammās as being either mental or material. The earth element has hardness as its own
characteristics. By explaining Nibbāna as a dhamma possessing its own nature they wanted to prove it as a
real stage and disprove the theory that it is mere voidness. For this reason, Nibbāna has also been explained
according to four ways of definition:
1. Characteristics of Nibbāna is pacification
2. Its function is making deathlessness
3. Its fruit is signlessness
4. Its proximate course is renunciation.

Sammuti and Paramatta (Conventional form of knowledge and Nibbāna)

Sammutti and paramattha were developed in the middle and late Upaniṣads. Therefore, sammuti and
paramattha have long history from the Upaniṣadic period up to peak development of Abhidhamma, two
truths are discussed by the Buddhist and non-Buddhist scholars. The two-fold development of Buddhism is
Theravāda and Mahāyāna. Not only in the Theravāda tradition, but also in the Mahāyāna tradition,
Sammuti and Paramattha were accepted. Nāgarjuna stated dhammās by resorting two kinds of truth,
namely:
1. Lokasamvrtisatya
2. Paramatthasatya

The scholar Bernard mentioned that a criterion of truth is corresponded between the subjective world of
thought and objective world of form. Mūrti mentions absolutism as committed to the doctrine of two truths
according to the Upaniṣadic teaching, the “Brahma”. B. K. Matilal mentions three definitions regarding
sammuti sacca as it was given by Chandrakīrti:
1. The complete covering.
2. The existence
3. Worldly behaviors.

Nāgarjuna explains the two truths by mutual connection between the two: “Without relying on
convention, the absolute truth is not preached, without relying on the absolute truth, Nirvāṇa can not be
realized.” “The Paramattha is in fact the unalterable, unthinkable and unteachable.”

According to Yogācāra tradition we can see threefold reality:

1. Parikalpa = the conceptual world (we take unreal objects as real)
2. Paratantra = relative world (we take the world as form by the cause and condition)
3. Parinispanna = the ultimate world (because we accept the voidness)

Vaibhāśikās also accepted twofold truth, that is a) changeability and b) unchangeability. Changeability
means the nature of changing, for example pond would change but vedanā never changes just like
rūpavedanā etc.7

Unchangeability means the notion of something that does not disappear, that means whatever appears in
the world is unchangable. Prof. K.M. Jayathilake who researched the Pāli nikāyas stated that there is no
clear distinction between the two truths. This is no positive evidence to prove the acceptance of two truths.
According to him, two truths were added later with the development of Abhidhamma. When the early
Buddhist teaching is considered, we can see the places where the Buddha spoke on two truths. In the
Puppha Sutta of Saṃyutta Nikāya8 Buddha has mentioned the following statement: “if the wise people said
that the world is ultimate, I said the wise world is ultimate. If the wise people said the world depends on
convention, I said that the world depends on convention.”

7 Common sense tells me that feelings (vedanā) change ...

8 I didn't find any Puppha Sutta in Saṃyutta Nikāya or anywhere else in the Tipiṭaka.
 With the development of commentaries there emerged fourfold social knowledge:
1. Sutta (Tipiṭaka)
2. Suttānuloma (four Mahāpadesas – Buddhāpadesa, Mahātherāpadesa, Sambahulatherāpadesa,
Ekatherāpadesa)
3. Ācariyavāda (views of commentators)
4. Attanomati (one's own understanding)

Gaurinātha Śāstri states with regard to the two truths: “The relationship between language and reality is
perhaps also true as far as the Buddha's explanation of reality and convention are concerned.” In spite of its
limitations, human language is a useful instrument in the hands of thinkers. Because though it may be false
to express the reality in full and give only part, it is ending in deed and pointing to truth.

There is no clear evidence to prove that Buddha's teachings are based on the theory of two truths. But it is
possible that certain teaching formed the basis upon which the commentators formulated the theory of
reality. The suttas in the Nikāyas (or the collections of the discourses) were preached to various kinds of
people on different occasions. When we examine them we find many teachings that could be assumed to
have been influential in the emergence of theory of reality in the later period.

