Student engagement and attitude towards multimedia learning in an

English academic reading and writing course

Authors
Ms. Nicola Prin. Lecturer at Burapha University International College. Chonburi, Thailand.
nicol.pri7@gmail.com
Mr. Joaquín Fernández. Lecturer at Burapha University International College. Chonburi,
Thailand.
joaquinfdeza@gmail.com

Abstract

This case study investigates how lecturer-personalized multimedia tools help create a more
engaging learning environment within a college level English reading and writing course, based
in Thailand. The study focuses on the overall attitudes towards the use of these multimedia
tools in the classroom, critically analyzing how they individually encourage student
engagement towards learning and active involvement within the process. This case study
specifically concentrates on English reading and writing, which often presents many challenges
for students due to the multifaceted skills and linguistic ability required at college level for
second language learners. To collect the data a 5-point likert scale questionnaire was
administered to all participating students and the data was analyzed using the SPSS program.
The results of this case study found that overall by incorporating mixed multimedia tools
students showed a positive attitude. The use of multi-channels was deemed, by the students, to
have the most benefit for reinforcement of information; construction of meaning; and
collaboration amongst peers.

Keywords: Multimedia, engagement, active, attitude, collaboration, benefit.

I. Introduction
English teaching has increasingly changed and adapted to include technology in the
classroom to meet the demands of 21st century life, in terms of social, economic, and linguistic
change. Schröttner (2010: 52) states “the future of a society in the global knowledge and
information age is increasingly dependent on the future of education.” From a classroom
perspective this means instructors need to find ways to prepare students to meet the demands
of this global society, including skills such as, critical thinking; problem solving; and inter and
cross-cultural communication; and English language proficiency. To help deliver these
essential skills, instructors are turning to technology in the form of multimedia learning.
Multimedia learning can be broadly defined as “learning from words (e.g., printed or spoken
text) and pictures (e.g., animation, video, illustrations, or photos)” Mayer (2004). Multimedia
tools have a profound impact on how and what material is presented to the learners, for example
the use of video, audio, social media, blogs, virtual classrooms etc. These and other tools give
learners opportunity to access information through multi channels that can enhance the learning
experience and develop 21st century skills. Research has shown that when information is
presented by more than one means, there is added reinforcement of the content and this results
in higher retention and improvement (Daniels, 1999; Ellis, 2004).

One main aspect of developing 21st century skills, is on language, specifically English.
Crystal (2003) believes that English has impacted on many areas of life, including political life,
business, safety, communication, and education. It is due to this precedent that many higher
educational institutes, promote the development of students’ English proficiency levels by
offering subject courses with English as the language of instruction. In Thailand, where this
study was conducted, this is no exception. Saengboon (2006) explains that English is used in
all sectors of commerce within Thailand and the wider community, to create opportunities for
graduates, who have a reasonable good command of English proficiency to compete for well-
paid jobs. Although there has been an increased effort into developing learners English
speaking and listening skills, the skills or reading and writing have been somewhat under-
valued in the classroom or seen as equally important aspects of communication. Harder (2006)
suggests that students are not prepared adequately in schools to read or write professionally.
This does not mean that reading and writing are not taught, but rather a lack of focus, time and
research on their importance to the second language learner. Weigle (2002: 1) states “The
ability to write effectively is becoming increasingly important in our global community.”
English reading and writing are required skills for success at the college level where students
need to negotiate both linguistic and academic skills. Writing helps learners to recognize
different text structures for different purposes, this may be writing a business report, an
academic essay, an online blog article, or presentation. Fujiwara and Sato (2014) discuss how
writing performance is an important part of learning stages at university, incorporating
activities such as, presentation, report writing, and seminars. English reading skill focuses on
the students’ ability to read and process a text from a language standpoint. It also promotes the
students need to analyze a text in a more analytical way. Rao (2007) expands on this by
including improvement in critical thinking, summarizing, and analyzing. Now with renewed
awareness and innovative ways to instruct in reading and writing courses for English language
learners, scholars such as, (Zhang & Cheung 2018) have focused research interest on how to
raise levels of proficiency, assessment, motivation and development of student confidence in
reading and writing skills.
Multimedia learning in English academic reading and writing
One of the most innovative approaches being used in the classroom, to raise the English
proficiency levels, in reading and writing is by multimedia learning. Vaughan (2011) discusses
how combining digital media, such as text, photographs, sound, animation and video can help
to raise students’ interest to English reading and writing skills. “Multimedia is a combination
of digitally manipulated text, photographs, graphic art, sound, animation, and video elements.”
This concept is explained by Yan and Rongchun (2011) who state that multimedia makes the
English class more vivid, interesting and lively, which in turn, stimulates learners’ interest in
learning. With multimedia, learners can develop their knowledge and interest on a variety of
interdisciplinary topics presented through both visual and printed text. Joshi (2012: 12)
"Multimedia provides an opportunity for interacting with various texts that give students a solid
background in the tasks and content of the course.” For this study three multimedia tools were
analyzed, PowerPoint; blog; and video.

