Manual of Articulatory Phonetics

MANUAL OF
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS
by
WILLIAM A. SMALLEY
M A N U A L OF
A R T I C U L A T O R Y
P H O N E T I C S
Revised Edition
by
WILLIAM A. SMALLEY
Cartoons by George Ivan Smith
PRACTICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Box 307, Tarrytown, New York 10591, U.S.A.

Part One (Lessons 1-14) Copyright © 1961
Part Two (Lessons 15-Appendix B) Copyright © 1962
Revised Edition Copyright © 1963
Cartoons Copyright © 1964
by William A. Smalley
2M [8M]67
PHOTOLITHOPRINTED BY CUSHING - MALLOY, INC.

ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1968
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Manual of Articulatory Phonetics. Revised Edition $ 'f.OO

Thirty-three phonetics lessons, plus two chapters on the phonemic
transcription of English consonants and vowels. 512 pages.
OTHER BOOKS INTEGRATED WITH THIS MANUAL

In addition to the tape recordings described on the previous page,
two other aids to the student and teacher have been prepared and
integrated with the Manual.
Workbook Supplement $ 1.50
Blank facial diagrams (for articulators to be drawn in),
transcription forms, transcription exercises with blanks
to be filled in, forms for tallying transcription errors,
forms for the transcription of English vowel and consonant
phonemes. 106 pages.
Teacher's Guide $ 2.50

Suggestions for the classroom use of different kinds of
exercises in the Manual, efficient handling of the phonetics
drill section, lesson plans for each of the lessons. 104- pages.
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PRACTICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
P.O. Box 307
Tarrytown, N.Y. 10591 U.S.A.
iii
CONTENTS
PREFACE i
LESSON ONE — Description of Sounds 1
Facial Diagrams lj Major Points of Articulation 3j

Major Articulators 9/ Some Manners of Articulationt
Stops 121 Fricatives 13/ Nasals l6j Laterals 17
LESSON TWO -- Hearing Pitch Distinctions 26
Pitch Distinctions 26j Direction of Glide 37
LESSON THREE — Voiced and Voiceless Fricatives k3
Voicing of English Fricatives k3$ The Nature of Voic-

ing Ut$ [* fe] U8, [x g] 52
LESSON FOUR — Finer Distinctions in Pitch Hearing 61
Pitch Distinctions 6l| Levels and Glides 62
LESSON FIVE — Facial Diagrams; Voiced Stops 7U
Facial Diagrams 7U| Voiced Stops 79
LESSON SIX — Controlled Intonation 89
Some Tone and Intonation Contrasts 89$ "The Hat with

the Bird" 91
LESSON SEVEN — Voiceless Aspirated and Unaspirated Stops 102
Glottal Stop I02j Voiceless Aspirated and Unaspirated

Stops 108
LESSON EIGHT — Longer Sequences of Pitch 118
"The Hat with the Bird" (continued) 118 j Mimicry and

Buildups on Longer Sequences of Pitch 120j Mimicry of
Gola Tone 131
LESSON NINE ~ Affricates 136
Stop Plus Fricative 136j Affricates in Initial Posi-

tion 138j Aspirated, Unaspirated, and Voiced Affri-
cates 139| Velar Fricatives and Affricates lk3
LESSON NINE R ~ Review U+8
LESSON TEN — Syllables and Some of Their C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 150
S y l l a b i c i t y l!?Oj Syllables and Syllabi c i t y 152} Boun-
daries Between Syllables l£3j S t r e s s l5Uj Juncture 158}
Rhythm l59j Syllable C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and This Manual 161
LESSON ELEVEN — Dental, Retroflexed, Grooved and F l a t A r t i c u -

lations iolt
Dental Stops, F r i c a t i v e s , and Affricates 165} F l a t and

Grooved F r i c a t i v e s and Affricates l67j Retroflexed Stops,
F r i c a t i v e s , and Affricates 168
LESSON TWELVE ~ Vowels and Vowel Glides T?U
Vowel a r t i c u l a t i o n l?Uj Vowel Glides 17 5j [y] Off-

g l i d e , Tongue Upward and Forward 176j [w] Off-glide,
Tongue Upward and Back, Lips Rounding 178} [ r ] Off-glide,
Tongue t o Retroflexed Position 179/ [H] Off-glide, Tongue
t o Central Position l 8 l j On-glides l 8 3 j Glide Onsets
with Preceding Consonant 185} Pure Vowels [a o e] 187
LESSON THIRTEEN — Nasals 192
[n] i n i n i t i a l Position 192 j Production of [n] 193j

Production of [n n] 195j Voiceless Nasals 196
LESSON FOURTEEN — Some Back and Central Vowels 201
Learning [u] and [v] 203} Learning [o] and [A] 208|
Off-glides on t h e New Vowels 212
LESSON FIFTEEN — L a t e r a l s 217
High and Low Tongue Laterals 2l8j F r i c a t i v e Laterals 221}

Alveopalatal L a t e r a l 225} Dental Laterals 226j Retro-
flexed and Velar L a t e r a l s 227} Affricates with L a t e r a l
Release 228
LESSON SIXTEEN ~ Some Front Vowels 232
Symbols and Recognition 232} Production of [ i z. e ae] 23li|

Review of Vowels and Vowel Off-glides 239| Review of On-
g l i d e s 2I4.O1 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Vowels 2U2
LESSON SEVENTEEN — Flaps and T r i l l s 2h6
Flap a r t i c u l a t i o n 21+7/ T r i l l s 250

LESSON SEVENTEEN R — Review 257
LESSON EIGHTEEN ~ Lower-low Vowels/ Length 26l
Lower-low Vowels 26lj Production of [as a a u o] 263J

Length of Vowel and Consonant 269
LESSON NINETEEN — Alveopalatal Stops 275
Production of Alveopalatal Stops 276j Review of Flaps

and T r i l l s 281
LESSON TWENTY — Some Central Vowelsi Vowel Clusters 285
Demonstration of Vowel Chart 285/ Production of

[a A 9 i ] 287j Vowel C l u s t e r s 293
LESSON TWENTY-ONE — Double Stops and Nasals 298
Production of Double Stops and Nasals 300/ Review of

Alveopalatal Stops 307
LESSON TWENTY-TWO — Front Rounded Vowelsj Glide Clusters 309
Demonstration of Vowel Chart 309j Production of

[U t oe ] 311j Glide Clusters 319
LESSON TWENTY-THREE — Fronted and Backed Velar Consonants 322
Production of Fronted and Backed Velars 32l+j Review of

Double Stops and Nasals 329/ Review of Alveopalatal
Stops 3 2 9 | Review of Length and Vowel C l u s t e r s 329
LESSON TWENTY-FOUR ~ Nasalized and Oral Vowels 333
Producing Nasalized Vowels 336/ Producing Oral Vowels

337
LESSON TWENTY-FIVE — Unreleased and Released Consonants/
Clusters with [gj
Unreleased Sounds 3k5j Released "Final" Sounds 3h6t

Close and Open T r a n s i t i o n 3U8j Clusters with ['] 3W
LESSON TWENTY-FIVE R — Review 357

LESSON TWENTY-SIX — Back Unrounded Vowels/ Modification of
Vowel Quality 363
Demonstration of Vowel Chart 363% Production of Back
Unrounded Vowels 3 6 5 | Modification of Vowel Quality 370
LESSON TWENTY-SEVEN — Implosives/ F o r t i s and Lenis Articu-
lation 378
Air Streams 378j Production and Recognition of Implo-

sives 3 8 l j F o r t i s and Lenis A r t i c u l a t i o n 387
LESSON TWENTY-EIGHT — Voiceless Vowels? Laryngealization 392
Producing Voiceless Vowels 392| Voiceless Glides 39%i

Voiceless Vowels, [ h ] , and Aspiration 396j Laryngealized
Vowels 398
LESSON TWENTY-NINE — G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants^ More Consonant

Clusters Uo5
Production of G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants U07| More Consonant

Clusters Ul3j Review of Fronted and Backed Velar Con-
sonants klhj Review of Released and Unreleased Conso-
nants Ul5j Review of Implosives Ul5
LESSON THIRTY — Retroflexed Vowels/ Breathy Vowels? Voiced

Aspirated Stops U17
Demonstration of Retroflexed Vowels Ul7j Production of
Retroflexed Vowels Jjl8j Breathy Vowels U20j Voiced
Aspirated Stops 1|22
LESSON THIRTY-ONE ~ Clicks 1*27
Discussion of Mouth Air Stream U27| Producing Voiceless

Clicks U28| Nasalized Clicks h33j Voiced Clicks U35
LESSON THIRTY-TWO — Pharyngealized Sounds itUl

Production of Pharyngealized Vowels Uhlf Pharyngealized
Glides kUif Pharyngealized Consonants 14i6j Phoneti-
c i a n ' s Theme Song U5l
LESSON THIRTY-THREE — Review and Summary U53
Consonants U53j Vowels lj.60j Glides U6lj Pitch U62/

Negative P r a c t i c e U6U
Appendix
LESSON A — English Consonant Phonemes h&l

vii
Chart of Symbols U67| Transcription Exercises I169
LESSON B — English Vowel Phonemes kl6
Sorting Words by Vowel Nuclei U785 Preliminary Charting

of Vowel Nuclei U82/ Minimal Pairs U83j Complementary
Distribution U86| Free Fluctuation i|88j Tentative
Phonemes U88j Phonemic Transcription I4.89
LESSON C — Descriptive Summary of Speech Articulations
The Air Stream l+90j Effect of the Larynx on Lung Air U91j
The Cavities and their Modifications U92j Articulators
and Points of Articulation h93t Manners of Articulation
U9Uj Vowels and Vowel Glides 1+975 Other Features h,91i
Combining the Geatures of Articulation* Segmentation h$9
BIBLIOGRAPHY 500
INDEX £02
vlii
\
OH,/YW UJIPE'S TOM6UE IS PLENTY FLEXIBLE/

SHE JUST HAS TROUBLE WITH THE STOPS .'
ix
PREFACE
The Manual of Articulatory Phonetics has been designed for
courses in practical phonetics for beginning students.1 The
point of view behind this book is that general phonetics is a
primary skill of great importance to language students who want
to acquire a fluent and accurate spoken mastery of a language
in adulthood, as well as to linguists who need it as a basic
tool of their profession. To that end one of the goals of this
course is to sharpen the student's hearing of sounds which may
be exotic and strange to him, and to make him conscious of
sounds which he may use constantly in his own speech, but of
which he is unaware. A second goal is the development of a
flexibility of the speech apparatus such that the student can
control the various parts of the mouth and throat which are
used in pronunciation. He can learn to manipulate them and
produce combinations of movement which he does not use in his
own speech but which are necessary for other languages. Anoth-
er goal is the development of the skill of mimicry. This is
the skill of being able to reproduce quickly and accurately a
sound, a word, a sentence, in a language which the student is
in the process of learning.
A lesser goal for the language learner (but not any less
for the linguist) and one which is involved in the reaching of
the previous goals, is the development of a sound-symbol asso-
ciation. This means the ability to correlate a given segment
of sound in a stream of speech with some symbol which is con-
sistently used to represent it on paper. English spelling
habits are such that many speakers of English are not conditioned
to a sound-symbol association of high consistency.
^This Manual has been in preparation since 1955, primarily

as a textbook for intensive courses offered at the Toronto In-
stitute of Linguistics and at the language section of the Mis-
sionary Training Conference held in Meadville, Pennsylvania.
Both of these courses are designed to introduce prospective
missionaries to some of the techniques and skills of learning a
language on the field. As such they place a heavy emphasis
upon practical general phonetics. This Manual provides a skel-
eton of material on which the phonetics drill sessions are
built. Although this Manual is prepared with a specific teach-
ing situation in mind, iti should be useful in other phonetics
courses as well. There is nothing in it but what is adaptable
to any course in general phonetics, whether for embryo linguists,
language teachers, or any other group.
X
The symbols which are used in this Manual have no particu-

lar value in themselves. They are arbitrary, just as are pho-
netic symbols in any other system. The system is basically
that used by many American linguists working on American Indian
languages. It is derived directly from publications of Kenneth
L. Pike and Eugene A. Nida with certain modifications. These
modifications are in the direction of easier teaching (that is,
of eliminating inconsistencies in sound-symbol association),
or they may be easier to produce on a typewriter or easier to
use in some other way.
Phonetic Theory
The phonetic theory which lies behind this Manual is de-

rived directly and almost completely from Kenneth L. Pike.l It
takes up the formation of sounds by the human speech mechanism.
It uses what Pike calls the imitation-label technique to a large
degreej it strives to help students produce a variety of sounds
and gives them information about the mechanics of articulation
so that they learn to make an association between what they
hear and what they do. It introduces the sound types in a ped-
agogical progression which is based on their articulations rath-
er than on their occurrence in any language. The phonetics of-
fered, therefore, is general rather than related to any partic-
ular language. However, in the Manual and in the recordings
which accompany it, there are exercises drawn from actual lan-
guages, and most of these exercises are recorded by native
speakers of those languages. In each such case the purpose is
not to teach anything about that particular language but simply
to illustrate realistically the sounds under study.
We keep phonetic terminology to a minimum. We use that

terminology (usually following Pike) which we find necessary
for talking with students about articulations which they are
being taught to make. The terminology which is introduced in
the beginning is extensively drilled in the first lesson, be-
cause it comes in a proportionately larger amount at that time
than at later points in the course. After the first lesson
terminology is introduced more gradually and is not drilled as
extensively, although at certain points, such as at the intro-
duction of vowels, there is some drill on the new terminology
needed.
For his principal work on phonetics see Kenneth L. Pike,

Phonetics. For full information on works cited in this Manual
see the Bibliography.
3d.
At a few points the terminology does differ from that used
by Pike, largely for pedagogical reasons. An example is the
labeling of the various tongue heights of vowels as in Lesson
lU» The system used herel has been found much easier to teach
than the more usual system of rating vowels as "close" or
"open." In Appendix C we include a condensed summary descrip-
tion of speech articulation presented so as to bring together
in one place an outline of the information about speech produc-
tion "which is scattered through the book among the several
hundred drills.
Content and Use of This Manual
The Manual of Articulatory Phonetics is designed to pro-

vide one lesson for each 50T0* 55 minute class drill session.
That is, the drill sessions follow the progression of the
Manual, introducing the new material covered in the new lesson.
In these lessons there are sometimes more drills and exercises
than can possibly be done in an hour. However, the drill ses-
sion introduces the new sound type, drills it with a represen-
tation of exercises, and then any students who have not fully
caught the point or had sufficient practice to get the new
sound may continue with other exercises in the lesson, using
tape recordings or extra drill sessions as an aid in their
practice.
The Manual is designed for a schedule of two such drill

sessions per day, which accounts for the fact that lessons are
alternated, first between consonants and pitch, and then be-
tween consonants and vowels. Consonant lessons are always odd-
nuribered lessons, pitch and vowel lessons even-numbered lessons.
The Manual may well be used on a different schedule from this,
of course.
For the teacher, the Manual provides a large assortment of

graded drills for each new sound-type introduced, and thus
makes it possible to lead a class through much more oral drill
than is usually possible in phonetics classes. For the student
it is intended to be used in drill sessions where some drills
are of a reading nature, or where the diagrams may be helpful,
but for the most part it serves as a supplement to the class
period.
The Manual is intended also to be useful on the field to

any students 'who have previously had seme phonetic training.
It may serve as a reference work to help with the practice of
sound types in which the students are not skilled.
-LAfter H. A. Gleason, Introduction to Descriptive Linguis-

tics, p. 203.
xii
The Tape Recordings
Tape recordings have been made of the exercises contained

in the Manual. They are intended to be used with the Manual at
any point where the student feels that his mastery of the sound
type or combinations of sounds is not adequate. There are def-
inite problems in connection with the use of tapes for phonetics
materials, however. For one thing certain types of sounds do
not record in an adequate fashion. This is particularly true
of fricatives. The tape recording also obliterates or nearly
obliterates contrasts between other sounds in some instances.
At such points the usefulness of recordings is relatively small
except that they may give some guidance to the student as to
the pace, tempo, and rhythm of the pronunciation and utterance.
The other difficulty is that when it comes to mimicry and other
forms of production a tape machine cannot correct the student,
and if the student continues to mimic the tape machine inaccu-
rately he is simply drilling bad habits. Copies of the tape
recordings are available, as announced on p. i.
Workbook Supplement
A workbook is available to accompany this Manual (see p.