Generally the canonical Arahantship or similar stages of final attainment refers to something that cannot
be fully explained by mere conventional language. The following statement on Nibbāna is given below as an
example. This is quoted from Udāna Pāḷi: “Monks, there is a not-born, a not-become, a not-made, a not-
compounded. Monks, if that unborn, not-become, not-made, not-compounded were not, there would be
apparent no escape from this here that is born, become, made, compounded. But since, monks, there is an
unborn, not-become, not-made, not-compounded, therefore the escape from this here, which is born,
become, made, compounded, is apparent.”9
In the above mentioned passage which is definitely referring to the state of Nibbāna, the state is described
in negative terms. This is not due to lack of words, but because the conventional character of language is not
capable of describing the absolute stage, which is beyond the world (lokutara). It is clear that Nibbāna
comes under the supra-mundane and all conditioned phenomenas come within the mundane level. However,
the stage of Nibbāna has to be explained through conventional language. Convention is a medium of
approaching reality.

The commentary on Kathāvatthu points out the following facts in regard to two truths: “The talk of
Buddha is two-fold, as Sammuti and Paramattha. The talk of being, person, God, Brahma etc. is
conventional talk (Sammutikathā). The talk of impermanence, suffering, soullessness, aggregates, sense
bases, mindfulness, right effort etc. is ultimate or absolute talk (paramathakathā). If someone is able to
understand reality through conventional talk such as of being, the Buddha instructed him in these terms at
the very outset. If someone is able to understand reality through absolute terms such as impermanence etc.,
He instructed him through absolute terms. To the person who was capable of understanding through
conventional terms, He didn't give instruction by means of absolute terms at the beginning. Having
instructed first in conventional terms, He later instructed him in absolute terms.”

The doctrine of two kinds of knowledge (the higher and lower) is the doctrine of two kinds of truth,
conventional truth and absolute truth. However, in the Pāli Nikāyas there is no distinction between these two

9 »Atthi, bhikkhave, ajātaṃ abhūtaṃ akataṃ asaṇkhataṃ. no cetaṃ, bhikkhave, abhavissa ajātaṃ abhūtaṃ akataṃ
asaṇkhataṃ, nayidha jātassa bhūtassa katassa saṅkhatassa nissaraṇaṃ paññāyetha. yasmā ca kho, bhikkhave, atthi ajātaṃ
abhūtaṃ akataṃ asaṇkhataṃ, tasmā jātassa bhūtassa katassa saṅkhatassa nissaraṇaṃ paññāyatī"ti. Tatiyaṃ.« (Khuddaka
Nikāya – Udāna Pāḷi - 8. Pāṭaligāmiyavaggo - 3. Tatiyanibbānapaṭisaṃyuttasuttaṃ)
kinds of truth. The two kinds of discourse, Nītatta and Neyyatta are being found in the Pāli canon. Nītatta
means the direct speech while Neyyatta means indirect speech. In Aṅguttara Nikāya, the importance of
understanding these two-fold suttas it is said that the one who confuses the two, he misinterprets the words
of the Buddha. It is further given thus: “He who presents a sutta of indirect meaning (sammuti) as a sutta of
direct meaning (paramattha) and one who presents a sutta of direct meaning (paramattha) as a sutta of
indirect meaning (sammuti) has misinterpreted the Buddha's words.”

However, in the canon no examples are given for these two kinds of suttas. Commentaries have explained
those two suttas as follows:

“A sutta of the form “there is one individual,” “O monks, there are two individuals,” “O monks, there are
three individuals” etc. is a sutta of indirect meaning. Although here the Buddha speaks of “there is one
person...,” it seems that there is no individual in the absolute sense. But a person because of his folly may
take this as a sutta of direct meaning and would argue that the Tathāgata would not have said “there is one
individual...,” unless a person's existence in the absolute sense. If the Buddha explained everything is
impermanent that means there is nothing available as permanent that is the Sutta of direct meaning. But
because of one’s folly he takes this Sutta as an indirect Sutta, he misinterpreted the words of the Buddha.”

Prof. K.M. Jayathilaka claimed, that early Buddhist theory of knowledge states the two truths evolved by
following Nītatta and Neyyatta suttas.