PowerPoint has been a favorite teaching tool by instructors for many years, (Amare,
2006; Ruffini, 2009). However, research on the use of PowerPoint offers a very mixed review.
Research conducted by Xingeng and Jianxiang (2012) highlight the advantages, which include
better visual effects and deeper impressions; speeding up the information transfer; and greater
precision. Nwaocha (2010) suggests that multimedia presentations can improve students'
understanding, enthusiasm, class attendance, and satisfaction. In contrast, to these advantages,
some critics note that PowerPoint can have an adverse impact on students learning. Young
(2004) concludes that even though PowerPoint is a popular choice for many instructors in
universities to deliver content, it also receives the most negative feedback from students. As
Young records that some students feel their teachers just read of the slides, which does not add
value or create an active learning experience. This point reflects that PowerPoint alone is not
enough to engage students. Ruffini (2009) recognized this point and states that PowerPoint is
only a tool and suggests that the instructor needs to integrate PowerPoint in an efficient way
for it to add any value.

As well as PowerPoint the use of blogs for writing have been incorporated into the
classroom. Noytim (2010: 11-27) used blogs to help students with their writing in university
and explained that blogs give students, opportunity and freedom for self-expression in English,
writing for both a global and local audience." In other words, blog writing not only helps
students with their writing ability but also, creates possibilities to reflect and compare on topics
from different perspectives, leading to both critical thinking and collaborative development.
Wichadee (2010) found that web-based writing showed positive impacts on students’ writing
skill improvement, critical thinking, social interaction, and language learning. It is worth noting
that blogs are not linear, text bound material. They can also include video, audio, and pictures,
giving students interesting and multi-channeled learning material.

Another favorite tool is video. Video offers a visual aid to introduce or reinforce the
written text. It gives students an authentic experience of content, in a multimodal format.
Gardner, (2006) states that the use of video gives students multiple entry points, from moving
images to a mix of spoken language and text. This results in higher learning gains than just one
media system. Video content can engage students and encourages a range of skills, including
collaborative work, expression of opinion, discussion and critical thinking. In the report
commissioned by Cisco Systems Inc. to Wainhouse Research, LLC. (2012) fifty studies
showed that the use of video in various forms had an impact in three key areas - Interactivity
with content; Engagement; Knowledge transfer and memory.
Purpose and Background of study
This study investigated the degree to which multimedia engages students in a reading
and writing course within an international college, based in Thailand. The focus of this study
is on how students engage with the multimedia tools; their attitude towards its use; and the
degree of its helpfulness in their English academic reading and writing course. This study was
deemed relevant due to the lack of motivation and the non-engagement of students in their
English academic reading and writing course. In previous study by Punthumasen (2007) it was
found that many students found the subject matter boring, also teaching methodology in the
classroom are not interesting. It was from similar recognized issues within the study’s context
that the researcher saw an opportunity to explore how multimedia can help to alleviate some
of these issues with the use of multimedia.

Participants
The study takes place in an international college based in Thailand in an English
academic reading and writing course. The students are all first-year undergraduate students, all
who use English as a Second or Other Language (ESOL). The course meets for a 3-hour lesson,
once per week for a total of 16 weeks. For this case study, the research concentrated on the
English academic reading and writing course. All students took a TOEFL test before the
commencement of the program and scores indicated that students were either at an A2 – A2+
CEFR level of English language ability. The Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (CEFR) is an international standard for describing language ability. It is used
around the world to describe learners’ language skills. (Cambridge English Language
Assessment).