ii for further details). It is 8 l/2" * U " * with perforated
pages so that individual sheets may be taken out and handed in
to the instructor when required. Included in the Workbook Sup-
plement are Blank Sammies (see p. 79 below for more information),
blanks for transcription exercises of various kinds (both pho-
netics and phonemics lessons), a tally form for transcription
errors, and some exercises designed to strengthen the recall of
phonetic symbols, it totals lo6 pages. The Manual may be used
without the Workbook Supplement but the latter strengthens the
pedagogical efficiency of the former.
Teacher's Guide
We have found that effective classroom presentation makes

an enormous difference to student progress in phonetics.
Several good linguists who have worked in our programs have
shown little sense of the timing, closely graded progression,
and variety which is needed in a phonetics drill section until
they had been trained and had developed some experience in these
techniques. The procedures, and the detailed lesson plans, that
have been used in teaching from this Manual have been compiled
in a Teacher's Guide, as announced on p. ii. It contains sug-
gestions for conducting the various kinds of drills in class,
and tested lesson plans for presenting each lesson in a class
period. Standardized tests are also in preparation.
xiii
The Place of Phonemics
In this Manual it is assumed that the concept of phonemics

is being introduced to the student in conjunction with his
phonetics work. Phonemic notation is occasionally used where
it is pertinent, but is kept to a minimum. The appendix con-
tains two lessons on the phonemic transcription of English, the
one on English consonants and the other on English vowels. The
first is intended as a supplementary lesson to be prepared be-
fore Lesson 3. Its purpose is to help the student develop a
repertoire of consonant symbols as rapidly as possible, and to
develop the concept and practice of a consistent sound-symbol
association (the student at this stage generally being unaware
of sub-phonemic phonetic differences). Unlike other chapters
in this book, the "lesson" on English vowel phonemes is really
a series of lessons. Suggestions for dividing it up and teaching
it are contained in the Teacher's Guide. These lessons are
intended to come after Lesson 20. They are designed to show the
functional validity of the phonemic concept as a way of making
order out of the enormous phonetic variety in English vowel
nuclei, as well as to sharpen the student's (phonetic) skill in
hearing and identifying these nuclei.
Changes in the Present Edition
In this revised edition of the Manual of Articulatory

Phonetics the most common changes have been in the correction
of errors. In addition, what was previously published in two
parts is now combined into a single volume. The preface and
Lesson B have been partly rewritten and expanded. Lesson C and
the Index are new.
Plans for Future Development
Except for the standardized tests which are being pre-

pared and tested, whether or not I will be able to give any more
time to this book and related materials in the future is uncer-
tain. I would like very much, however, sometime to include
about twelve new lessons at the end, each built around the pho-
netic problems in a specific language. The approach to drilling
would be the same as in the present work, but all of the material
in one of these lessons would be drawn from the same language,
graded according to difficulty, and drilled in progressive order.
A chapter summarizing some of the insights of acoustic phonetics
would also be helpful.
Acknowledgments
My debts in the preparation of this book are enormous.

Eugene A. Nida has provided constant stimulus and encouragement,
XIV
as well as many ideas which have been woven into the teaching
of phonetics formalized in this Manual. The American Bible So-
ciety gave me much of the time needed in its preparation. Lyn-
dora Smith contributed to the writing of Lessons 10, 12, ll+, 16,
18, and 22, and offered suggestions for the remainder. Jane
Smalley wrote some of the drills, and typed the pages for photo-
graphing the lithoprinted editions, as well as stencils of pre-
vious mimeographed editions. Richard 0. Crane served as re-
cording technician for all thirty-three tapes. Anna-Lisa
Madeira prepared the index. Judy Wood drew the "Sammies."
Garner Hoyt prepared models for some exercises. The thirty or
more different people who served as drill instructors with me,
teaching these lessons and earlier versions of them over the
past eight years, have contributed by their criticisms and
suggestions. Of these, several deserve particular mentioni G.
Linwood Barney, Esther Cummings, Robert E. Maston, Fred C. C.
Peng, and Earl W. Stevick. But more than anyone else, Donald N.
Larson brought his skill in teaching phonetics, his keen sense
of pedagogical progression, and his faculty for creative criti-
cism to bear on these lessons and greatly influenced their
development.
William A. Smalley
January, 1°63
The cartoons introduced in the 1?6U reprinting are the

work of George Ivan Smith, who recorded his reactions to his
first contact with phonetics by drawing the cartoons and post-
ing them for the edification of students and staff. He very
kindly agreed to share them with other students and other staff
by redrawing them for the Manual.
William A." Smalley

June, 1961;
LESSON ONE
Description of Sounds
The main purpose of this lesson is to get started off fast

in the study of phonetics. To do that we begin the study of
how sounds are formed, and learn some of the vocabulary needed
in talking about sounds. Although the technical vocabulary
of phonetics has no particular value for some of you in your
work, during this course we need some way of discussing our.
subject matter, and that requires some useful words, although
we will keep them to a minimum.
Facial Diagrams
This will introduce Sam Mansfield. Sammy £s a gentleman

who always looks westward (if you think of the paper on which
his picture appears as being a map), but his "leftist" look is
not the most significant thing about Sammy nor the most con-
venient. The importance of Sammy lies in the fact that you
can see inside his head. Sammy is the result of what would
happen if you carefully sliced right down through a man's
head from front to back and then drew a rough schematized dia-
gram of what you saw, particularly emphasizing those parts of
Sam's exposed anatomy which are especially significant for the
production of speech sounds.•*•
Sammy has holes in his head. The three principal "holes",

which we call cavities, are the oral cavity, the nasal cavity,
and the pharyngeal cavity. These cavities change in shape by
the movements of the vocal organs and thus influence the air
stream which passes through them to create differences of sound.
More about this later. Even though Sammy has been cut in two,
he has not lost his capacity for moving his vocal organs, in
Sammy 1.2 you can see him pronouncing a [p] as in English pill.
In Sammy 1.3, however, he is pronouncing a [k] as in English
call.
Although Sammy is useful in helping us to learn the parts

of the vocal apparatus and to visualize the movements involved
in making speech sounds, it is important to remember that
Sammy is very unrealistic in many ways. Speech consists of a
in case you are wondering about the significance of Sammy's

name, there is none. However, Sammy's initials also stand for
Speech Mechanism.
Lesson 1
Pharyngeal
cavity
Sammy 1.1* Introducing Sammy
Sammy 1.2« Pronouncing Sammy 1.3t Pronouncing

[p] as in pill [k] as in call
continuous movement of many muscles simultaneously. This we

cannot picture on Sammy because Sammy is static. Samny is
really a tremendous oversimplification, but with that reserva-
Description of Sounds 3
tion in mind we will use him profitably throughout this book.
Major Points of Articulation
If you move your face and mouth into various contortions,

you will soon realize that there are certain parts of the
mouth which can be moved and others which cannot. In talking,
for example, your lower jaw moves but your upper jaw does not/
therefore, your lower teeth attached to your lower jaw move
but your upper teeth do not. Your tongue moves but the surface
of the mouth just above the tongue (the hard palate) does not
move. It is a safe generalization to say that of the interior
surfaces of the mouth the upper ones move less than the lower
ones.
If you will continue this process of contortion in your

mouth and face, you will notice that the moving lower surfaces
in the mouth can approach and touch the immovable or less
moving upper surfaces or they can withdraw to some distance
from them. On Sammy 1.2 and 1.3 the highly movable lower lip
and tongue have touched the less movable upper lip and roof of
the mouth respectively. You ought to be able to feel this sort
of thing very clearly if you say asa several times over to
yourself. You should be able to feel the tongue come up to the
top of the mouth, almost touch it, and then recede again up
and downj up and down. We call these less movable points along
the upper part of the mouth to which the more movable parts
approach points of articulation.
Actually there is an unbroken continuum of points of

articulation from Sammy's upper lip back to the back wall of
his throat. However, for practical purposes we divide this
continuum into some useful segments to which we give names.
You will find the points of articulation which you will need
to know labeled on the following diagram.
The naming of certain ones of these points of articulation

should give no difficulty whatsoever. You will not have any
trouble remembering upper lip, upper teeth, nor probably palate.
It will be well to point out that in our terminology palaEe
here refers to the region which you can feel from the point
where the hump of gum behind your upper teeth stops to the point
where the soft palate begins. The other terms may give you a
little more difficulty. The alveolar ridge is the gum just be-
hind the upper teeth. The alveopalatal region1 is the back
side of that gum as it rises toward the top of the mouth. You
\ t a few points such as this, standard linguistic usage

differs from medical usage.
u Lesson 1
Alveopalatal
region
Alveolar ridge -Velum
Upper lip
Upper teeth. •Uvula
Sammy l.Uf Points of Articulation
can feel these configurations with your tongue. Just remem-

ber that the surface immediately behind the teeth is the al-
veolar ridge and that the surface which rises behind that~Ts
the alveopalatal region. This continues until you get to the
top of the mouth which "is the palate. The velum is what we
often know as the soft palate and it continues on down in
back to that little peninsula which you can see in the mirror
(if you open your mouth wide), a little cone of flesh called
the uvula. The uvula is attached at the lower extremity of
the velum. The uvula hangs free in the back of the mouth.
Recorded Exercises 1.1-1.9. Points of Articulation^
In order to help you learn the points of articulation,

and to make sure that the labels are mastered to the point
that they can be used in talking about sounds without any
hesitation, a set of nine recorded exercises follows. The
text of the exercises may be found below, but you should
Numbering of Sammy diagrams, recorded exercises, tables,

etc., is in sequence for each type, and is preceded by the
number of the lesson. Thus Sammy 1.5 is the fifth Sammy dia-
gram in Lesson'1, while RE 1.1 is the first recorded exercise
in Lesson 1.
Description of Sounds $
Alveopalatal-
Alveolar
Labial
Dental
Sammy 1.5t Points of Articulation

(Adjective forms)
preferably do the exercises without referring to the written

text except in problem, cases. Read the directions before you
turn on the tape.
The first five of these exercises will have two parts.

The first part will be a mimicry drill, in which you will mimic
the utterances you hear on the tape,, These will contain only
English sounds, but will be nonsense (meaningless) utterances.
In mimicking them pay close attention to the point of articu-
lation. Each mimicry drill will contain only those English
sounds which are natural in this kind of sequence. You will
repeat each item twice in the silent space provided for you on
the tape.
The mimicry sections, which are designed to help you get

a feel for the point of articulation, are followed by the drill
proper, in which you hear an utterance on the tape and respond
by naming the point of articulation. You will hear an utter-
ance which consists of a syllable or two. That utterance will
be repeated twice and then there will be a pause. In that
pause you respond orally or on paper. Following the pause for
your response, the tape will give the correct response. In
this way you will know immediately whether or not you were
right in your response. Do not stop the machine but continue
through the whole exercise in this manner. If you get all of
the items right in the exercise, go on to the next exercise.
6 Lesson 1
I f you get them wrong or i f you f e l t unsure about the m a t e r i a l ,

go back and r e p e a t .
The response which you are asked t o supply w i l l be dif-
ferent for different exercises or d i f f e r e n t groups of e x e r c i s e s .
The responses w i l l a l l c a l l for one or another of the p o i n t s of
a r t i c u l a t i o n , i n the adjective form.
After you t u r n on the tape recorder do not follow t h e

w r i t t e n exercises below. The recording w i l l i n d i c a t e the
proper responses f o r each d r i l l .
RE 1 . 1 . Labial Point of A r t i c u l a t i o n
a. Mimicry b . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! IABIAL or NO
1. [opâ] 9 . [apV] LA 17. [aba] IA
2 . [aba] 10. [alsâ] NO 18. [aza] NO
3 . [ama] 1 1 . [asa] NO 19. [p h a] IA
H. [p h a] 12. [ama] IA 20. [ma] IA
5 . [ba] 1 3 . [aba] IA 21. [ad] NO
6. [ma] Ik. [apV) IA 22. [ae] NO
7. [op11] 15. [ofa] NO 23. [ab] IA
8. [ab] 16. [ala] NO 2k. [ctf] NO

RE 1.2. Dental Point of A r t i c u l a t i o n
a. Mimicry b . Diff e r e n t i a l i DENTAL or NO
1 . [ofa] 8. [a6a] DE 15. [afa] DE

2 . [a6a] 9. [ava] DE 16. [6a] DE
3 . [ava] 10. [apâ] NO 1 7 . [da] DE
U . [aekx] 1 1 . [ada] DE 18. [va] DE

5. [fa] 12. [ama] NO 19. [ae] DE
6 . [6a] 13. [akVl NO 20. [an] NO
7. [va] • lU. [asa] NO 21. [all NO

Description of Sounds
RE 1.3. Velar Point of Articulation
a . Mimicry b . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VELAR o r NO
1. [ok^x] 8. [ana] VE 15. [tha] NO
2. [aga] 9. [apâ] NO 16. [da] NO
3. [ana] 10. [aga] VE 17. [ga] VE
U. [akV] 11. [asa] NO 18. [lâ] VE
5. [aga] 12. [ala] NO 19. [za] NO
6. [ana] 13. [al£a] VE 2 0 . [ok*1] VE
7. [ a k r a aga ana] lli. [za] NO 21. [an] VE
RE l . U . A l v e o l a r P o i n t of A r t i c u l a t i o n
a . Mimicry b . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ALVE01!AR o r NO
1. [asa] 8. [ada] AL 1 5 . [ma] NO
2. [aza] 9. [ana] AL 16. [pha] NO
3. [atha] 10. [asa] AL 17. [ab] NO
km [ a d a ] 11. [alâ] NO 18. [an] AL
5. [ana] 12. [fa] NO 19. [al] AL
6. [ala] 13. [la] AL 20. [az] AL
7. [asa aza] 111. [ z a ] NO 21. [ath] AL
RE 1 . 5 . A l v e o p a l a t a l P o i n t of A r t i c u l a t i o n
a . Mimicry b . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ALVEOJ3ALATAL o r I 10
1. [asa] 6. [ala] NO 11. [ana] NO
2. [aza] 7. [ana] NO 12. [ba] NO
3. [asa] 8. [a6a] NO 13. [sa] AP
U. [ a z a ] 9. [asa] AP 1U. [va] NO
5. [asa aza] 10. [aza] AP 15. [da] NO