Theory of Perception
The perception means the way of perceiving the world through the senses. There are five senses with their
respective objects accepted in Buddhism, they are:
1. Eye 6. Form
2. Ear 7. Sound
3. Nose 8. Smell
4. Tongue 9. Taste
5. Body 10. Touch

Perception, in other words, is the knowledge that we get through the senses. The perception is explained
in the Mahāhatthipadopama and Madhupiṇḍika suttas of Majjhima Nikāya. Buddha has explained that
there should be three factors for the perception. They are:
1. An unimpaired internal sense organ of sight. (ajjhattikañceva cakkhu aparibhinnaṃ hoti)
2. External visible form entering into the field vision (bāhirāca rūpā na āpāthaṃ āgacchanti)
3. An appropriate of act of attention on the part of the mind (no ca tajjo samannāhāro hoti)

When these conditions are satisfied, it is said that “there is a manifestation of these kinds of perception.” -
»Viññāṇabhāgassa pātubhāvo hoti.«10

10 »Seyyathāpi, āvuso, kaṭṭhañca paṭicca valliñca paṭicca tiṇañca paṭicca mattikañca paṭicca ākāso parivārito agāraṃ tveva saṅkhaṃ gacchati; evameva kho,
āvuso, aṭṭhiñca paṭicca nahāruñca paṭicca maṃsañca paṭicca cammañca paṭicca ākāso parivārito rūpaṃ tveva saṅkhaṃ gacchati. ajjhattikañceva, āvuso,
cakkhuṃ aparibhinnaṃ hoti, bāhirāca rūpā na āpāthaṃ āgacchanti, no ca tajjo samannāhāro hoti, neva tāva tajjassa viññāṇabhāgassa pātubhāvo hoti.
ajjhattikañceva ajjhattikañce, āvuso, cakkhuṃ aparibhinnaṃ hoti bāhirāca rūpaa āpāthaṃ āgacchanti, no ca tajjo samannāhāro hoti, neva tāva tajjassa
viññāṇabhāgassa pātubhāvo hoti. yato ca kho, āvuso, ajjhattikañceva cakkhuṃ aparibhinnaṃ hoti, bāhirāca rūpaa āpāthaṃ āgacchanti, tajjo ca samannāhāro
hoti. evaṃ tajjassa viññāṇabhāgassa pātubhāvo hoti. yaṃ tathābhūtassa rūpaṃ taṃ rūpupādānakkhandhe saṅgahaṃ gacchati, yā tathābhūtassa vedanā sā
vedanupādānakkhandhe saṅgahaṃ gacchati, yā tathābhūtassa saññā sā saññupādānakkhandhe saṅgahaṃ gacchati, ye tathābhūtassa saṅkhārā te
saṅkhārupādānakkhandhe saṅgahaṃ gacchanti, yaṃ tathābhūtassa viññāṇaṃ taṃ viññāṇupādānakkhandhe saṅgahaṃ gacchati.« (Majjhima Nikāya -
Mūlapaṇṇāsa Pāḷi - 3. Opammavaggo - 8. Mahāhatthipadopamasuttaṃ)
 According to explanation given above, we can see how origin of sense-cognation occurs. For the
perception, therefore, three factors are needed, namely sense-organ, respective object and the respective
consciousness. An example for the perception of eye is given below:
1. Eye
2. Form
3. Eye-consciousness

With the development of Abhidhamma, there appeared 'cetasika'. Under classification of 'cetasika'
'aññasamānas' are given. The 'aññasamāna' means 'ethical variable'. Mental factors are also classified into
two categories:
1. Sabbacitta Sādhārana = Universal
2. Pakiṇṇaka = occasional

The cetasika sabbacitta sādhārana are arising with each and every consciousness. According to
Theravāda Abhidhamma, there are 89 cittas. Therefore, sabbacitta sādhārana arises with all those 89 cittas.
Whether the consciousness is akusala (unwholesome), ahetuka (rootless) or sobhana (beautiful), with these
cittas sabbacitta sādhārana arises. Therefore, for the perception the most reliable cetasikas are the
sabbacitta sādhārana. There are 7 sabbacitta sādhāranas:
1. Phassa = contact
2. Vedanā = feeling
3. Saññā = perception
4. Cetanā = volition
5. Ekaggata = one pointedness
6. Jīvitindriya = mental life faculty
7. Manasikāra = attention