Thai 63
Chinese 4
Russian 1
Korea 1
French 1

Method

For the purpose, of this case study, the instructor met with the same group of students
for the whole period of their English academic reading and writing course. Analyzing courses
contacted by one instructor was to avoid any external factors to influence the variables, for
example, a difference of teaching style by the instructor, or different implementation and types
of multimedia. The instructor introduced the three multimedia tools to represent all aspects that
each multimedia tool can offer. The students were put into three sections, containing both
female and male students. All students were asked to complete a 5-point Likert scale survey
consisting of 15 questions for the quantitative analysis.

Instrument

A 5-point Likert scale perception questionnaire with 15 questions was administered to

all participating students to investigate their overall attitude toward multimedia use and
engagement in their learning. The students conveyed their level of enjoyment with the three
multimedia tools, PowerPoint, blog, and video. For each multimedia tool, different questions
were asked, due to the specific element that each tool brings to the learning experience.
The methods used to analyze the results of this study are as follow:

1. Reliability analysis to check the reliability or consistency of the data, what is, whether it
produces comparable results over repeated measurements.
2. Descriptive analysis to have a general picture of the data collected.
3. T-test analysis to check whether there are differences among several independent groups
within the given variables of the research.
4. Content analysis to interpret meaning from the text data of the three open questions.

Reliability

To evaluate the reliability of the questionnaire the Cronbach's alpha measurement was
administered. Cronbach's alpha is the most common measure of internal consistency or
"reliability" to evaluate whether the analytic procedures used in the research would produce
consistent findings (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2012). It is the most commonly used when
surveys consist of multiple Likert scale questions that form a range to determine if such scale
is reliable.

Table 1
Cronbach’s Alpha
No. Item Coefficient
Q1 Overall I enjoy learning with multimedia tools (PowerPoint,
.857
blog, video)
Q2 I enjoy pre-reading tasks through video .845
Q3 I enjoy practicing vocabulary and grammar through interactive
.857
PowerPoint
Q4 I enjoy writing on a blog .855
Q5 Videos help me to understand the topic better .851
Q6 Videos make the lesson more interesting .857
Q7 Videos help me to develop my ideas for critical thinking writing
.857
tasks
Q8 PowerPoint helps me to understand vocabulary and grammar in
.849
context
Q9 PowerPoint is more interesting than doing book exercises .852
Q10 Blog writing is more interesting than traditional methods .852
Q11 Blog writing helps me to develop my writing skills .850
Q12 Overall multimedia makes the lesson more active (participation) .850
Q13 Overall multimedia makes the lesson more interactive .851
Q14 Overall multimedia helps me improve my English .849
Q15 Overall I have a better classroom experience with multimedia .849
Cronbach’s Alpha 15 items .861

Table 1 shows the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for each item included in the
questionnaire. The coefficients of all the questions are above 0.8, varying between .845 for
Q2 and .857 for Q1, Q3, Q6, and Q7. Like this, the 15 questions together within the scale had
a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .861, what means that the model used in this research was
found reliable.
 Limitations
This case study focused on an English academic reading and writing course as part of
the students' undergraduate degree. Therefore, generalizing the results for other educational
institutions within the country and abroad may not be possible without further research.
Furthermore, results of the survey for the same course but with a different instructor may be
different due to the personalization of the teaching methodology depending on the instructor.
If applied in another English course that focuses on distinct aspects of language learning such
as speaking and listening, grammar, and business English, this survey may yield very
different results. Finally, the survey is developed for a course with students who use English
as a second or other language (ESOL). Results regarding classes and students who use their
mother tongue and who have a diverse cultural background and educational learning
experience may also be different, since the use of analytical and metacognition thinking and
reasoning made during such courses may not be the same.

Findings and discussion

The objective of the descriptive analysis is to gain an accurate profile of the students
who answered the survey to have a general picture of their characteristics and their experience
during the English academic reading and writing course. From the 70 students, Thai nationality
represents 90% of the sample; Chinese represent 5.71%; French, 1.42%; Korean, 1.42% and
Russian, 1.42%. Regarding gender, 41 students are female, representing 58.57% of the sample;
and 29 are males, which represents 41.43% of the students. Moreover, 38 students are 18 years
old, 27 are 17 years old, four students are 19 years old, and one student is 20 years old. These
amounts represent the 54.29%, 38.57%, 5.71%, and 1.43% of the students, respectively.