8 Lesson 1
16. [za] AP 17. [as] AP 18. [ap*1] NO
For the next drills you will not have any NO responses.
Instead you will differentiate between two or more different
points 'of articulation, as will be indicated for each drill.
In RE 1.6, for example, you will Tespond LABIAL or DENTAL ac-
cording to the consonant you hear. As before, do not follow
i n your book.
RE 1.6. D i f f e r e n t i a l LABIAL or DENTAL
1. [afa] DE U. [ava] DE 7. [ava] DE

2. [aAa] DE 5. [a6a] DE 8. [aba] LA
3 , [ama] LA 6 . [apiâ] LA 9. [ma] LA

RE 1.7. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ALVEOLAR or VELAR
1. [ana] AL 6. [ath] AL 1 1 . [ga] VE

2. [aga] VE 7. [ok11] VE 12. [ad] AL
3 . [ana] VE 8. [ga] VE 13. [za] AL
k. [la] AL 9. [as] AL 1U. [ana] VE
5. [za] AL 10. [ada] AL 15. [aga] VE

RE 1.8, D i f f e r e n t i a l t ALVEOLAR or ALVEOPALATAL
1 . [ana] AL 7. [za] AL 13. [za] AL

2. [sa] AL 8. [za] AP Hi. [za] AP
3 . [sa] AP 9 . [asa] AP 15. [as] AP
U. [ a l ] AL 10. [as] AL 16. [az] AL
5. [ad] AL 11. [al] AL 17. [as] AL
6. [atha] AL 12. [ana] AL 18. [sa] AP
RE 1.9. D i f f e r e n t i a l t LABIAL, DENTAL, ALVEOLAR, ALVEOPALATAL,

or VELAR
1. [asa] AP 3 . [ana] AL 5. [ada] DE
2 . [ala] AL ' It. [ap h a] LA 6. [aga] VE

7. [003a] VE 13. [va] DE 19. [al] AL

8. [asa] AL lit. [da] AL 20. [an] VE
9 . [aza] AP 15. [fa] DE 21. [az] AP
10. [aza] AL 16. [\£a] VE 22. [ad] AL

11. [ba] LA 17. [©a] DE 23. [ok*1] VE
h
12. [ t a ] AL 18. [ma] LA 2lw [am] LA1
Major A r t i c u l a t o r s
The more movable lower portions of the mouth which were

mentioned above we call articulators. This time again we have
to be a bit arbitrary as We divide the tongue up into sections
for purposes of discussion, Sammy 1.6 gives you the terms for
these articulators.
Mid-
Sammy l,6i Articulators

(Noun forms)
•hfote t h a t we have not included the p a l a t a l or uvular

p o i n t s of a r t i c u l a t i o n . We omitted them because we want t o
use English sounds only i n these d r i l l s , and t h e s e points of
a r t i c u l a t i o n do not lend themselves t o our purposes f o r now.
10 Lesson 1
By the tip of the tongue we mean its very point. This is

the part most of us would us'e in feeling for some unevenness
along the ridge of our teeth. It is the articulator most of
us use in English for the t in take, (If you do not think
that your articulation of -Cake fulfills this description, be
sure to check with your teacher so that you can know for sure
whether or not it is a safe guide for you.)
The blade of the tongue is that part immediately behind

the tip. If you clench your teeth and put the tip down behind
the lower teeth touching the back of the lower teeth with the
tip, then the blade is the part which touches up against the
alveolar ridge. In that position also, the middle of the
tongue is the part below the palate, and the back"of the
tongue is the part below the velum. The root is down in the
upper part of the throat.
One item on the list of articulators does not fully con-

form to the description we have so far given. You will notice
that the v e H c (the back part of the velum, or the northeast
side of the velum) is listed as an articulator. This is done
simply because the velic surface does move against the back of
the nasal cavity to create a closure. This isffinimportant
articulation, essential for many types of sounds. You may not
feel it, but it will be demonstrated later and you will learn
to control it.
For practical purposes the lower teeth can be disregarded

as an articulator. Articulation of the lower teeth against
the upper lip is, however, theoretically possible.
Recorded Exercises 1.10-1,12. Articulators
The next recorded exercises follow the same plan as the

preceding ones, but now you will be responding with the names
of articulators which we normally use in English consonants.
(We are leaving out the blade for the moment, however, as it
presents a difficulty.) In RE 1.10 and 1.11 there will be a
mimicry part first, and then a differential drill.
RE 1.10. Tip and Back Articulators
a. Mimicryt Tip b. Mimicryi Back
1. [ a t h a ] k. [ a l a ] 5 . [akâ]
2. [ada] 6 . [aga]
3 . [ana] 7 . [ana]
e. Differential* TIP or BACK
8. [aga] BACK 13. [atha] TIP 18. [da] TIP

9 . [ana] TIP Ik. [akâ] BACK 19. [la] TIP
10. [ala] TIP 1 5 . [ana] BACK 20. [na] TIP
1 1 . [ada] TIP 16. [atha] TIP 21. [ A t ] BACK
12. [ana] BACK 17. [ga] BACK 22. [an] BACK
RE 1 . 1 1 . Lip and Back A r t i c u l a t o r s
a . Mima cryi Lip b . Diffe rentialt LIP or BACK
1. [apâ] 6. [afa] LIP 33. [ma] LIP

2. [aba] 7. [aga] BACK Ik. [kâ] BACK
3 . [ama] 8. [ama] LIP 15. [pNi] LIP

h. [afa] 9. [apV) LIP 16. [of] LIP
5. [ava] 10. [aba] LIP 17. [an] BACK
1 1 . [ana] BACK 18. [ag] BACK
12. [va] LIP 19. [ab] LIP

RE 1.12. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! LIP, TIP. or BACK
1. [alâ] BACK 7. [afa] LIP 1 3 . [a6] TIP

2. [ada] TIP 8. [aA] LIP Ik. [ab] LIP
3 . [ama] LIP 9 . [ok^x] BACK 15. [ag] BACK
k. [ala] TIP 10. [ga] BACK 16. [ad] TIP

5. [atha] TIP 1 1 . [na] TIP 17. [fa] LIP
6 . [ana] BACK 12. [va] LIP 18. faa] BACK
Some Manners of A r t i c u l a t i o n
In order to get started in the discussion of the speech

sounds, we have to have terminology not only for the articula-
tors and the points to which those articulators move, but we
also need to be able to say something about the ways in which
12 Lesson 1
they articulate. These ways of articulation we call manners of

articulation. Some of these manners of articulation have to do
with the actual relationship between the articulator and the
point of articulation. Others have to do with simultaneous
features in other parts of the vocal system.
Stops
For example, one manner of articulation which has to do

with the relationship between the articulator and the point of
articulation is that which we call a stop. A stop is a manner
of articulation in which the articulator so completely touches
the point of articulation that no air can escape. (We should
also mention that all of the other avenues of escape for the
air stream are also closed off. This means in the case of most
stops that the velic must 'close off the escape avenue into the
nasal cavity. See Sammy 1.2 and 1.3, both of which are stops.)
If you contrast the initial sound in English take with the in-
itial sound in English say, you will realize that the t in
take is a stop and that the s in say is not. If you exag-
gerate your pronunciation and prolong the initial sound, you
will realize that the air is stopped off by the articulation
of the t but it is not stopped off by the articulation of
the s. Perhaps you can see this even more clearly if you
pronounce ata and asa. You can prolong the s_ as long as you
like, getting asssssssa, but the longer you prolong the t
the more silence you get because the t is a stop and the* air
stream is shut off. It is not until th"e t is released, when
the air stream will have to move again, that sound begins once
more.
The stop, then, is a very important manner of articula-

tion. The stops in English are /p, t, k, b, d, and g/ , as in
the words pill, till, kill, bill, dill, and gill. Do not let
the English spelling fool you. The initial sound in cat is a
/k/ just like the initial sound in kill. Our spelling incon-
sistency sometimes tends to give us misconceptions about the
way we speak.
% e will use three different sets of symbols for speech in

this course. Symbols within brackets [ ] will represent speech
as it is articulated or heard. We call this phonetic symboliza-
tion. Symbols within slant lines / / represent the significant
sound distinctions of the language. We call this phonemic synr
bolization. Symbols underlined represent the conventional spel-
ling used normally in that language. The meaning of these dis-
tinctions will come to you more clearly later, and is not cru-
cial to your understanding at the present point. For symboliza-
tion of English consonant phonemes see The Appendix, Lesson A.
Some of you may feel that the initial sound in chill and
in Jill are also stops. They are, but they are a complicated
kind of stop which we will not discuss until Lesson 9«
RE 1.13. Differential! STOP or NO
Most students have no trouble understanding and identify-

ing the difference between a stop and other manners of articu-
lation. However, in order to help those individuals who may
need it, we provide the following drill as a recorded exercise.
If you find the drill very simple, sample it and go on. If the
utterance which you hear on the tape contains a stop, you re-
spond with STOP. If it does not contain a stop, you respond
with NO.
1. [ojAx] S 1 0 . [ba] s 1 9 . [aph] s

2. [okV] S 11. [tha] s 20. [an] NO
3 . [ama] NO 1 2 . [na] NO 21. [ab] S
km [aba] S 13. [kV] S 2 2 . [ea] NO

h
5. [awa] NO Ik. [A] S 23. [ a t ] S
6. [aga] S 1 5 . [ag] s 2k. [a6a] NO
7. [aha] NO 1 6 . [of] NO 25. [ a t h a ] s

8. [ t h a ] S 17. [ae] NO 26. [go] S
1
9. [da] S 1 8 . [ok* ] S 2 7 . [ada] NO
Fricatives
A second manner of articulation which we can now take up

is that which we call fricative. In contrasting the differ-
ence of pronunciation between asa and ata, we said that the
second one contained a stop. The first one is a fricative.
The difference lies in the fact that the fricative does not
make a complete stoppage of the air stream. The articulator
instead reaches a point very close to the point of articula-
tion, so close that the air forcing through sets up a turbu-
lence and makes a hissing or buzzing sound. Try the English
fricatives in Sammies 1.7-1.10.
Remember that the distinguishing characteristic of a

fricative is that the space between the articulator and the
point of articulation is so narrow that the air forcing
through is impeded and is caused to set up extra vibrations.
3/l Lesson 1
Sammy 1.7i [f] as in fill Sammy I.81 [6] as in think

[v] as in very [«l]a s in them
Sammy 1.9* [s] as in say Sammy 1.10* [s] as in she

[z] as in zebra [z] as in azure
Description of Sotinds 15
This is like air coming through a crack around a door. A
strong wind will cause the air to whistle through that crack,
whereas if the door is wide open the air comes in without any-
such noise.
RE 1.1J*. Differential* FRICATIVE or NO
1. [apV] NO 8. [sa] F 15. [a0] F
2. [ofa] F 9. [za] F 16. [afa] F
3. [a©a] F 10. [da] NO 17. [lâ] NO
U. [azaj F 11. [aS] F 18. [aw] NO
5. [aim] NO 12. [aS] F 19. [na] NO
6. [0a] F 13. [al] NO 20. [bo] NO
7. [da] F lit. [of] F 21. [az] F
RE 1 . 1 5 . D i f f e r e n t i a l t STOP o r FRICATIVE
Here your response will be either STOP or FRICATIVE for

every utterance. There will be no utterances which do not
contain either a stop or fricative. There will, however, be
included some sounds which do not occur in English.
1. [ava] F 8. [xa] F 15. [aOa] F
2. [ada] S 9. [ab] S 16. [az] F
3. [apâ] S 10. [ath] s 17. [ag] S
k. [aza] F 11. [av] F 18. [da] F
5. [kha] S 12. [ag] S 19. [aza] F
6. [sa] F 13. [ada] S 20. [00] F
7. [ga] F Ik. [sa] F 21. [«] F
RE 1.16. Differentialt STOP, FRIC :iv:E, o r NEITHER

1. [akb-a] S lw [la] N 7. [ab] S
2. [az] F 5. [jAx] S 8. [aga] s

3. [ma] N 6. [ax] F 9. [wa] N
26 Lesson 1
Nasals
Sairmy l . l l i [m] Sammy 1.12* [n]
Saiany 1.13t [n]
A t h i r d manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n i s n a s a l . English nasals

are /m n n / . ( / n / i s often s p e l l e d ng i n English standard
spelling.) If you experiment for a minute you will see that
these three sounds are made with the same points of articula-
tion in the mouth as /p t k/. The difference lies in the fact
that for /m n n/ the velic is open, letting the air stream go
out the nose.
Notice that for a nasal the oral cavity has to be stopped

off at some point, and the velic must be open. Although the
oral cavity is stopped off, nasals are not stops. By defini-
tion, a stop must have both a velic closure and an oral clo-
sure0 Nasals do not have the velic closure. Neither are
nasals fricatives. By definition, a fricative must leave a
narrow slot through which the air stream whistles or buzzes.
The opening into the nose through the velic is not such a
narrow opening as that in a normal fricative sound. The nasals
then form a third manner of articulation in addition to the
stops and fricatives.
RE 1.17. Differential! STOP, FRICATIVE, or NASAL

h
1 . [cam] N 7. [ a t a ] S 1 3 . [ana] N
2 . [033a] N 8. [crja] N lU. [aza] F
3 . [okâ] S 9. [ana] N 15. [ada] S
U. [ana] N 10. [ofa] F 15. [ama] N
5. [asa] F 1 1 . [apha] S 17. [aba] S
6 . [aga] S 12. [asa] F 1 8 . [aga] S
Laterals
The fourth (and last) manner of articulation which will

be taken up in this lesson is lateral. It has to do with a
formation of the tongue such that the air comes over the sides
(one or both) rather than over the center of the tongue. Com-
pare the following pairs of English wordsi let vs. set, law vs.
gnaw, loot vs. toot. If you say these pairs slowly to yourself
you will feel the difference (in the initial sounds) between
lateral articulation and others. In the case of let vs. set,
for example, you can prolong the initial sounds, in let the
tongue tip remains up, touching the point of articulation.
The velic is also closed. But the airstream continues to move
anyhow, because the sides of the tongue are down enough to let
it out. In set there is a groove down the center of the tongue
and the sides are up against the teeth. English / l / is a lat-
eral. (On Sammy [1] cannot be distinguished from [d] because
the sides of the tongue do not shew/.)
18 Lesson 1
RE 1.18. Differential! STOP, FRICATIVE, NASAL, or LATERAL
1. [ala] L 8 . [ap*1] S 15. [sa] F
2. [ga] S 9. [ a t h ] S 16. [la] L
3 . [na] N 10. [a6] F 17. [ad] S
k» [va] F 1 1 . [as] F 18. [ag] S
5. [ba] S 12. [da] F 19. [ofa] F
6. [ala] L 13. [ana] N 20. [za] F
7. [ama] N lh. [akh] S 21. [al] L
Recorded Exercises 1«1°-1«26» Description of Sounds
We will now begin to describe sounds in the terminology

which you have been learning. We will begin this process on
a gradual cumulative basis to make the description of sounds
habitual for you as quickly as possible.
RE 1.19» Point and Manner

Respond with the manner of articulation as you' did just
previously, but also with the point of articulation. That is,
for the utterance asa you will respond with ALVEOLAR FRICATIVE.
Please note the order in which these different elements are
included in the description and use the same order in your
response.
Here is the total inventory of your possible responses.