With development of Abhidhamma commentary was composed. In the commentary, the doctrinal teaching
given in the Pakaraṇas was explained by the commentators. As the result of these explanations new
teaching appeared, for example 'bhavaṅga consciousness', 'citta-vīthi'. In Atthasālinī citta-vīthis are
discussed in other names, for vīthi 17 thought-moments were given. The purpose of introducing these citta-
vīthis was explaining the interrelatedness among the cittas. In Abhidhamma, 89 cittas are introduced.
Though cetasikas were introduced to explain the continous existence of cittas it wasn’t more reliable for the
task. Therefore, commentators were eager to introduce 17 thought-moments with the introduction of these
moments, synthetic existences of the thought processes are proved. The 17 thought-moments are
summarized up to 14. They are namely:
1. Paṭisandhi = rebirth-linking 8. Phusana = touching
2. Bhavaṅga = life continuum 9. Sampaṭicchana = receiving
3. Āvajjana = advertising 10. Santīrana = investigation
4. Dassana = seeing 11. Votthapana = determining
5. Savana = listening 12. Javana = energy
6. Ghāyana = smelling 13. Tadārammana = registration
7. Sāyana = tasting 14. Cuti = death

In the commentary, a story is given to understand each of those thought-moments. The story is given
below:

“One day, a man went to forest. When he got tired, he wanted to lie down under a mango tree. This mango
tree bore fruit which were ripen. The man who lied down under the tree went to sleep. Having fully covered
his face he went to sleep. When he was sleeping a sound made him awaken. Then he opened his face and
looked here and there. And then he looked at the sound (where the sound was). He saw a mango fruit. After
having seen the fruit he touched it and then he smelled it. Finally he ate it. Having eaten it he went back to
sleep.”

According to the story, he got up. Hearing the sound is paṭisandhi. When he got up he was able to
remember why he got up because the sound was near - that is similar to bhavaṅga. Āvajjana is similar to
looking here and there. Seeing the mango fruit is the dassana tasting the mango fruit is the phusana. Tasting
the mango is sāyana. Sampaṭicchana means the feeling he got through the senses without any investigation.
According to the story the five senses are not concerned, but he could understand the perception through the
senses he got feeling through. The reception is the characteristics of sampaṭicchana. Then he investigated
what he was receiving. For example, when he was eating the fruit he felt that it was tasty. At that time he
may have investigated whether it was tasty or not. If he felt that it was tasty, he should have determined it.
Javana means keeping the views until it is registred. Tadārammaṇa means the registration at that time he
conformed the death/finish of it. Finally, he went back to the sleep, that is the cuti.

In this way regarding perception different interpretations were given by the time. That is why we saw
interpretations given in different ways.

Methods of Meditation
Most of the scholars generally accepted that Abhidhamma is a philosophy without a practical path.
However, in almost all Theravāda countries the practice of meditation is available. The first major text of
Abhidhamma, the Pakaraṇa. does not introduce the methods of meditation. With the later development of
Abhidhamma there appeared texts called Abhidhamma compendiums. The texts Abhidhammāvatāra
describes the methods of meditation. Abhidhammāvatāra is the oldest Abhidhamma compendium. This
introduces nine chapters to describe the meditation. Therefore, though the Pakaraṇas do not discuss the
meditation compendiums do that. The nine chapters of the Abhidhammāvatāra are:
1. Rūpāvacarasamādhibhāvanā = concentration of meditation of form spheres
2. Arūpāvacarasamādhibhāvanā = concentration of meditation of formless spheres
3. Abhiññā = higher knowledge
4. Abhiññārammaṇa
5. Diṭṭhivisuddhi = purity of view
6. Kankhāvitaraṇavisuddhi = purity of transgressing doubt.
7. Maggāmaggañānadassanavisuddhi = path and non-path.
8. Paṭipadāñānadassanavisuddhi = purity of vision undeserving.
9. Ñānadassanavisuddhi = purity of vision

The first four chapters of Abhidhammāvatāra discuss concentrative meditation or samādhibhāvanā. And
last five chapters of the text discuss insight meditation or paññābhāvanā. There are other compendiums that
discuss the meditation that is Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha. The last chapter, Kammaṭṭhānasaṅgahavibhāga
introduces both methods of meditation in brief. The first end chapter of the text includes the analysis of
mental and material dhammā.
Nāmarūpapariccheda is another compendium that belongs to the Theravāda tradition. This text discusses
the meditation called 'concentrative meditation'. The chapter explained these kinds of meditation:
1. Kasināsubhavibhāga = analysis of Kasina and Subha.
2. Dasānussativibhāga = analysis obtain three collections.
3. Kammaṭṭhānavibhāga = analysis of object of meditation.
 4. Dasavatthuvibhāga = analysis of ten stages.

This text also follows the usual methods. The first three chapters discuss the concentrative meditation
while the last two chapters discuss the insight meditation. The whole text consists of 1855 verses and around
910 stanzas describing meditation and also analysis of the mental and material dhammā.