Quantitative

Regarding students’ enjoyment of using multimedia tools for learning (PowerPoint,

blog, and video) (Table 2), the mean of all the answers was 4.34. This shows that overall
students enjoy learning with such multimedia tools. The result also shows one of the lowest
standard deviations among all the statements, that gives a 90% student satisfaction rate. While
the remaining 7 students state a neutral score for overall multimedia use in their English
academic reading and writing course.

Table 2
Enjoyment
Strongly
Freq. Neutral Strongly agree
Statement disagree Mean S.D.
%
1 2 3 4 5
Freq. 0 0 7 32 31
Overall 4.34 .66
% .0 .0 10.0 45.7 44.3
Pre-reading Freq. 0 1 16 37 16
3.97 .72
video % .0 1.4 22.9 52.9 22.9
Vocabulary Freq. 0 0 6 43 21
4.21 .59
PowerPoint % .0 .0 8.6 61.4 30.0
Writing Freq. 1 3 26 28 12
3.67 .86
blog % 1.4 4.3 37.1 40.0 17.1
 Disaggregating the multimedia tools, the highest mean (4.21) and the lowest standard
deviation (.59) is the practice of vocabulary through PowerPoint. 64 students 91.4% enjoy the
use of PowerPoint, with only 6 students giving a neutral rating. One reasons for a high rating
is that students are very familiar and comfortable with the use of PowerPoint. Another point to
note, as previously stated in the literature, it is how PowerPoint is used that has the greatest
effect. In this case, PowerPoint was used in an interactive way, through games, such as jeopardy
and spin the wheel, to give students a new experience to expanding their vocabulary.

Following this, video use for pre-reading tasks, shows a mean of (3.97) and standard
deviation of (.72). In this case, only one student stated that they did not enjoy pre-reading tasks
through video, while 16 record a neutral rating. These scores represent 22.9% of the students,
however 53 students, 75.8% agree that there are benefits to using video for pre-reading. Once
advantage of video, is that is gives a real-life example of the topic that will be studied. Students
can view a topic from a global context and then use this to critically analyze the text from their
own and other viewpoints, based upon the knowledge gained from the video and their own
experiences. Furthermore, video also lends to students who are visual learners, and this can
help them create an image that can be applied to the written text.

The tool with the lowest mean (3.67) and the highest standard deviation (.86) is the
blog. This multimedia tool shows more discrepancy between students’ opinions about their
level of enjoyment. In this case, 4 students, 5.7% indicate that they do not enjoy using the blog,
and 26 students give a neutral rating 37.1%). However, 40 students, 57.1% do indicate that
they enjoy writing on a blog. It is worth noting that writing in general is the least liked English
skill, as students need to consider, not only vocabulary and grammar aspects but also negotiate
the many multi-layered activities involved in the writing process.

Table 3
Videos
Strongly
Freq. Neutral Strongly agree
Statement disagree Mean S.D.
/%
1 2 3 4 5
Understand Freq. 0 2 13 31 24
4.10 .80
better % .0 2.9 18.6 44.3 34.3
Lesson Freq. 0 0 9 28 33
more 4.34 .70
% .0 .0 12.9 40.0 47.1
interesting
Develop Freq. 0 2 9 44 15
4.03 .68
own ideas % .0 2.9 12.9 62.9 21.4

Regarding the perception of video use (Table 3), the mean of (4.34) of the statement
that videos make the lesson more interesting, shows most of the students have a positive
attitude towards video. 12.9% of the students 9 students recorded a neutral rating, while the
rest (61 students, or 87.1% of them) acknowledged video helped with raising their interest.

The following two statements (better understanding of the topic) and (development of
their ideas) both present similar mean 4.10 and 4.03 respectively. Finally, 55 students agreed
with the first statement and 59 agreed with the second 78.6% versus 84.3%. This result shows
a considerably higher standard deviation for the first statement compared to the second
statement (80 and .68, respectively).
 Table 4
PowerPoint
Strongly Neutra
Freq. Strongly agree
Statement disagree l Mean S.D.
/%
1 2 3 4 5
Understand Freq. 0 1 14 35 20
4.06 .74
better % .0 1.4 20.0 50.0 28.6
Lesson Freq. 0 2 17 22 29
more 4.11 .88
% .0 2.9 24.3 31.4 41.4
interesting

