‘Higher — Surveying * =e Dr A M ChandraHigher Surveying Revised Second Edition Dr AM Chandra Prk of Cl Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee NEW AGE NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, New Dethi ¢ Bangalore « Chennai « Cochin » Guwahati « Hyderabad Jalandhar « Kolkata ¢ Lucknow ¢ Mumbai « RanchiCopyright © 2005 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers First Edition 2002 Second Edition 2005 NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, ‘New Delhi - 110 002 Visit us at : www.newagepublishers.com Offices at : Bangalore, Chennai, Cochin, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai and Ranchi ‘This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. This book cannot be sold outside the country to which it is consigned by the publisher without the prior permission of the publisher. Rs. 235.00 ISBN : 81-224-1628-4 Published by New Age International (P) Ltd. 4896/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110 002 and printed in India at Sanjeev Offset, Delhi ‘Typesetter Akarti Graphics, DelhiChapter 1. Triangulation and Trilateration ..... Li 12 13 14 1s CONTENTS General . Principle of triangulation. Objective of triangulation surveys. Classification of triangulation system .. Triangulation figures and layouts 15.1 Single chain of triangles .. 152 Double chain of triangles 1.53 Braced quadrilaterals ... 154 — Centered triangles and polygons 155 A combination of all above systems .. Layout of primary triangulation for large countries. 1.6.1_ Gridiron system .. 1.62 Central system Criteria for selection of the layout of triangles Well-conditioned triangles Strength of figure. Accuracy of triangulation Routine of triangulation survey 1.12.1 Erection of signals and towers Singnals 1.13.1 Classification of signals .. Measurement of base line 1.16.1 Selection of site for base line .. 1.162 Equipment for base line measurement 1.163 Extension of base line. Measurement of horizontal angles. 1.17.1 Method of observation of horizontal angles .. Measurement of vertical angles Astronomical observations. ‘Some extra precautions in taking observation: Satellites station and reduction to centre... Eccentricity of signal Location of points by intersection and resection 123.1 Location by intersection ... 1232 Location by resection . ‘Computations in triangulation ARSSwRRRREL BEE BRRE RS Rae SRL Lolaa babe e baledimage not availableimage not availableimage notimage not available(xiv) 719 Determination of azimuth 719.1 Reference mark 7.192 Methods of determining azimuth 720 Determination of latitude .. 720.1 General principles of determining latitude .. 7202 Methods of determining latitude 721 Methods of determining longitude . 721.1 Transportation of chronometer method . 7212 Electric telegraph method 721.3 Wireless signals method 722 Identification of stars Chapter 8. Map Projection: 81 General 82 Scale factor 83 Geometry of the sphere 84 Geometry of the cone 85 Areas 85.1 Areas of plane figures 852 Surface areas of solids 86 Types of map projections 162 Conical projection 863 Albers equal-area projection .. 864 865 866 867 868 jection . 869 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection 87 The choice of projections Chapter 9. Photogrammetry and Photographic Interpretation. 9.1 General 92 Limitations of photogrammetry 93 Types of photographs 93.1 Terrestrial photographs .. 932 Aerial photographs 94 Aerial photogrammetry 95 Photocoordinate system 96 — Geometry of vertical photographs .. 97 Definition of technical term: 98 Scale of a vertical photograph 98.1 Scale of a vertical photograph over flat terrain .. 982 Scale ofa vertical photograph over variable terrain .. 