Saccasankhepa is another Abhidhammic compendium. In this text the useful factor relevant to practice of
meditation is given. Among them diṭṭhivisuddhi sambha visuddhi are noted.

According to the Abhidhammāvatāra, the five purities, are considered as the trunk of tree of wisdom.
“Aggregates (khandha), bases (āyatana), elements (dhātu), faculties (indriya), truths (sacca), dependent
originations ( paṭiccasamuppāda) There are these stages (bhūmi) of 'tree' understood as its 'root':
a) insight meditation (vipassanā)
b) purity of virtue (sīlavisuddhi)
c) purity of consciousness (cittavisuddhi)

Purity of views (diṭṭhivisuddhi) means the real understanding of mental and physical phenomena. The later
text called Visuddhimagga further explains the diṭṭhivisuddhi. Because it is a text out of Abhidhamma, it is
not important to be discussed here.

Kankhāvitāraṇa is to be understood to realize the mutual relationship between mental and physical
dhammā. It is important to consider that the analysis of relation between dhammās forms one major path of
Abhidhamma philosophy.

Citta, Mano and Viññāṇa

In early Buddhism and in Visuddhimagga it has the same meaning, however in Atthasālinī it has different
meaning.

Book reference : Saravada 2002

In early Buddhism and in Abhidhamma the terms citta, mana and viññāṇa were used. The
controversy faced by the scholars is that whether these terms are equal in meaning or not. The post-
canonical text called Visuddhimagga (the path of purification) states that citta, mana and viññāṇa are same
in meaning. However, Atthasālinī states that citta, mana and viññāṇa have their own meanings. Accordingly
the means of the three terms are given below:
1. Citta - the consciousness is so called because of its variegated nature.
2. Mana – is so called because it knows the measure of an object.
3. Viññāṇa or mental action, it is just the mind.

In another place of Atthasālinī, it further says that a single consciousness is introduced by three
names, namely mano, viññāṇa and dhātu. According to the fact, the meanings of the three terms are:
1) Mana is the mind in the sense of misery.
2) Viññāṇa is the consciousness in the sense of discrimination.
3) Dhātu is elements in the philosophical sense of ultimate.
 Further, Atthasālinī mentions that “consciousnessnes is from thinking of an object or because it is
variegated.” With regard to mana, four definitions are given. They are:
1) It is mind
2) It is the common thought resort of the other sense faculty
3) It is a function
4) It is faculty.

In early Buddhism, we meet citta, mana and viññāṇa. In Dhammapada the term citta is used.
Examples are given below:
»Cittam dantam sukkhāvaham.«
»Pandanam capalam cittam.«

In Paṭiccasamuppāda, viññāṇa is explained as “one of the twelve limbs (aṅga).” »Viññāṇa paccayā
nāma rūpaṃ« means the cause of name and form is viññāṇa. In this sense viññāṇa is the cause for the
origination of name and form. With regard to five aggregates, viññāṇa is the fifth. Here, the viññāṇa means
'consciousness'. In Abhidhamma the meaning of the word 'citta' is also 'consciousness'. This happens
because of the development of doctrinal terms. In early Buddhism what was called viññāṇa becomes citta in
Abhiddhamma. However, even in the Abhidhamma tradition there is no common interpretation. In
Theravāda Abhidhamma, citta is classified up to 89/121 parts. But in Sarvāstivāda tradition citta is one.

When we consider the Aṭṭhārasadhātu11 (18 elements); we find six kinds of viññāṇa. They are:
1. Cakkhu-viññāṇa 4. Jivhā-viññāṇa
2. Sota-viññāṇa 5. Kāya-viññāṇa
3. Ghāna-viññāṇa 6. Mano--viññāṇa

According to the six senses we can understand what the mana is. The six senses are cakkhu, sota,
ghāna, jivhā, kāya and mana.

To summarize the lesson we can say that mana represents the “intellectual function of the
consciousness,” viññāṇa represents “the field of senses and their reactions,” and the citta is “the subjective
aspect of the consciousness.” The Buddha mentioned:

»Yañca kho etam bhikkhave vuccati

cittam itipi, mano itipi
viññāṇaṃ itipi.«

Therefore, the Buddha equated these three terms, citta, mano and viññāṇa.

11 Aṭṭhārasadhātu is older version of the word aṭṭhādasadhātu.