(Take one from each column.) Keep these before you temporarily
if you need them, but as quickly as possible work toward re-
sponding without looking at these lists.
LABIAL STOP
DENTAL FRICATIVE
ALVEOLAR NASAL
ALVEOPAIATAL LATERAL
VELAR
1. [ofa] DENTAL F 3. [a4a] DENTAL F

2. [ava] DENTAL F h. [atka] ALVEOLAR S
Description : of Sounds
5. [aba] LABIAL S 25. [«Q] VELAR N
6 . [aza] ALVEOPALATAL F 26. [da] DENTAL F
7. [ana] VELAR N 27. [va] DENTAL F
8 . [asa] ALVEOPALATAL F 28. [fa] DENTAL F

h
9. [ama] LABIAL N 29. [t a] ALVEOLAR S
10. [ala] ALVEOLAR L 30. \&a] VELAR S
1 1 . [as] ALVEOLAR F 3 1 . [ga] VELAR S
12. [an] ALVEOLAR N 32. [na] ALVEOLAR N
33. [op*1] LABIAL S 33. [so] ALVEOPALATAL F
Hi. [ad] ALVEOLAR S 3h. [da] DENTAL F
15. [az] ALVEOLAR F 3 5 . [ga] VELAR S
16. [az] ALVEOPALATAL F 3 6 . [ala] ALVEOLAR L
17. [aB] DENTAL F 3 7 . [am] LABIAL N
IB. [akh] VELAR S 3 8 . [aGa] DENTAL F
19. [an] VELAR N 39. [ana] VELAR N
20. [ad] DENTAL F Uo. [an] ALVEOLAR N
2 1 . [ala] ALVEOLAR L la. [a&] ALVEOPALATAL F
22. [ana] ALVEOLAR N U2. [sa] ALVEOPALATAL F
23. [asa] ALVEOLAR F 10. [aba] LABIAL S
2k. [atha] ALVEOLAR S hh. [as] ALVEOLAR F
HE 1.20. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! BILABIAL or LABIO-DENTAL
RE 1.20 begins to add information about the articulator to

what you have just been doing. When the articulator is the
lower lip, and the point of articulation is the upper lip, we
speak of bilabial articulation. When the lower lip articulates
against the upper teeth we speak of labio-dental articulation.
Thus, if you hear afa, respond with LABIO-DENTAL. If you hear
ama, respond with BILABIAL.
20 Lesson 1
1. [ofa] L-D h. [ava] L-D 7. [ap h a] BIL
2. [apVl BIL 5. [aba] BIL 8. [ava] L-D
3 . [ama] BIL 6 . [afa] L-D 9. [aba] BIL
RE 1.21. D i f f e r e n t i a l t BILABIAL, LABIQ-PENTAL, TIP-DENTAL
RE 1.21 adds a new r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t i c u l a t o r and

point of a r t i c u l a t i o n , such as we have i n English t h i n and
then. The tongue t i p (or even t h e blade i n more exaggerated
pronunciation) a r t i c u l a t e s a g a i n s t the edge of the upper t e e t h .
Tfife w i l l c a l l t h i s a r t i c u l a t i o n t i p - d e n t a l . 1
1. [o6a] T-D h. [ada] T~D 7 . [a©a] T~D
2. [afa] L-D $, [ova] L~D 8. [apha] BIL

3 . [aba] BIL 6. [ama] BIL 9. [ada] T~D
RE 1.22. D i f f e r e n t i a l t BILABIAL, LABIQ-PENTAL, TIP-DENTAL, BACK

ÊLAR
RE 1.22 adds t h e back-velar a r t i c u l a t i o n . Here t h e back

of t h e tongue a r t i c u l a t e s i n r e s p e c t t o t h e v e l a r region. The
exercise works j u s t l i k e t h e preceding ones.
1. [ana] B"V 6. [aOa] T-D 1 1 . [alâ] B~V
2. [ada] T-D 7 . [akâ] B-V 12. [aga] B~V
3 . [aph a ] BIL 8. [aba] BIL 1 3 . [ana] B-V
U. [aga] B-V 9. [ada] T~D XU. [aQa] T~D
5. [ava] L-D 10. [afa] L-D 1 5 . [ama] BIL
RE 1.23. D i f f e r e n t i a l t TIP-(or BLADE-) ALVEOLAR or ALVEOPALATAL
RE 1.23 introduces a new type of complication p e c u l i a r t o

the a r t i c u l a t i o n of c e r t a i n English sounds. Some sounds, name-
l y the consonants i n asa and aza are t i p - a l v e o l a r by some
speakers of English, and b l a d e - a l v e o l a r by o t h e r s . The d i f f e r -
ence l i e s i n t h e p o s i t i o n of the tongue t i p . I n t h e t i p -
A very common term f o r t h i s a r t i c u l a t i o n i s i n t e r d e n t a l ,

but we are using t i p - d e n t a l simply because i t i s more analogous
t o our other terminology, and thus presents l e s s of a learning
problem.
Description of Sotmds 21
alveolar articulation the tongue tip is up very near the alveo-

lar ridge, leaving only the narrow silt for the fricative. In
the blade-alveolar articulation the tongue tip is behind the
lower teeth, and the blade is up near the alveolar ridge. The
narrow slit is between the blade and the alveolar ridge. The
two articulations can be pronounced so as to be indistinguish-
able to the ear. They make no functional difference for Eng-
lish. However, you should figure out what you do (with the
help of your instructor, if necessary) so as to better get the
feel and understanding of the articulatory process. Prolong
the initial sounds in see and zee to feel the way in which you
articulate! sssssee, zzzzzee.
Furthermore, there is a similar problem with the English

fricative sounds in fission and vision. Some English speakers
pronounce these with tip-alveopalatal articulation, and others
with blade-alveopalatal articulation. Figure out what you do
by pronouncing fissssssssion and vissssssssion.
Here are the possibilities from which you are to select

your responses in this drilli TIP-ALVEOLAR, BLADE-ALVEOLAR,
TIP-ALVEOPALATAL, or BLADE-ALVEOPALATAL.
At any point where you respond TIP someone else may cor-
rectly respond BLADE in this exercise. It all depends on what
you or the other person actually does in pronunciation. Re-
member that in this drill you are responding by your articula-
tion of the English sound, regardless of which of1 the alterna-
tives (tip or blade) may have actually been used on the tape.
You could not possibly hear the difference.
The answer given on the tape will give both possible cor-
rect responses. But remember, only one of them is correct for
you, unless you actually fluctuate in your pronunciation be-
tween the one and the other.
1. [osa] TIP-(or BLADE") AL 6. [aza] TIP-(or BLADE-) AP
2. [aza] TIP-(or BLADE-) AL 7. [asa] TIP-(or BLADE-) AL
3. [asa] TIP-(or BLADE") AP 8. [asa] TIP~(or BLADE-) AP
k» [aza] TIP-(or BLADE-) AP 9. [aza] TIP-(or BLADE") AL
5. [aza] TIP-(or BLADE-) AL 10. [asa] TIP-(or BLADE") AP
RE 1.2lt. Differential! TIP"(or BLADE-) ALVEOLAR or ALVEOPALATAL
RE I.2I4 adds now some tip-alveolar articulations in Eng-

lish for which there are not normally speakers who use a blade
22 Lesson 1
articulation. For example, in ata, most speakers of English

will have tip-alveolar articulation, as contrasted with asa
where a large percentage have blade-alveolar. Remember that
for some of these sounds the tape will have to give two res-
ponses, but only one of them is correct for you. The responses
are the same as for the preceding exercise.
1. [octV] TIP-AL 6 . [ada] TIP-AL
2. [asa] TIP-(or BLADE") AP 7. [aza] TIP-(or BLADE-) AP
3 . [ala] TIP-AL 8. [aza] TIP-(or BLADE-) AL
li. [ana] TIP-AL 9. [ a t h a ] TIP-AL

5. [asa] TIP-(or BLADE-) AL 10. [ala] TIP-AL
RE 1.25. Description of Sounds
Now you finally get the opportunity to put all of this to-
gether, to drive home the terminology we have introduced so far,
and to test your use of it. Here is the total inventory of
your possible responses. (Take one from each column.)
BILABIAL STOP
IABIO-DENTAL FRICATIVE
TIP-DENTAL NASAL
TIP-ALVEOLAR LATERAL
BLADE-ALVEOIAR
TIP-ALVEOPALATAL
BIADE-ALVEOPAIATAL
BACK-VELAR
It takes a little practice to get used to the terminology

for the description of new sounds, but that is what the drills
here presented are for. This is not all we could say about
sounds. However, we do not yet know enough about them to say
anything more, and what we do have gives us a very useful means
of talking about them and of building other information.
1. [asa] TIP-(or BLADE-) 2. [aga] BACK-VELAR S

ALVEOPALATAL F
3. [ana] BACK-VELAR N
k» [aBa] TIP-DENTAL F 25. [aph] BILABIAL S
5. [aza] T I P - ( o r BLADE-) 26. [akh] BACK-VELAR S

ALVEOPALATAL F
27. [ath] TIP-ALVEOLAR S
6. [ana] TIP-ALVEOLAR N
28. [of] LABIO-DENTAL F
7 . [ada] TIP-ALVEOLAR S
29. [ear] LABIO-DENTAL F
8. [apV| BILABIAL S
30. [ad] TIP-DENTAL F
9. [ofa] LABIO-DENTAL F
31. [as] T I P - ( o r BLADE-)
10. [ala] TIP-ALVEOLAR L ALVEOPALATAL F
Ho [za] T I P - ( o r BLADE-) 32. [am] BILABIAL N

ALVEOLAR F
33. [ma] BILABIAL N
12. [pM BILABIAL S
3k. [a-9] TIP-DENTAL F
13. [sa] T I P - ( o r BLADE-)
ALVEOPALATAL F 35. [an] TIP-ALVEOLAR N
Hi. [ga] BACK-VELAR S 36. [kâ] BACK-VELAR S
15. [za] T I P - ( o r BLADE-) 37. [na] TIP-ALVEOLAR N
ALVEOPALATAL F 38. [an] BACK-VELAR N

16. [ma]
BILABIAL N 39. [al] TIP-ALVEOLAR L
17. [la]
TIP-ALVEOLAR L kO. [am] BILABIAL N
18. [da]
TIP-DENTAL F
19. [va]
LABIO-DENTAL F
20. [fa]
LABIO-DENTAL F
21. [an]
BACK-VELAR N
22. [ad]
TIP-DENTAL F
2 3 . [aS] T I P - ( o r BLADE-)
ALVEOPALATAL F
2ii. [ a s ] T I P - ( o r BLADE-)
ALVEOLAR F
2k Lesson 1
RE 1.26 reverses the above procedure. This time the tape

will give you the description and you pronounce the sound in
the space provided. Then the tape will follow with the sound
between two vowels. If more than one sound is possible for the
description, both will be given. This is just another way of
practicing the same material.
1 . BILABIAL S [aba] or [apVl

2 . TIP-ALVEOLAR N [ana]
h
3 . BACK-VELAR S [ a g a ] o r [ak a]
U. TIP-DENTAL F [asia] o r [a©a]
5 . LABIO-DENTAL F [ a v a ] o r [afa]
6 . T I P - ( o r BLADE-) ALVEOLAR F [ a z a ] o r [asa]
7 . T I P - ( o r BLADE-) ALVEOPALATAL F [ a z a ] o r [asa]
8 . T I P - ( o r BLADE-) ALVEOLAR F [ a z a ] o r [asa]
9 . BACK-VELAR S [aga] o r [rikâ]
1 0 . LABIO-DENTAL F [ava] o r [afa]
1 1 . TIP-DENTAL F [ a d a ] o r [aGa]
1 2 . T I P - ( o r BLADE-) ALVEOPALATAL F [ a z a ] o r [asa]
1 3 . BILABIAL N [ama]
H i . TIP-ALVEOLAR L [ala]
1 5 . LABIO-DENTAL F [ava] o r [afa]
S u g g e s t e d Reading
Further discussion on the subjects of this lesson will be

found in the following references. There are usually some dif-
ferences of terminology which, however, are usually translatable
from one author to another. This list is intended to suggest
representative readings which are not overly difficult, and
which parallel the treatment of our Lesson 1 closely enough to
be useful. Full bibliographic information on these and other
books mentioned' in the Manual will be found in the bibliography.
D e s c r i p t i o n of Sounds 25
C h a r l e s F . H o c k e t t , A Course i n Modern L i n g u i s t i c s , p p .
62-7U.
W. Nelson F r a n c i s , The S t r u c t u r e of American E n g l i s h ,

pp. 51-70.
B e r n a r d Bloch and George L. T r a g e r , O u t l i n e of L i n g u i s t i c

A n a l y s i s , p p . 1C-16, 25~28.
A LOWER-LOW CENTRAL UNROUNDED ORAL VOWEL FOLLOWED BV

A VOICELESS GROOVED ASPIRATED ALVEOPALATAL AFfRlCATE
WITH EGRessive L O N G AIR F o m o w e p BY AM EXTENDED
HI6H SACK ROUNDED ORAL VOWEL OR IN TM£
VERNACULAR, A SNEEZE.1
26
LESSON TWO
Hearing Pitch Distinctions
One of the most common mistakes of English-speaking people

learning another language is the negleet of the way speakers of
the second language modulate their voices as they speak. We
are, of course, aware of the fact that in English we raise and
lower our voices as we talk. Most of us realize, for example,
that we can signal a difference between a question and an' an-
swer of certain types by change in the pitch of our voice. We
know that the sequence "John is coming" can be said either as a
statement or as a question. If it is said as a question, there
is a rise at the end of the sentence.
We do not usually have it called to our attention, however,

that we are capable of making distinctions of the following
kind.
Speaker It "I saw it there."
Speaker 2* "What?" (with a rising voice)
Speaker 1» "I saw it there."
In this case, if Speaker 2 says "what" with a rising intonation,

the first speaker repeats' his initial statement. However, look
at the following exchange.
Speaker It "I saw it there."
Speaker 2« "What?" (with a falling intonation)
Speaker It "A chair."