Concerning the perception of PowerPoint use (Table 4), the mean of both statements is
similar, (4.06) for a better understanding of vocabulary and grammar, and (4.11) for being more
interesting than doing book exercises. However, the standard deviation of both statements is
considerably different (.74 for the first statement and .88 for the second one). This indicates is
that the perception among students is that PowerPoint is more interesting than doing book
exercises. What can be ascertained from this, is that if PowerPoint is used in an interactive way,
such as for games or student lead activities, the interest of the students rises. The advantage of
PowerPoint other a book exercise is that it offers more flexibility in terms of delivery. There
was only one student 1.4% who disagreed with a better understanding of vocabulary and
grammar using PowerPoint, while 14 students 20% were neutral, and the remaining 55
students, or 78.6% agreed. Regarding the second statement, only two students, 2.9% disagreed
with the comparison between PowerPoint and book exercises, while 17 students, 24.3% were
neutral and 51 students, 72.8% agreed.

Table 5
Blog writing
Strongly Neutra
Freq. Strongly agree
Statement disagree l Mean S.D.
/%
1 2 3 4 5
More Freq. 0 4 24 27 15
3.76 .86
interesting % .0 5.7 34.3 38.6 21.4
Develop Freq. 0 4 12 31 23
4.04 .86
writing skill % .0 5.7 17.1 44.3 32.9

Concerning the last multimedia tool, blog writing (Table 5), the means of both
statements appear slightly lower than the means of the statements about videos and PowerPoint.
The statement that blog writing is more interesting than traditional methods shows the lowest
mean among all the statements (3.76). The statement that blog writing helps to develop writing
skills has a mean of (4.04). In both cases, the standard deviation is equal (.86), which is one of
the highest among all the statements which shows a discrepancy between the students'
responses. Also, in both cases, four students disagreed with the statements, 5.7%. However, in
the first case, 24 students, 34.3% were neutral, while in the second case, only 12 students were
neutral, 17.1% of the sample. Finally, 42 students agreed with being more interesting than
traditional methods 60% of the total, and 54 students 77.2% agreed with developing their
writing skills through blog writing.
 Table 6
Overall multimedia
Strongly Neutra
Freq. Strongly agree
Statement disagree l Mean S.D.
/%
1 2 3 4 5
More active Freq. 0 0 9 44 17
participatio 4.11 .60
% .0 .0 12.9 62.9 24.3
n
More Freq. 0 0 9 48 13
4.06 .56
interactive % .0 .0 12.9 68.6 18.6
Improve Freq. 0 1 13 31 25
4.14 .77
English % .0 1.4 18.6 44.3 35.7
Better class Freq. 0 1 9 40 20
4.13 .68
experience % .0 1.4 12.9 57.1 28.6

Lastly, the four statements about the overall opinion of multimedia use (Table 6) show
a mean of (4.11), (4.06), (4.14), and (4.13), respectively. This indicates that students, in general,
agreed with all the four statements. The first statement, ‘making lessons more active through
students' participation’, and the second statement, ‘making lessons more interactive present’
two of the lowest standard deviation among all the statements of the survey (.60) and (.56,
respectively, indicating that students had in general similar opinions. For the statement, ‘having
a better classroom experience’, had a higher standard deviation (.68). Finally, the third
statement ‘helping to improve students' level of English’ had the highest standard deviation,
with (.77).

For the first two statements (more active participation and more interactive,
respectively) there was zero student rating to disagreed, with only nine students, 12. 9% giving
a neutral rating. The remaining of the students in both cases 61 students gave an agreed rating
for the statements. For the last two statements ‘improve English’ and ‘better classroom
experience’, respectively, only one student disagreed, 1.4%. However, regarding improving
English, 13 students were neutral 18.6%, while the remaining 56 students, or 80.0% agreed. In
the case of having a better classroom experience, nine students were neutral 12.9%, while the
rest 60 students, or 85.7% agreed.