983 Average scale 984 Other methods of determining scale or vertical photograph: BEEREEESE 8 S8e8image not availableimage not availableimage not available2 1.2 Fig. 1 Loft triangulation station 4, whose coordinates (X,, ¥,), are known, triangulation stations B, C, and D by the method of triangulation. Let us first calculate the lengths of all the lines. By sine rule in AABC, we have below. ‘Higher Surveying PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION -2 shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in bath the ‘triangles and the length the side AB, have been measured. Also the azimuth @ of AB has been measured at the D The objective is to determine the coordinates of the AB _ BC sin3 si We have AB =L Fig. 1.2 Principle of triangulation or BC and sin3 Now the side BC being known in ABCD, by sine rule, we have BC _CD_ BD sin We have ‘sind Lsin) sing or co-( sin3 ee d BC -(4 1) sin an Using Jsiné Let us now calculate the azimuths of all the lines. Azimuth of AB = 0 = 4y Azimuth of AC = 0+21=6 ye Azimuth of BC = 0 +180°- 22 = Oy Azimuth of BD = +180°-(22+ 24) = Oy), Azimuth of CD = 0- 22+ 25 =0¢y, From the known lengths of the sides and the azimuths, the consecutive coordinates can be computed as Latitude of AB = [yy C080 4 = Lay Departure of AB = I 4p sin® 4x = Day Latitude of AC = I 0080 4c = Lac Departure of AC = 1-$in 0 4c = Dc Latitude of BD = Ip cOSO gy = Lay Departure of BD = py sin® yp = Lypimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableG Fig. 1.7 Centered triangles and polygons This layout in a triangulation system is generally used when vast area in all directions is required to be covered. The centered figures generally are quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons with central stations. Though this system provides checks on the accuracy of the work, generally it is not as strong as the braced quadrilateral arrangement. Moreover, the progress of work is quite slow due to the fact that more settings of the instrument are required. 4.5.5 A combination of all above systems Sometimes a combination of above systems may be used which may be according to the shape of the area and the accuracy requirements. 1.6 LAYOUT OF PRIMARY TRIANGULATION FOR LARGE COUNTRIES ‘The following two types of frameworks of primary triangulation are provided for a large country to cover the entire area. 1. Grid iron system 2 Central system. 1.6.1 Grid iron system In this system, the primary triangulation is laid in series of chains of triangles, which usually runs roughly along meridians (north- south) and along perpendiculars to the meridians (east-west), throughout the country (Fig. 1.8). The distance between two such chains may vary from 150 to 250 km. The area between the parallel and perpendicular series of primary triangulation, are filled by the secondary and tertiary triangulation systems. Grid iron system has been adopted in India and other countries like Austria, Spain, France, ete. Fig, 4.8 Grid iron system of triangulationimage not availableimage not availableimage not available10 Higher Surveying Table 1.2 Values of 84, +5, 5, +55 10°] 12°] 145] 60°[65° | 70°] 75°] 80°] 85°] 10 | 428] 359] 12 }359] 29s] 253 14 |315|253} 214] 16 |284] 225] 187} 18 | 262] 204] 168} 20 |245} 189] 153| 232] 177) 142} 221] 167) 134] 213] 160] 126| 206} 153] 120] 199] 148] 115] 188] 137] 106 179] 129} 99] 172] 124} 93} 167] 119} 89 162] 115} 86 159} 112] 83} 155} 109} so] 152] 106} 78 8 BRIER 3 asns &S ga & = 2 147] 102] 74] ¥RSe SSE5 SESS BSL 88 28 23 88 gs 32 105 }136] 93] 110 }134] 91 115] 132} 89} 120] 129} 88 125127] 86] 130] 125} 84 135 }122] 82] 140 }119] 80} 14s | 116] 77 150 }112] 75} =eso RRR NNRN N REWER BUVeE eco oc on-- BS SSBS SIe3 1s2}111] 75} 154}110] 74] 156 | 108] 74] 158 }107] 74] 160 | 107] 74} 162 }107] 76} 164 }109] 79] 166 |113] 86] Bs aerss simage not availableimage not availableimage not available4 Higher Surveying Solution: (i) Fig. 1.15a From Eq. (1.11), we have and ‘Therefore (iw) Fig. 1.156 ‘Therefore Gif) Fig. L.15e Therefore (i) Fig. 1.15d Therefore D-C _ 36-12 C =(n'-S'+ 1)+(n-2843) n= the total number of lines u the total number of lines observed in both directions “9 S = the total number of stations =1 S’ = the total number of stations occupied =6 C =(9-641)+(11-2*743)=4 D =the total number of directions observed excluding the known side =2x (n'— 1) + number of lines abserved in one direction =2x(9-1)+2=18 n Si=7 C =(11-74 1) +(13-2%7+3)=7 D =2x(11-1)+2=22 n=1B n’=11 S=7 s'=7 C =(11-741)+(13-2*743)=7 D=2x(11-1)+2=22 D-C _ 2-7 n=19 n'=19 S=10 s'=10 C =(19-10+ 1) + (19-2 10+3)=12 D =2(19-1)+0=36 36 70.67.