It is very clear that by two different pitch contours the whole
implication of the word "what" is changed. We do not have time
here to demonstrate the fact that the English intonation system
contains a large number of important distinctions.!
For some reason or other, when we learn another language,

even though we may learn the consonants and vowels well, we
tend to take our intonation distinctions over from English into
Kenneth L. Pike, Intonation of American Englishj George

L. Trager and Henry Lee Smith, Jr., An Outline of English
Structure, pp. Ul_!?2.
Hearing Pitch Distinctions 27
the other language. Perhaps because these are not written in
English or the other language they seem less real, and we are
less conscious of them. But whatever the reason, we tend to
speak French or German or Hindi or Zulu words and sentences with
English intonation. This is bad for any number of reasons. In
the first place, some languages are so constructed in their
pitch systems that a change in pitch makes a much greater mean-
ing difference even than in English, and a difference of another
kind. The difference between »I* and 'he' may be a difference
of pitch. Pitch does not make this kind of meaning difference
in English, but if we carry our English intonation patterns
over into a language like that, they may result in our saying
things which are either utter nonsense or completely different
from what we intended to say.
Then, on the other hand, even for languages which do not

use pitch distinctions to distinguish words, it is safe to say
that by carrying English intonation patterns over we speak with
a foreign accent, or we may even occasionally be misunderstood.
People may also misunderstand our mood and attitude by such a
fault on our own part.
If, however, we make a diligent attempt to reproduce the

pitch patterns of the language we are learning from the begin-
ning of our study, in most cases they will not be nearly as
difficult as we thought. Native speakers of the language are
impressed with our learning ability and the "naturalness" of
our speech.
Care in the mimicry of pitch is not something which can

be put off in language study. It has to begin from the very
first day. It has to be a basic part of our mimicry of the
speech of the language being' learned. It has to occupy a
focal point in our attention. We should never be content to
say a sentence or a word in the second language without having
the intonation or the tone just as correct as we have the con-
sonants and vowels. We can never be said to speak a language
well if we do not control its pitch patterns to an important
degree.
One of the important things about learning to use correct

pitch is the fact that the language cannot be practiced orally
without some pitch or other. Either English pitch will be used
or some other pitch. This is because we cannot talk without
pitch. If we use English pitch in practicing the new language,
we are simply reinforcing bad habits which become nearly impos-
sible to break. If to the best of our ability we mimic the
pitch of the new language, we are on the way toward building
new habits which will mean clear and pleasant speech.
28 Lesson 2
The purpose, then, of this lesson is' to begin to train the

student's ears to hear pitch distinctions. At first the work
will consist simply of listening for pitch sameness or differ-
ence. Listening for difference of kind (whether the pitch is
rising, falling, or level) will follow. Both nonsense syllables
with English sound characteristics and actual foreign language
materials will be used in these exercises.
Follow the directions carefully and keep going over this

material repeatedly until you are confident of it. If you find
the drills fairly easy try writing the pitch as you respond.
Write from left to right, drawing a line upward for a rising
pitch [ / ] , downward for a falling pitch [\ ], and level for
a level pitch [ — ] .
Recorded Exercises 2.1-2.2. Discrimination Drillt Which is

Bifferegb^
On the tape you will now work with exercises which are
different from those you have found up to the present. In
RE 2.1 each utterance will consist of three syllables in the
sequence [mo pi su]. This sequence will be repeated twice.
You will be asked to decide which of the three syllables in
the sequence' is different in pitch from the other syllables of
the sequence. You are to listen to the utterances and in the
space following them you* are to respond by pronouncing the syl-
lable which is different. That is, if the first syllable is
different from the other two, you will respond with [mo]. If
the second syllable is different, you will respond with [pi],
etc. If they are all the same, you will respond with NONE,
because none of the syllables is different.
Now turn on the tape recorder and try the exercise without
watching the transcription below. A demonstration is given to
you first before the exercises actually begin. If this gives
you difficulty, try humming them in imitation of the tape. If
you still do not get them, watch the transcription of the exer-
cise and watch the drawings of the pitch levels as you listen
and hum.
RE 2.1. Discrimination! Name the Syllable Which is Different
1 . [mopisu] [pi] U. [mopisu] NONE 7. [mopisu] NONE

I ;
5. [mopisu] [su] 8. [mopisu] [pi]

2. [mopisu] [mo]
6. [mopisu] [su] 9. [mopisu] [mo]

3« [mopisu] [su]
Hearing Pitch D i s t i n c t i o n s 29
10. [mopisu] [pi] llu [mopisu] NONE 16. [mopisu] [pi]

i i
11. [mopisu] [pi] 15. [mopisu] [su] 19. [mopisu] [mo]
12. [mopisu] [mo] 16. [mopisu] [su] 20. [mopisu] [pi]

r i
13. [mopisu] [su] 17. [mopisu] NONE 21. [mopisu] NONE
In RE 2.2 each utterance will consist of five syllables.

Tour response, however, is to be called out in exactly the same
way. Remember that all you have to listen for is which syllable
is different and to respond with that syllable.
RE 2.2. Discrimination! Name the Syllable Which is Different
1« [somebikona] [na] 11. [somebikuna] [so]
2 . [somebikuna] [na] 12. [somebikuna] [me]

i • i
i t
3. [somebikuna] [me]
1 3 . [somebikuna] NONE
U. [somebikuna] [ku]
lU. [somebikuna] [ku]
5. [somebikuna] NONE
1 5 . [somebikuna] [bi]
6 . [somebikuna] [so] 16. [somebikuna] [bi]

i i
7. [somebikuna] [bi] 17. [somebikuna] [ku]

i i
8. [somebikuna] [ku] 18. [somebikuna] [me]
9. [somebikuna] [na] 19. [somebikuna] [na]
10. [somebikuna] [so] 20. [somebikuna] [so]

30 Lesson 2
Recorded Exercises 2.3~2.10. DiscrimLnationi Same or Different
In the following exercises you are to listen to each pair

of utterances. This is a change in procedure from -what you
have been doing before. Instead of hearing the same utterance
twice, you will now hear two different utterances in sequence,
and you are to decide whether or not the pitch of the two is
the same. You are to respond with SAME or DIFFERENT.1 The
tape leaves you space for reply, and then indicates the correct
response.
Those who find these exercises easy should simply sample

them. Those who find them more difficult should go over them
again and again until they become easier. There will, of
course, be opportunity for practice in later lessons.
These exercises are written in a phonemic or nearly pho-

nemic transcription. The tone is indicated by extra marks,
called diacritics, above or below the word. You are not re-
sponsible for* these diacritics or for the transcription used
for the words. Listen selectively to the pitch.
Do not watch the transcription as you try the exercises.
RE 2.3t Amoy2. Discriminationt SAME or DIFFERENT

1. kho« •class, for dollars' kho* 'bitterness' D
1
2. am 'rice water am •rice water' S
3. bak •to defile' bak •wood' D
u. tKau 'to poison1 th£u 'the head' D
5. su 'inferior, su7 'a matter' D
6. soa n •a mountain' soa n •to disperse' D
7. b~an •slowly' b~an •slowly' S
8. bl •taste" bi 'taste1 S
9. eng •an eagle' eng •a wave 1 D
"These exercitees are modeled after ones prepared by Dr.

William E. Welmers.
2
Amoy is spoken on Taiwan. Data and tape recording for
this and succeeding exercises by Fred C.C. Peng, U. of Buffalo.
10. hiong 'towards' hiong 'towards' S
11. goa •outside* goa 'outside' s
12. go »a goose' go 'a goose' s
13. gan 'the eye' gan •to cool, as in D
water1
Ik. be 'to buy' be" 'to sell' D
15. sng 'ache, sore' sng •to play about' D
16. siu11 •to think' siu11 'to think' S
17. lang 'to sport with' lang 'a person' D

18. ng 'shade' ng •yellow' D
A
1 9 . nrf 'night'
mi
'cotton' S
20. khiat •to strike, as khiat •to strike, as S

match' match'
KE 2.U» Amoy. Discrimination* SAME or DIFFERENT

Hemember t h a t you: a r e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between t h e words on
t h e b a s i s of tone only. I n t h i s exercise consonants and vowels
w i l l d i f f e r , but disregard such d i f f e r e n c e s .
1. chhau grass' chau 'to run' S
2. hiong vehement' khiong 'to be afraid o f D
3. chhan a field' than 'to obey' D
k. tui a heap' thui 'a ladder' S
5. ng yellow1 hng 'a field' s

6. hong wind' khong •empty' s
7. tsoa a snake1 tsoa n 'to boil' D
8. phtng to carry with th£ng 'a pail' D

two hands'
9. phi to spread out' khi •to lean over' S
10. thSng a worm' hang •to bake' D

32 Lesson 2
11. kiu 'to save1 1U 'tender' S

12. siu11 'to think' kiu11 'ginger' D
13. sxohg •a picture' hiong 'vehement' D
111, toa •to stay' koa 'a song* D
15. mng 'to ask' nng 'an egg' S
16. kng 'high' rang 'hair' D
17. khd» 'trousers' tho* 'to vomit' S
18. oan •a curve' khoan 'to forgive' S
19. fohg •a cave' ong »a king' D
20. chbit «a thief chat •to wrap up* D
21, hca*t 'to punish' thoat 'to escape* D
22. kam •sweet' am 'to cover' S
RE 2.5t Amoy. Discrimination! SAME or DIFFERENT
1. su 'defeated' tong »a company' D

2. siu11 'a box' sng •sour* S
3. that 'to kick' suh •to suck' s
k. the 'to lean' soa •to remove' D
5. soa n 'a mountain' sng 'to reckon' D
6. bSng •bewildered' g§ 'a goose' S
7. hi3ng 'violence' goa 'outside' D
8. ohhau 'grass' Ing 'leisure' D
9. Ing 'to fulfill' goa «I* D
10. iP- 'to guard' ln «EhJ, TOiat?' S
11. chheh •a book' bak 'to defile' S
12. kho- 'trousers' chhau 'grass' D
23. chhau •to rot« hiong •towards' s
lU. ban 'slowly' kho* 'bitter' D
16. lSi •to come' b£ •to get lost' S
16, b l 'taste' £m 'rice water* D
17. bak •wood' chheh 'to sink down' S
18. gong 'stupid' tsoa 'a snake' D
19. ti »a pig' lai 'sharp' D
20. kim 'gold' chhau 'to copy a writing' S
RE 2.6t Hausax. Discrimination* SAME or DIFFERENT
1. gida 'compound' kfrf •fish' S
2. kuka 'cry' nama •meat' D
3. dlki 'hut' kaza •chicken' D
h» "aba 'father kare 'dog' S
5. nans «meat' xdo 'eye' s

6. tsoho 'old' jakx 'donkey' D
7. rago 'ram' bako 'guest1 S
8. £do •eye' kxfx •fish' D
9. zaki 'lion' kare 'dog' D
10. uwa •mother' rana •day' S
11. kxfx 'fish' aiki •work' D
12. zaki •lion' sarkx •chief' D
13. uwa 'mother' ubS •father' D
•'-Hausa is an important language of West Africa, centering

in Nigeria, Data are from Rev, Charles Kraft, Kennedy School
of Missions. Informant for EE 2.6 and 2.7 is Hamalai Mubi.
3U Lesson 2
llu tsoho 'old' zafi •hot' S
IB. addl 'machete' ySro •boy' D
15. farS •grasshopper' add£ •machete' S
17. ido 'eye' a'ki 'work' S
18. tsoho 'old' n£ma •meat' D
19. zaki 'lion' iiki •hut' S
20. giwi •elephant' far! 'grasshopper' D
RE 2.7t Hausa . Discriminationt SAME or DIFFERENT
1. cokula 'spoons' dKkuna 'huts« S
2. tufafi 'clothes' lab£ri 'news* D
3. bincike •investigate' littinin 'Monday1 D
U. gonakx 'farms' labaru •news (pi.)' S
5. fuskoki •faces' lafiya •well' D

6. littafi •book' jum£'a •Friday' S
7. dakuna 'huts' as£ra 'misfortune' D

8. tawada 'ink' kankane •small' S
9. cokula 'spoons' bindiga 'gun' s

10. littinin 'Monday' labaru 'news (pi.) 1 D
11. talata 'Tuesday' sabulu •soap' S
12. gonaki •farms' tawada 'ink' D
13. labaru 'news (pi.)' idanu • eyes' D
lU. kujerS 'chair' kafafu •feet' S
15. fuskoki 'faces' itace •wood' D
26, cokula 'spoons• idanu »eyes' D
17. juml'a 'Friday' mlfarki •dream' D

Hearing Pitch I)istinctions
18. duwatsu 'stones' tugwaye 'twins' S
19. sabulu ' soap' amfam 'usefulness' D
20. asara 'misfortune1 labaru 'news (pi.)' D
KE 2.8t Hausa.^L Discrimination! SAME or IDIFFERENT
1. ayoyx 'verses' kSfSfl 'doors' S

2. hanyoyx •paths' •rope' D
3. ayyuka works» ySrinya girl' S
k, galsuwa •greetings' asali 'lineage' S

5. littafi i book' ctanuwa 'brother' D
6. tufafi 'clothes' aminci peacefulness' S
7. iyali ' family' garaje haste' D
8. shari'u '•judgments' alheri •goodness' D
9. dangana •depends' akwatai •boxes' D
10. wahala •trouble' magana •word' S
11. alkali •judge' aljihu pocket' s

12. garaje •haste' shinkafa •rice' D
13. abincl •food' shari'u •judgments« D
lU. taimako •help' takalmx 'shoe' S
IS. fcokari' 'trying' kasuwS 'market* S
16. tabarmi 'mats' shekaru 'years' S
17. dariyS 'laugh' asuba •dawn time' D
18. cinikx •barter* kadarka* 'bridges' D
19. ayyuka 'works' danguna •clans' S
•'-The informant for this and succeeding Hausa exercises

Ishmaila Mubi.
36 Lesson 2
20. kujera 'stool' iyali 'family, S

RE 2.9t Hausa . Discrimination! SAME or DIFFERENT
1. dalili •reason' tSlauci 'poverty' D
2. al£ma •sign' * *_ •rope' D

xgxya
3. alewa 'onion' bukata 'need' S
km amnci 'peacefulness' alheri •goodness' D

$. makaho 'blind man' allura •needle* S
6. fartctnya 'hoe' Sddu'a •prayer' D
7. ajiya •savings' jaraba •test' S
8. gafSra •forgiveness' mag£na •word' D
9. llfiya 'well' tufafi 'clothes' S
10. Icidlrko •bridge' ySrxnya 'girl' s
11. halitta •creation' sabulu •soap' s
12. takalma •shoes' shekara 'year' D
33. hadxri 'storm' irahala •trouble' D

111. xg'ya 'rope' farauta •hunting' D
15. dangana •depends' lxttafi •book' D

16. abxncx •food' iyali 'family' D
17. shekara 'year' takalmx •shoe' D
18. tukunyS 'cook pot' tunkiya 'sheep' D

19. lafiya 'well' ajxya •savings' D
20. darxya' 'laugh' tabarm£ • mat* S
RE 2.10* Hausa. Discriminationi SAME or DIFFERENT
1. jagabS •leader' adfko •towel* D
2. hankalx 'character' fSrauta •hunting' D