Table 7
Test Value = 3
95% CI of the
Mean
Statement T df Sig. difference
difference
Lower Upper
Overall
17.10 69 .000 1.34 1.19 1.50
enjoyment
Pre-reading
11.26 69 .000 .97 .80 1.14
video
Vocabulary
17.30 69 .000 1.21 1.07 1.35
PowerPoint
Enjoy writing
6.51 69 .000 .67 .047 .88
blog
 Videos underst.
11.49 69 .000 1.10 .091 1.29
better
Videos more
16.06 69 .000 1.34 1.18 1.51
interesting
Videos own
12.65 69 .000 1.03 .87 1.19
ideas
Pp understand
11.95 69 .000 1.06 .88 1.23
better
Pp more
10.63 69 .000 1.11 .91 1.32
interesting
Blog more
7.38 69 .000 .76 .55 .96
interesting
Blog writing
10.16 69 .000 1.04 .84 1.25
skills
More active
15.46 69 .000 1.11 .97 1.26
participation
More
15.75 69 .000 1.06 .92 1.19
interactive
Improve
12.47 69 .000 1.14 .96 1.33
English
Better class
13.90 69 .000 1.13 .97 1.29
experience

The t-test is used to analyze whether the engagement and attitude of the students toward
their learning by using the three multimedia tools included in this study is different to neutral,
defined as a score of 3.00. The t-test results for the 15 statements (Table 7) are between 6.51
for the statement of enjoying writing on a blog and 17.10 for the statement of enjoying learning
with multimedia tools. The probability of the results for each statement occurring by chance
alone is less than .05. Meaning that for all these variables there is a statistically significant
mean difference at the p < .05 level, ranging from .67 for the statement of enjoying writing on
a blog to 1.34 for the statements of enjoying learning with multimedia tools and of lessons
becoming more interesting due to the use of videos.

Conclusion

From the results of the survey, it shows that overall students enjoy the use of various
multimedia tools and have a positive experience in class. Astleitner and Wiesner (2004) state
that students have a higher level of satisfaction and motivation to learn if they use multimedia
in their courses. Using a variety of tools makes lessons more dynamic than just a linear
presentation of text, it helps increase the satisfaction and motivation and decrease the boredom
of the students during the class (Rubin, 1987: 103). Among the three multimedia tools analyzed
in this study, the statements about videos and PowerPoint had higher mean than the statements
about the blog. As previously discussed, this can be due to a variety of reasons, including
familiarity, interactive, and visual. However, the enjoyment of pre-reading tasks through video
had one of the lowest mean among all the statements. This low mean can be due to students’
anxiety at the beginning of the lesson, not knowing the topic or learning context. A way to
alleviate this issue is by replaying the video at a later stage in the lesson, once they are more
confident and informed on the topic. This may help students to retain the information and
understand it better than only before the tasks.

Regarding the blogs, the explanation of a lower mean score can be that students find
texts alone more boring and less interesting than videos or images alone or combined with
some text. However, it still is regarded as more interesting than other traditional methods that
mainly use textbooks and other printed exercises. This interest is due to the integration of the
Internet and other software which allows students to write collaboratively and in different
formats, such as creating a blog page or online newsletter. Finally, the overall perception of
multimedia use presented some of the higher means. Students agree that multimedia make the
lesson more active and encourages them to participate more in the activities in class, due to the
different formats that multimedia provides. Moreover, students agree that multimedia helps
them to understand the content better, as it gives them many opportunities to digest the
information in multiple ways.

Further research

Based on the results of this case study, a recommendation is that attention for future
research should focus on how instructors implement multimedia tools into the classroom. "As
with other educational tools, none of these will bring positive results merely from their
presence" (Warschauer, 2010). It is not the multimedia alone that is engaging but rather how it
is used by the instructor, with clear aims and outcomes. For example, replacing a reading text
with an online version does not offer any substantial benefits. Building upon the works such as
Zhang (2002) who found that instructors who used multimedia classrooms had a higher rating
compared to instructors who used a more traditional classroom”. A study on not ‘what’ but
‘how’ instructors use multimedia learning could be conducted to discover more about the
techniques used and their effectiveness in student engagement and development in English and
other areas of study.

Overall, this study highlights the important of using more than one multimedia tool to
engage students. A combination of multiple channel allows for creativity and flexibility in
teacher-student interaction and can enhance the learning environment. See research by (Mayer
and Moreno, 1998; Najjar 1996). This study was a small case study confined to an English
academic reading and writing course. Further research in other subject areas could contribute
to the development of multimedia teaching and learning programs in higher educational
institutes, in a number of areas, for example assessment; and curriculum design.
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