3. zuciyl 'heart' kasuwa 'market' D
h» ganuwa 'rampart' cizanci •meaning' S
5. xlxmx •knowledge' taimako 'help' D
6. xdanu 'eyes• alama 'sign' D
7. fartanya •hoe' amf a m 'usefulness D
8. wahala 'trouble' talaka •poor man' D
9. xtace 'wood' dangana 'depends' D
10. tasoshx •dishes' alluna •needles' D
11. asalx 'lineage' agwagwa 'duck' D
12. alheri •goodness' sabulu 'soap' S
13. mutane 'people' lyaka 'end' S

lU. bukata •need' ajiye •put' D
lf>. saurayx 'young man' dalxli •reason' D
16. gaisuwa. 'greetings * gafara •forgiveness' D
17. duwatsti •stones' lxttafi •book' D
18. talauci 'poverty* asuba •dawn time' D
19. xnuwa 'shade' makaho 'blind man' D
20. allura •needle' fartanya »hoe' S
Recorded Exercises 2.11-2.21. Level or Glided Pitch
In this set of exercises you are asked to distinguish be-

tween level pitch and glided pitch. A glided pitch is a pitch
which moves either up or down. A level pitch is one which is
level throughout its duration. You will be allowed space to
make your oral response and the tape will correct you. In
RE 2.11-2.16 each drill will have a constant frame. This means
that whereas the pitch differs from one item of the exercise to
the next, other features of the utterance are constant through-
out. In this case the frame which is constant consists of the
consonants and the vowels.
38
RE 2.11. Differential! LEVEL or RISING
1. w e l l L 7. wejH R
2 . wejH R 8. itelK R
3 . we}l R 9 . y&L R
U. w e l l L 10. w e l l L
S>. w e l l L 1 1 . W^LL R
6. well L 12. w e l l L
RE 2 . 1 2 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! LEVEL or FALLING
1. mine L 7. mine L
2 . mine L 8. mq.ne F
3 . m^ne F 9. ifts^ne F
k» "mine F 10. 'toine F
5 . mine L 1 1 . ih^ne F
6.^mine F 12. mine L
RE 2 . 1 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! RISING or FALLING
1* «* R 3.NP F
2. W* R U. "to F
Hearing Pitch D i s t i n c t i o n s 39
7. y& H 11. ui 15. >H> F
8. ujf R 12,^ R 16. uj^ F
9. ?6 R 13.\p F 17. -an/ R
10, \q? F 111, \m F 18. yff R
RE 2. lit. Dii'f e r e n t i a l t LEVEL, RISING, or FALLING
1» some F 7. so?ie R 13. sonfe R
2. some L 8. ^ m e R lU. some R
3 . sojjfi R 9. some L 15. "some F
km some L 10. "some F 16. some L
5. some L 11. some L 17. \me F
>• sojae 12. some L 18. V e F
RE 2.15-2.16 contain longer sequences. In these exercises

we now give you longer stretches of utterance, but w e control
them so that you listen only to the last syllable of each ut-
terance. You are to respond to the last syllable of each ut-
terance with the same responses that you had in the immediately
preceding exercises, that is, LEVEL, RISING, or FALLING., Do
not be confused by the syllables preceding the last one. They
will be kept constant, as the frame. Listen only to the pitch
on the last syllable.
RE 2.15. Differential* LEVEL, RISING, or FALLING
!• Will you come hez*e

heê R 2. Will you come here L
Lj-0 Lesson 2
3 . W i l l you comefXere F 1 2 . Will you come here L
h. Will you come IXere F 1 3 . Will you come here L
5. Will you come hep^ R i l l . Will you come|\ere F
6. Will you come here L 1 5 . Will you comefoere F
7. Will you come h e i ^ R 16. Will youcomefhere F
8. W i l l you come there F 1 7 . W i l l you come here L
9. W i l l you come hepe^ R 1 8 . Will you come he?4 R
10. Will you come heê" R 19. Will you comejsnere F
1 1 . Will you come Yi&yi R 20. Will you come here L
RE 2 . 1 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l t LEVEL, RISING, or FALLING
1. I d i d n ' t seefeghn F 8 . I d i d n ' t see John L
2 . I d i d n ' t see John L 9. I d i d n ' t see Jcjan R
3 . I d i d n ' t see ^Joh^ R 10. I d i d n ' t see John R
U. I d i d n ' t seefSohn F 1 1 . I d i d n ' t see John L
5. I d i d n ' t see, John R 12. I d i d n ' t see frohn F
6 . I d i d n ' t seePfehn F 1 3 . I d i d n ' t see j'jqhn F
7. I d i d n ' t see Jobn^ R l b . I d i d n ' t see Jo! R

Hearing Pitch D i s t i n c t i o n s Ui
15. I d i d n ' t seeigphn F 18. I d i d n ' t seejjohn F
16. I d i d n ' t see John L 19. I d i d n ' t see John R
17. I d i d n ' t see John L 20. I d i d n ' t see John L
RE 2.17t :Mano. 1 D i f f e r e n t i a l s LEVEL,, RISING, or FALLING
1. / g g g / •spirit' F k. /geeV 'Gio (a neigh-1 F

boring t r i b e ) t
2. / g e e / •cotton t r e e 1 L
5. / g e e / •country d e v i l '1 R
3. /gee/ 'green snake' L
6. /geeV •rattle' F
RE 2.18» Mano. D i f f e r e n t i a l * LEVEL, RISING , or FALLING
1. /koV •arm, hand' F 9. / p o 3 / •load' F

2. / s o / 'cloth' I 10. /td6y 'chicken' F
3. W 'leopard' L 11. /k55/ •first R

daughter*
k. / l o 5 / 'week' L
12. / l 3 o / •hunger' R
5. / y o o / 'brother- F
in-law' 1 3 . /noo/ 'better' FR
6. / b 5 3 / 'two-cent F l i u /wee/ 'how much' RF

piece'
15. / l o o / ' o n e ' s own RF
7. /woo/ ' t o l i e down' L mother'
8. / d o o / •one' 15. / g o 3 / 'water s n a i l ' RF
\ cJano is spoken in Liberia and Guinea. The informant re-

corded in this lesson is See Diagbe from Gbuuyi, Liberia.
The material was recorded with the cooperation of Dr. Charles
White and Miss Mildred Black of the Methodist Mission, Ganta,
Liberia.
1±2 Lesson 2
RE 2.19t Vietnamese. 1 D i f f e r e n t i a l t LEVEL, RISING, or FALLING
1. /c±/ «to be only' R 8. /cia/ 'nine' R
2. / n l / ' i s n ' t that so?' R 9. / s i n / 'please' L
3. /th£/ 'then' F 10. /n$w/ "much, many' F

h
U. / m i / 'wheat' F 11. /t £w/ 'lack' R
5. / x i / 'when' L 12. / t i w / »be d i g e s t e d ' L
6. / & / 'go' L 1 3 . /b$n/ 'understand' R
7. / c i / 'older s i s t e r ' R
RE 2.20t Vietnamese. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! LEVEL, RISING, or FALLING
1. / g e / «chair« R U. / t h e / 'ability' R
2. / t h e / 'manner' R 5. / v l / ' t o return F

home'
3 . /<£§/ 'place' R
RE 2.21t Vietnamese. Differentialt LEVEL, RISING, or FALLING
1. /bs/ 'small' R h. /xme/ «be well' R
2. /ss^ 'conveyance' L 5. /me/ 'mother' R
3. /sS/ 'fut. indicator' R
Suggested Readings
Eugene A. Nida, Learning a Foreign Language, pp. 110-118.
Vietnamese data and recordings in this lesson are from

William A. Smalley and Nguyln-van-Van, Vietnamese for Mission-
aries.
h3
LESSON THREE1
Voiced and Voiceless Fricatives
We said in Lesson 1 that one kind of manner of articula-

tion had to do with the relationship between the articulator
and the point of articulation. Stops, fricatives, nasals, and
laterals are examples of this kind of manner. Another kind of
manner we said had to do with other activity in the vocal tract
simultaneously with the articulation. An example of this is
the distinction which we will now discuss between voicing and
voicelessness.
If you make a long English [s] or a long [f], prolonging

these sounds for several seconds, and cup the palms of your
hands over your ears, you will not feel any buzzing or vibra-
tion in your ears. If, however, you pronounce a long [z] or a
long [v] in the same manner, prolonging them for several sec-
onds, and hold your hands over your ears in this way, you will
feel such a vibration and hear a buzzing in them. This will be
very clear if you pronounce first the [f] and then the [v], the
[s] and then the [z]. Be sure to prolong them long enough to
be able to feel and hear the difference. The sounds which do
not have this vibration or buzzing are called voiceless sounds.
Those which do are called voiced sounds. All speech sounds are
either voiced or voiceless, no matter what the articulation.
RE 3.1. Demonstration! English Fricatives
Here are some examples of voiceless and voiced fricatives

in English. Pronounce the examples to yourself with your hands
over your ears, and then listen to them in RE 3.1, as they are
pronounced on the tape. When the voiced or voiceless fricative
is said with a vowel immediately preceding or following, it is
harder to hear the voicing than if it is said alone. This is
caused by the fact that the vowel is voiced and the duration of
the consonant when spoken naturally is very short. If you can-
not feel or hear the voicing in normal speech, exaggerate the
words by prolonging the fricatives. Follow the transcription.
•"This lesson and succeeding ones presuppose the study of

Lesson A (Appendix) on the phonemic transcription of English
consonants so that students have learned the values of the sym-
bols used for English consonants and their names.
uu Lesson 3
Voiceless fricatives! Voiced fricatives!
/fa/ as in fie /va/ as in vie
/©a/ as in thigh /da/ as in thy
/so/ as in see /za/ as in Z
/so/ as in Asshur /za/ as in a_zure^
In the following you may find that you have little or no

voicing in the fricative. With your hands over your ears, try
to determine what happens in your voicing of the words in the
second column.*
/of/ as in life /av/ as in alive
/ae/ as in lath /ad/ as in lathe
/as/ as in cro_s_s /az/ as in cause
/as/ as in lush /az/ as in garage
Be careful about garage. It is pronounced with / z / on the

tape, and is so pronounced by some speakers of English. Others,
however, use another sound. Listen carefully to the tape.
The Nature of Voicing
In order to understand more about voicing and voiceless-

ness, we have to add to our Sam Mansfield. In Sammy 3.1 we
see drawn and labeled the larynx areas of the speech tract,
including the vocal cords. Tn"e~vocal cords are twin membranes
in the throat, such that they can be pulled tight against each
other or allowed to relax loosely in the throat. Control of
them is completely automatic, of course, in our speech in Eng-
lish, and usually we are not conscious of it. When a voiceless
sound is pronounced the membranes are opened and relaxed, al-
lowing the air to come through unimpeded. On a voiced sound
/ z / does not occur initially in English.

2
This does not mean that the final sounds in the first
column are necessarily the same as the final sounds in the sec-
ond, even though they are voiceless, made at the same point of
articulation, etc. There are other characteristics of these
phonemes in English which also differentiate them in most
people's speech.
Voiced and Voiceless Fricatives U5
the membranes are drawn taut but are not completely closed off.
They are dravm so taut and so close together that the air going
through is impeded in a manner similar to that which a frica-
tive creates in the mouth. The resulting effect is the buzzing
that you hear in [v], [z], etc.
Vocal cords
(glottis)
Sammy 3.1» Larynx and Vocal Cords
The vocal cords serve several functions in speech, Some

of them will be taken up later.
Here is a picture of what the vocal cords look like,

roughly, from above. Remember that these are not the only
positions the vocal cords can take, but they are the positions
which they assume in voicelessness and voicing.
Sammy 3.2i Larynx Open for Sammy 3.3t Larynx Nearly

Voicelessness Closed for Voicing
U6 Lesson 3
In drawing Sammies to represent speech sounds we indicate

voicing or voicelessness by arbitrary symbols at the larynx.
Voicing is indicated by a wavy line, and voicelessness by a
broken line.
Sammy 3.U» Wavy Line to Sammy 3.5* Broken Line to

Indicate Voicing Indicate Voicelessness
RE 3.2. Demonstration! English /£ z/
Because the voiced fricative / z / is not too common in

English, it sometimes gives students a little more trouble in
identification than the others. For that reason we are demon-
strating it here in contrast with /s/. In my speech the pairs
of words are very close in pronunciation. In some cases they
differ only by the / s / and /z/. in other cases they differ al-
so slightly in other phonemes. When there is only one phoneme
difference between two words or any two utterances we call the
difference minimal. Such a pair is a minimal pair. As you go
through this demonstration on the tape, listen to the frica-
tives and get used to thinking of them as voiced or voiceless.
Then listen to see whether the pairs of words are minimal

pairs or not. On this you can check your judgment with the
transcription below. They are minimal when they are phonemical-
ly identical except for the / s / and /z/. There are only two
minimal pairs in this exercise. Which are they?
Finally, pronounce these words to yourself, with your

hands over your ears t o f e e l and h e a r the buzzing or lack of i t
on the f r i c a t i v e s . Follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
la. dilution Adi'liwsin/ vs. l b . delusion /di'liwzin/
2a. g l a c i e r /'gleysir/ vs. 2b. g l a z i e r /'gleyzir/
3 a . Aleutian / A ' l i w s i n / vs. 3b. allusion /tA'liwzin/
Ua. f i s h i n ' /'fisin/ vs. Ub. v i s i o n /'vtzin/
5a. Asshur /'aesir/ vs. 5b. azure /'ezir/
Sammy 3.6* [s] Sammy 3.7* [z]

RE 3.3* D i f f e r e n t i a l * VOICED or VOICELESS
This exercise i s constructed i n the same way as t h e exer-

c i s e s i n Lesson 1. This time your response i s t o be VOICED or
VOICELESS. As i n previous e x e r c i s e s , you disregard t h e [a]
vowel. Don't peekl
1. [afa] VL lu [aza] VD 7. [asa] VL
2. [ada] VD 5 . [afa] VL 8. [aOa] VL
3 . [aza] VD 6 . [ada] VD 9. [asa] VL

U8 Lesson 3
10. [ofa] VL 15. [4a] TO 20. [aG] VL
1 1 . [aza] TO 16. [fa] VL 2 1 . [as] VL
12. [va] TO 17. [za] TO 22. [ad] TO
13. [za] TO 18. [av] TO 2 3 . [af] VL

lk. [sa] VL 19. [az] VD 2k. [az] VD
Production and Recognition of [p b x g]
Tip-(or
Tip-(or blade-)
Labio- Tip- blade-) alveo- Back-
Bilabial dental dental alveolar palatal velar
Voiceless G
Voiced d z
Table 3.It Some English and Non-English Fricatives
The sounds symbolized within the boxes do not occur in

English. Before going on to learn to produce them, make sure
you understand the English symbols. Four of them, of course,
have values identical with what they represent in normal English
spelling. Four others are "made up" to represent distinctions
not adequately handled in English spelling, or handled with
more than one symbol (like sh for / s / ) . We are not drilling
the use of these new symbols here, because you get them in the
phonemic writing of English. (See Lesson A in the Appendix.)
The names of the new symbols are [p] "barred p", [fe] "barred b",
and [g] "barred g".
The four new sounds are completely parallel to the English

sounds in that they are fricatives, and in that they come in
pairs, voiced and voiceless. However, they have different
points of articulation from any English fricatives. To empha-
size the relationship of this chart to Sam Mansfield, study it
in relation to Sammy 3.8 on the next page. (The articulators
are left off.)
Learning the Bilabial Fricativest [p h]
For many students the best way of learning a new sound is

first by mimicry. If you find that you can make these sounds,
after practice, by mimicry of an instructor, you may avoid a
great deal of trial and error. The following suggestions have
been found helpful for students who do not have such ready
Sammy 3.8t Some F r i c a t i v e s and Their Points of A r t i c u l a t i o n
Sammy 3.9* [p] Sammy 3 . l 0 t [b]

success with mimicry, however, and they provide d r i l l s f o r
strengthening t h e new a r t i c u l a t o r y h a b i t s of those who do.
When you l e a r n a new speech sound remember t h a t you are

5o Lesson 3
developing a skill, forming a new set of habits, new muscle co-

ordination and control. Here are some exercises for [p]. It
is a bilabial fricative. The air escapes through a slot made
between the two lips (See Sammy 3.9)•
RE 3.U. Demonstration! Devices to Achieve Articulation of [p]
Follow along in your book as you listen to the tape.

a. Pretend there is a small piece of grass on the tip of
your tongue. Spit it off by protruding your tongue between
your lips and pulling it back rapidly to leave a narrow slit
through which to blow. Prolong the [p].
b. Pretend to blow out a candle with a smile on your face.
c. Protrude your lower lip and blow air up your nose.
d. In learning to produce [p] always remember that it is

to be kept distinct from [f]» If you have a temptation to make
311
[f]# practice protruding your lower lip beyond your upper
lip as you make the sound at first. The normal position for
the lower lip, however, is roughly in the position for [p]. It
is often necessary to exaggerate a movement in order to learn
to distinguish it from another with which you tend to confuse
it.
e. Although the articulator and point of articulation are

in position for [p], the new sound [p] is a fricative, and
there should be no stoppage of air, no matter how brief. In
manner of articulation the resemblance is to [f]. However, for
the sake of learning to make the sound, it may be helpful to
force air through your lips held in position for [p],
f. Say pig in the place of fig.
Extend the initial consonant to pppppig.
Isolate the fricative, and say [ppppppp].
Then say it between vowelst [apppppa], [apa].
Say it initially before a vowel* [pppppa], [pa].
Say it finally after a vowelt [appppp], [ap].
These are demonstrated for you on the tape. Unfortunately,

fricatives do not record too well on less than high-fidelity
equipment, so the distinctions do not come through as clearly a
as they do in a face-to-face situation.
Voiced and Voiceless F r i c a t i v e s $1
RE 3»S, Demonstration! Devices t o Achieve A r t i c u l a t i o n of [fe]
Once you can do [ p ] , you simply add voicing t o produce [fe].

Follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
a. Hum while you say [ p ] . This w i l l give you [fe],
b . Get t h e f e e l of t h e c o n t r a s t between [f v ] , and p r o -

duce t h e same c o n t r a s t with t h e l i p s a r t i c u l a t i n g [ p ] . Prac-
tice long sequences [fvfvfvfvfvfvfv] and then [pbpopbpbptegfepb]
with no vowels i n t e r v e n i n g . A r t i c u l a t o r and point of a r t i c u l a -
tion do not moveJ
c . Try f o r the same effect by p r a c t i c i n g ha-ha-ha-ha-ha,

and then doing t h e same t h i n g with l i p s s e t for [ p ] . If done
r i g h t , t h i s w i l l give you [pbpfepbpbpb],
d. Try t h e following sequencei
hhhhhhhhhhaaaaaaaaaa
[sssssssssszzzzzzzzzz]
[ffffffffffwwwww]
ir S~ r r IP ir lr" ir h^ J
e . Mimic the tape on t h i s sequencei
[ fvf vf vf vf vfvf vfvfvf v]
[szszszszszszszszszsz]
hahahahahahahahahaha
[pfepfepfepbpfepfeptepfeptepfe]
f. Pronounce very d e l i b e r a t e l y , several timesi boy.
Prolong t h e [b]» bbboy (as though you were not sure you
wanted t o f i n i s h i t , or as though you were waiting f o r the word
"Gol" t o f i n i s h i t . Be sure i t i s the i n i t i a l consonant you
prolong, not t h e vowel. You cannot prolong i t f o r long, as
your mouth w i l l f i l l up with a i r . )
Say a vowel simultaneously with the [b] held looselyi

bbbboy.
Say i t before other vowels* [bbbfeea], [ b a ] .

52 Lesson 3
Say i t between vowelsi [afebbba], [ a b a ] .
Say i t f i n a l l y , a f t e r a vowelt [afefefe], [afe].
Say i t i n i s o l a t i o n i [febbbfe].
Recorded Exercises 3.5a~3.6. D i f f e r e n t i a l t [f p] [v fe]
This group of exercises i s t o help you t o d i s t i n g u i s h be-

tween [f] and [p] and between [v] and [fe]. Although i t i s r e l -
a t i v e l y easy t o produce t h e d i f f e r e n c e , pronouncing t h e sounds
with d i f f e r e n t points of a r t i c u l a t i o n , i t i s much harder t o
hear t h e d i f f e r e n c e . You are not very l i k e l y t o find c o n t r a s t s
between these p a i r s i n any one language, but t h e exercises w i l l
focus your a t t e n t i o n on the differences t o prepare you f o r
whichever sound you meet. I n a l l t h e s e exercises your response
i s t o be t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n involved* BIIABIAL or IABIO-DENTAL,
You w i l l h e a r each utterance t w i c e . Don't peek!
RE 3.5a. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! BIIABIAL or IABIO-DENTAL
1. [ofa] L-D 7 . [apa] BIL 13. [pa] BIL
2. [afa] L-D 8. [afa] L-D Hi. [pa] BIL
3 . [apa] BIL 9. [afa] L-D 15. [op] BIL
k. [apa] BIL 10. [apa] BIL 16. [of] L-D

5. [apa] BIL 3 1 . [pa] BIL 17. [ap] BIL
6. [afa] L-D 12. [fa] L-D 18. [of] L-D
RE 3.6. D i f f e r e n t i a l * BILABIAL or IABIO-DENTAL
1. [ava] L-D 7. [ava] L-D 1 3 . [fea] BIL

2 . [aba] BIL 8. [aba] BIL Ik. [va] L-D
3. [ava] L-D 9 . [ba] BIL 15. [fea] BIL

h. [aba] BIL 1 0 . [va] L-D 36. [fea] BIL
5 . [aba] BIL 1 1 . [fea] BIL 17. [va] L-D
6 . [aba] BIL 12. [ba] BIL 18. [fea] BIL
Learning t h e Velar F r i c a t i v e s [x g]
The v o i c e l e s s v e l a r f r i c a t i v e [x] occurs i n German i n
Voiced and Voiceless Fricatives 53
Sammy 3.H» [x] Sammy 3.12» [g]
such words as ach. If you have not studied German, or did not
learn to pronounce this sound then, or if you do not succeed in
learning the velar fricatives by mimicry of an instructor, try
the following exercises.
HE 3»7. Demonstration! Devices to Achieve Production of [x]
Follow in the text as you listen to the tape.
a. Say what the cat says when it spits at a dogt [xxxxx],
b. Do what small boys do when they shoot a "six-shooter"*

[kxxx-]. Then practice eliminating the [k] from this to get
[xxx].
c. Think [k], but relax the tongue to blow air through the
slot.
d. Start with [a], raising the back of the tongue almost

to [k], and lowering it again. If done correctly, this gives
[axa]. when you get this down, work on [ax] and [xa],
e. "Whistle" a tune with the back of the tongue.
RE 3«8. Demonstrations Devices to Achieve Production of [g]
Now practice adding the voicing to [x], in just the way

Sh Lesson 3
you did with [p], A voiced [x], of course, gives you [g]. Fol-
low the transcription.
a. Mimic the tape on this sequencei
hhhhhhhhaaaaaaaa
sssssssszzzzzzzzj
[sssssssszzzzzzzz]
[ffffffffwwww]
[xxxxxxxxgggggggg]
b. Mimic the tape on this sequencet
[fvfvfvfvfvfvfvfv]
hahahahahahahaha
c. Think [g], but relax the tongue and blow air through
the slot.
d. Start with [a], raising the back of the tongue almost

to [g]9 and lowering it again. If done correctly, this gives
[otga]. When you get this, work on [ag] and [ga].
e. Pronounce very deliberately several timest good.
Prolong the [g]i ggggood.
Say a vowel simultaneously with the initial soundt

ggggood.
Say it before other vowelsi [ggga], [ga].
Say it between vowelsi [aggga], [aga].
Say it finally, after a vowelg [aggg], [ag].
Recorded Exercises 3.9~3»10» Differential! Velar Fricatives
Unlike [p b ] , the velar fricatives are not usually con-

fused with any English sounds. You do, however, need practice
hearing them and recognizing them immediately. Don't peek!
EE 3.°. Differential! VOICED or VOICELESS
1. [axa] VL 7. [aga] VD 13. [ga] VD
2. [aga] VD 8. [ga] VD Ik. [ga] VD
3. [aga] VD 9. [xa] VL 15. [ag] VD
km [aga] VD 10. [xa] VL 16. [ag] VD
5. [axa] VL 11. [ga] VD 17. [ax] VL
6 . [axa] VL 12. [xa] VL lfi. [ag] VD
RE 3 . 1 0 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VELAR or NO
1. [asa] NO 7. [axa] VE 13. [za] NO
2. [axa] VE 8. [bo] NO lit. [6a] NO
3. [aga] VE 9. [za] NO 15. [ai] NO
k. [afa] NO 10. [xa] VE 16. [ag] VE
5. [aza] NO 22. [sa] NO 17. [ax] VE
6. [aga] VE 12, [ga] VE 18. [of] NO
Recorded Exercises 3.11 - 3»12. Differentials Right or Wrong?
A rery common mistake in learning -velar fricatives is to
pronounce [x] as [kx], and [g] as [gg], that is, to pronounce
a velar stop followed by a velar fricative. These exercises
are designed to help you hear the difference, so that you can
make sure you are not making this mistake yourself. Your re-
sponse is to be FRICATIVE if the sound pronounced is a pure
fricative, and WRONG if it is not. Don't peek!
RE 3.11. Diff erentialt FRICATIVE or WRONG
1. [axa] F 6 . [axa] F 11. [kxa] WRONG
2. [akxa] WRONG 7. [akxa] WRONG 12. [xa] F
3. [akxa] WRONG 8. [kxa] WRONG 13. [kxa] WRONG
h , [axa] F 9. [xa] F llu [xa] F
5. [axa] F 10. [xa] F 15. [ax] F

56 Lesson 3
16. [akx] WRONG 17. [ax] FR 18. [akx] WRONG
RE 3 . 1 2 . D i f f e r e n t i a l t FRICATIVE o r WRONG
1. [agga] WRONG 7. [agga] WRONG 13. [gga] WRONG
2. [aga] FR 8. [ga] FR H u [ag] FR
3. [aga] FR 9. [ga] FR 15. [agg] WRONG
k. [agga] WRONG 10. [gga] WRONG 16. [agg] WRONG
5. [agga] WRONG 11. [ga] FR 17. [ag] FR
6 . [aga] FR 12. [gga] WRONG 18. [agg] WRONG
RE 3.13. Differentials FRICATIVE or WRONG
In this exercise you will again distinguish between fric-

atives and non-fricatives, but now you will have the additional
complication of [h] which often sounds like [x]. Don't peek
1. [axa] FR 5. [aha] WRONG 9 . [axa] FR
2 . [aha] WRONG 6 . [axa] FR 10. [aha] WRONG
3 . [axa] FR 7. [akxa] WRONG 11. [akha] WRONG
h. [akxa] WRONG 8. [axa] FR 12. [aha] WRONG
RE 3.lU. Demonstration! Tongue Twisters
In order to get facility in the use of the new" fricatives,

practice the following, or make up others like them. Listen to
the demonstration on the tape, and follow the transcription
below.
a. peter piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
b. A big bad boy built bulging boats.
c. xween xatherine xissed her xrotchety xousin.
d. get gus's grandmother some great green gooey gumdrops.
Recorded Exercises 3.l5~3.l6. Differential! Recognition and
Give the technical label for the consonant you hear, just
as you did for Lesson 1.
Here you w i l l h a v e o n l y t h e new f r i c a t i v e s you h a v e l e a r n e d
i n t h i s c h a p t e r . That means t h a t you h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g c h o i c e
of r e s p o n s e s ( o n e i t e m from each l i s t ) i
VOICED BILABIAL FRICATIVE
VOICELESS BACK-VELAR
Don't peekj
1. [aba] VD BILABIAL F 1 1 . [tea VD BILABIAL F
2. [aga] VD BACK-VELAR F 12. [xa VL BACK-VELAR F
3. [coca] VL BACK-VELAR F 1 3 . [ga VD BACK-VELAR F
li. [ a p a ] VL BILABIAL F l i i . [tea VD BILABIAL F
5. [coca] VL BACK-VELAR F 1 5 . [ax VL BACK-VELAR F
6 . [aba] VD BILABIAL F 1 5 . [ag VD BACK-VEIAR F
7. [ago] VL BILABIAL F 17. [ag VL BILABIAL F
8. [ga] VD BACK-VELAR F 18. [ax VL BACK-VELAR F
9. [xa] VL BACK-VELAR F 1 9 . [ab VD BILABIAL F
10. [pa] VL BILABIAL F 20. [ag VL BILABIAL F
RE 3 . 1 6 . D e s c r i p t i o n of Sounds
I n t h i s d r i l l you may h a v e any E n g l i s h f r i c a t i v e a s w e l l .

I f you n e e d a l i s t of p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e s t o r e f e r t o a s you do
t h i s d r i l l , t a k e one from each of t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t s t
VOICED BILABIAL FRICATIVE
VOICELESS LABIO-DENTAL
TIP-DENTAL
T I P - ( o r BLADE-) ALVEOLAR
T I P - ( o r BLADE-) ALVEOPALATAL
BACK-VELAR
58 Lesson 3
1. [aso] VL TIP-(or BLADE-) 1 1 . [pa] VL BILABIAL F

ALVEOPAIATAL F 12. [xa] VL BACK-VELAR F
2 . [coca] VL BACK-VELAR P 13. [za] VD TIP-(or BLADE-)
ALVEOLAR F
3 . [aza] VD TIP-(or BLADE-)
Ik. [za] VD TIP-(or BLADE-)
ALVEOLAR F ALVEOPAIATAL F
U. [ada] VD TIP-DENTAL F 1 5 . [ag] VD BACK-VELAR F
5. [aba] VD BILABIAL F 16. [a©] VL TIP-DENTAL F
6 . [ova] VD LABIO-DENTAL F 17. [ap] VL BILABIAL F
7. [aga] VD BACK-VEIAR F 18. [of] VL LABIO-DENTAL F
8. [«a] VL TIP-DENTAL F 19. [ab] VD BILABIAL F
9 . [fa] VL LABIC-DENTAL F 20. [of] VL LABIO-DENTAL F
10. [sa] VL TIP-(or BLADE-)
ALVEOLAR F
Recorded Exercises 3.17~3.19. Mimicry Drillst Nonsense
Folloir along as you listen to the tape and mimic it. Tou
will hear each utterance twice, but you will mimic the tape in
the silent space provided, rather than respond to it. The ex-
ercises increase in complexity. As you listen and watch the
page before you, try to associate the sound with the symbol, as
well as to mimic the syllable.
RE 3 . 1 7 . Mimicry
1. [apa] 8. [aga] 15. [ba]
2. [aba] 9 . [oxa] 16. [xa]
3 . [axa] 10. [aga] 17. [ap]
h. [aga] 1 1 . [ga] IB. [ate]
5. [axa] 12. [ba] 19. [ag]

6 . [aba] 1 3 . [pa] 20. [ax]
7. [apa] Ik. [xa] 2 1 . [ap]

RE 3.18. Mimicry
1* [pap] 1 1 . [pag] 2 1 . [box]
2. [bate] 12. [xab] 22. [pag]
3. [gag] 13. [bap] 23. [Acs]
It. [xax] 2k. [box] 2iu [daz]
5 . [gag] 15. [gab] 25. [zas]
6 . [bob] 36. [gap] 26. [gaz]
7. [xax.] 17. [bob] 27. [a6]

8. [pap] 18. [*xg] 28. [da]
9 . [gag] 19. [pab] 29. [fap]
10. [xax] 20. [bab] 30. [vab]
RE 3.19» Mimicry
1. [abda] h. [vaba] 7. [pabab]
2. [axsa] 5. [fagax] 8. [zazdab]
3. [sapae] 6. [pagaz] 9. [xaSQas]
RE 3.20. Mimicry* Vietnamese
This exercise gives you actual language materials, spoken
by a native informant. Drill it so that you can mimic it with
accuracy. If it helps you to do so, watch the transcription of
the exercise and follow along as you mimic. Remember that this
will be more difficult for you than the previous exercise be-
cause it contains other unfamiliar sounds, in addition to the
ones you are working on. Concentrate on the fricatives as you
work.
1. /xwaay/ "sweet potato' 6. /xAnm/ 'no, not'

2. /xinjiaw/ 'when?' 7. /gaa/ 'railway station'
3. /xo/ «to be difficult' 8. /ge/ 'chair'
km /xakp/ «to cry' 9. /gqy/ 'to call'
5. /xnm/ »to be strong' 10. /gpk/ 'to peel, sharpen'
60 Lesson 3
Transcription Exercises
With your book closed, transcribe RE 3.18 and RE 3.19.
Correct your transcription by comparing it with the printed
transcription in the Manual. When you transcribe, be sure to
write all the consonants and vowels which you hear.
Reading Exercises
Check your skill in reading the new sounds by the use of
RE 3.17-3.19. Read off the syllable before the tape says it,
and compare your reading with the tape. The dialogue will
sound like thist
Youi [cqscx]
Tapei Number one, [ a p a ] , [ a p a ] .
lout [aba]
Tape/ Number two, [afea], [afea].
Suggested Reading
Page numbers i n parentheses may not apply s p e c i f i c a l l y t o

t h e points of t h i s l e s s o n , but have been l i s t e d i n previous
l e s s o n s , and you may want t o read them while you have t h e book.
H.A. Gleason, J r . , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Descriptive Linguis-

t i c s , p p . 187-193 (Tk"*6T.
Kenneth L. Pike, Phonemics, pp. 2U-28.
61
LESSON FOUR
Finer Distinctions in Hearing Pitch
Recorded Exercises lul~li.2« Discriminationt Same or Different
Here are more tone drills, such as you had in Lesson 2

(RE 2.3ff). Respond with SAME or DIFFERENT according to -what
you hear on the tape. The items in these exercises w i n be a
little more complicated than Trhat you heard in Lesson 2. Don't
peekl
RE U.lt Amoy 1 . Discriminationt SAME or DIFFERENT

1. Ko Hiong Chhi Pxn Tong Koan S
'Kaoshiung City' 'Pintgtung County"
2. Goa khi hia li l£i chia D
'I go there1 'You come here'
3. eng a*m si. tsa khx si D
•at night' 'in the morning'
h» lai-bin tse m ho» li S
•come in and sit (lit.)' 'don't give you'
5. siu oan-poan tsin ho thi11 D
'to collect the dishes 'very good weather'
(e.g. after meal)'
6. lak liap iM ehhit tsiah kain D

'six shells* 'seven monkeys'
7. po-le poe ka-pi au S
•a drinking glass' 'coffee cup'
8. o* peh kong o» peh 1&± D
•to say any old thing' 'to get anything disordered*
9. t s e s i to i t i tsia S
•This i s a knife' 'He i s here'
10. i t s i n gau i bo l a i S
•He ( i s ) very clever' 'He didn't come'
T o r sources see fn. p. 30.

62 Lesson k
RE t u 2 t Amoy, Discrimination! SAME or DIFFEREMT

1. t s i t ptin chheh t s i t pun chheh
' t h i s book 1 •one book'
2 . ang fing tho« hoe s i o thng

•cement 1 •burnt sugar'
3. hit tsiah tsSa h i t t s i a h thang

•that snake» ' t h a t worm1
k« nng tl p£a n go"« % k£a n

•two cakes1 •five s o n s '
5. Bi-kok-S tseng—th5n-5
•the Americans* •finger(s)'
6. t s i t oa11 png peh oa n png

• t h i s bowl of r i c e ' •eight bowls of r i c e '
7. lak keng ehhu* pat keng chh^
•six houses' 'another house'
8. iitu be" k3n bo l o a stm

•has not a r r i v e d y e t ' ' n o t so dark'
9. tsu-otong-chhia b3 t i t s i a
•automobile* ' ( h e ) i s not h e r e '
10. iau be l 3 i i be"lSi
•has not come y e t 1 •he d o e s n ' t come'
RE U . 3 . Levels and Glides
The English word Johnny can be said i n t h e four following

ways, among o t h e r s . L i s t e n t o t h e t a p e , and watch t h e t r a n s -
cription.
1* 2 Johnpy 3 . 2 Johnjny-
1 1
2. 2 Johnny it. 2 Johnny

1—
U i r
Notice that we have indicated three pitch levels for this ex-
ample, although English has an additional fourth (highest)
pitch which is more rare!ly used. We have indicated a change
between level pitches by the vertical dotted line which shows
Finer Distinctions in Hearing Pitch 63
the abrupt change. The down-turn at the end of 1 and 2 indi-
cates the normal fade-off of voice and pitch at the end of some
phrases. We will ignore it for the present.
Now listen to the word John as pronounced in four corres-

ponding ways on the tape, and' watch the transcription.
3 3 .
5. 2 Jfchn 7. 2 Johif
3 3
6. 2 John 8. 2 John
1 \ 1 /
Notice that this time there was a glide between pitch levels,
and that some of the glides were longer than others, depending
on the distance between the levels.
The distinction between long and short glides applies
whether the glides start at the same point or not. If one
starts higher than the other, and they both rise' to the same
pitch, the one which started lower is the longer. Or if one
starts lower than the other and both fall to the same pitch,
the one which started higher is the longer. We can illustrate
that by the next items of the exercise. Notice that we include
a comparison of the same rise or fall as a step in Column b.
Compare this group with the preceding group.
Glide
3 3
9a. 2 J/e»hn 9b. 2 Johrtny
1 1
3 3
10a. 2 John 10b. 2 Jonriny"
1 1
3 3
11a. 2 John lib. 2 Johnny
1 \ 1
3 3
12a. 2 }bhn 12b. 2 Johnhy
1 1
By length of glide we do not mean to imply anything about

the length (duration) of the vowel on which the glide occurs.
You may have a long glide on a very short vowel, and an equally
6U Lesson U
long one on a long vowel. These points are illustrated by an-

alogy with music in Figures I1..I-I4..2. Do not get the impression
from these illustrations that speech pitch is sung. This nota-
tion simply points out the lack of relation between length of
glide and length of vowel (its duration).
-&
-&
O
Fig. U.li Short and Long Rising Glides with Different Durations
^
X
x: £
Fig. U.2» Two Short Falls and Two Long Falls
RE k.k. Differentials LONG or SHORT
In this exercise you will be asked principally to distin-

guish between long glides and short glides on the frame one.
You are to respond with LONG for long rises, and SHORT for
short rises. A demonstration will be given you before the ex-
ercise begins. The first five examples will be exaggerated.
The second five will not be exaggerated, but will be slow. The
last ones will be faster, and each utterance will be given only
once. Do not watch the text of the exercise.
1« one!' LONG 7 . one*' LONG 1 3 . one/ LONG
2 . one' LONG 8 . one SHORT 111. o n / LONG
3 . one SHORT 9. one SHORT 1 5 . ones' LONG

/
U. ones' LONG 1 0 . one^ LONG 1 6 . one SHORT
£. one SHORT 1 1 . one SHORT 1 7 . one SHORT

/
6. one SHORT 1 2 . one SHORT 1 8 . on*/ LONG
RE H.5. Differentialt LONG or SHORT
1. W e e SHORT 7 . ti^ree SHORT 13. W e e SHORT
2 . -fchree SHORT 8. W e e LONG lU. W e e SHORT
3. W e e LONG 9. three LONG 1 5 . £kxee SHORT
U. W e e SHORT 10. W e e SHORT 16. W e e LONG
5. W e e LONG 11. W e e LONG 17. W e e LONG
6. biree LONG 12. W e e LONG 18. W e e SHORT
RE U.6. Differentialt LONG RISE, SHORT RISE, LONG FALL, SHORT

FALL
1. g o / LONG R 7. go SHORT R 33. "g<J LONG F
2. "go LONG F 8. "gx) SHORT F lii. go/LONG R
3. ^ SHORT F 9. "go LONG F 15. ^ SHORT F
U. ^g<5 LONG F 10. go SHORT R 16. go SHORT R
5. go SHORT R 11. ^ SHORT F 17. g\ SHORT F
>. %</ LONG R 12.^ SHORT F 18. g» LONG F
RE U.7. Differentialt LONG RISE, SHORT RISE, LONG FALL, SHORT
1. high SHORT R hign LONG R 3. high LEVEL

66 Lesson h
k. "h^gh SHORT F 9. high LEVEL ill. higfi LONG R
S. high SHORT R 10. high SHORT R 13. high SHORT I

/
6. "h^gh SHORT F 11. W h LONG F 16. W h LONG F
7. high LEVEL 12. high LEVEL 17. Mgh SHORT ]
8. "n^h
high LONG F 13. high SHORT R 18. "high LONG F
/ \
RE U.8. D i f f e r e n t i a l s LONG RISE, SHORT RISE, LONG FALL, SHORT
FALL, LEVEL
Re U.8 has longer sequences. You a r e t o l i s t e n t o t h e
f i n a l s y l l a b l e f o r t h e long or short g l i d e , or l e v e l p i t c h .
The r e s t of t h e sentence w i l l be held approximately c o n s t a n t .
1. T h a t ' l l be f i n e LEVEL 10. T h a t ' l l be f i n e LEVEL
2. T h a t ' l l bes f iirf<

1/
de LONG R
T
1 1 . T h a t ' l l be fiife LONG R
3. T h a t ' l l be f i n e SHORT R 12. T h a t ' l l bepKlne SHORT F
U. T h a t ' l l be f i n e LEVEL 1 3 . T h a t ' l l be f i n e LEVEL
5. T h a t ' l l bepXjne LONG F Ik. T h a t ' l l be fyXe LONG R

&*
6. That'll befigfe LONG R 15. T h a t ' l l be f i n e SHORT R
v
7. T h a t ' l l bejfjne LONG F 16. T h a t ' l l be f i n e LONG R
8. T h a t ' l l be f i n e LEVEL 17. T h a t ' l l b e | H n e SHORT F
9. T h a t ' l l befrjne SHORT F 18. T h a t ' l l be iHne LONG F

F i n e r D i s t i n c t i o n s i n Hearing Pitch 67
19. T h a t ' l l beiSine SHORT F 20. T h a t ' l l be f i n e SHORT R
Recorded Exercises U.9~U.12. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! One Direction or Two
The pitch glides on which you have been working up t o now

have been u n i d i r e c t i o n a l . That i s , they have e i t h e r simply
r i s e n , f a l l e n , or remained l e v e l . In t h e present exercise you
are t o d i s t i n g u i s h between u n i d i r e c t i o n a l glides and b i d i r e c -
t i o n a l g l i d e s . I n RE li.9> f o r example, a l l examples w i l l
e i t h e r r i s e , or r i s e and then f a l l . You a r e to respond with
RISE or RISE-FALL according t o whether t h e glide has one d i r e c -
t i o n or two 0 Do not watch t h e t e x t of t h e e x e r c i s e .
RE U.9. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! RISE or RISE-FALL
L, Zdan. RISE 7. JoW RISE-FALL 1 3 . Jo'hn RISE
2 . JoW RISE-FALL 8. JoW RISE-FALL l i ; . <ttfon RISE
3 . J<&n RISE-FALL 9. <tahn RISE 3 5 . JioTsm RISE-FALL
U. John RISE 10. John RISE 36. Jidhn RISE-FALL
5. J6lm RISE-FALL 1 1 . ôhn RISE 17. Jo>n RISE-FALL
6. ijohn RISE 12. J&m RISE-FALL 18. JuShn RISE
RE U.10. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! FALL or FALL-RISE
l . \ w h y FALL-RISE 5.Vhy FALL 9 . V h V FALL-RISE
2.\hy FALL 6.W/ FALL-RISE I0.\whv/ FALL-RISE
3.\hy FALL 7.Vhy FALL l l . V i y 7 FALL-RISE
l u V h / FALL-RISE 8.\why FALL 12.Viy FALL

68 Lesson U
33 , W FALL-RISE l5.Vhy FALL 17.Vhy FALL
li+.Vhv/FALL-RISE l6.\why FALL I 8 . \ h s / FALL-RISE
RE U . l l . D i f f e r e n t i a l * RISE, FALL, RISE-FALL, or FALL-RISE
l.\so FALL 7 . 9o\ RISE-FALL 33. A RISE-FALL
2 . \so/ FALL-RISE 8. \o/ FALL-RISE Hi. do RISE
3.\so FALL 9.Vo FALL 35. 9<o RISE
k. A, RISE-FALL 10.Nso FALL 16. \so/FALL-RISE
5. A RISE-FALL 1 1 . JIQ RISE 17. \ o FALL
6 . So RISE 12. Jo RISE 18. \ o / FALL-RISE
RE U.12i D i f f e r e n t i a l ! LEVEL, RISE, FALL, RISE-FALL, or FALL-

RISE
1. 3a£ge RISE 7. \ a r g e / FALL-RISE
2. W g « RISE-FALL 8. l a ^ e RISE-FALL
3 . large LEVEL 9. l*£g\^ RISE-FALL
U. large LEVEL 10. W g e RISE
5 . Wg©/FALL-RISE 11. large LEVEL
6. W g e FALL 12. l \ r g e / FALL-RISE

Finer D i s t i n c t i o n s i n Hearing Pitch 69
33. larê RISE-FALL 36. l a r g e RISE
111. l a r g e LEVEL 17. l*r*e RISE-FALL
r e FALL
15. V
^lare 18. large LEVEL
Recorded Exercises U.13~U.l6. Mimicry by Humming
For t h e e x e r c i s e s which follow on the t a p e , yoli w i l l hear

approximately t h e same m a t e r i a l as you have i n RE li.9~U.12,
according t o t h e following t a b l e . However, t r y t o do t h e ex-
e r c i s e s without t u r n i n g back t o t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
U.13 i s t h e same as U.9.
U.lU i s t h e same as U.10.
U.li? i s t h e same as U . l l .
U.l6 i s t h e same as U.12.
This time you mimic the stimulus by humming. A humming re-

sponse will also be heard on the tape to help you. Compare
your humming with what you hear on the tape, and, if possible,
have someone else listen to you hum, and compare it with the
'tape response.
Recorded Exercises U.17~U»21. Mimicry Drills
In these exercises you will mimic the tape. Each utter-

ance consists of four syllables, with a constant frame
[mu so pa fu]. This means that the consonants and vowels, and
the tone of the initial syllable are held the same throughout.
The tone of the initial syllable gives you something to peg
the tones of the other syllables to. Do these exercises with-
out watching the book.
RE U.17. Mimicry
The tones used will be low level, high level, and falling,
lou are to mimic the tape, the first time through by humming,
and then through by articulating the consonants and vowels
also.
70 Lesson h
1. [nrakopa&i] 7. [musobafu] 1 3 . [im&ojpl&u]

—i \ ;Y_ _i\i \
2. [mosopafoi] 8. [musotoalfu] lU. [imôtoajFu]
-i \ i
_iN\
3 . [mukoWFu] 9. [nnfccJpaTii] 1 5 . [mi^cipaFu!
k. [im&oJJaSu] 10. [muteoWfu] 16. [imôteapTI

—iN \ _l\\_ _J\j\
5. [mu^câfu] 1 1 . [mujsopafxu]
ojsopafoi] 1 7 . [musohafu]
J \
6 . [muSsoJMfti] 12. [nrasopaû] 1 8 . [musa"pafcu]
-J\!\ 1\ i\\
HE U.18. Mimicry
Your d i r e c t i o n s a r e t h e same, except t h a t t h i s time t h e
g l i d e tone w i l l be r i s i n g i n s t e a d of f a l l i n g .
1. [mubopajfu] 7 . [masopajfu] 1 3 . [mnsdpstii]
2 . [musopaftr] 8. [musopajfti!'] lit. Imasfeatta]
3 . [mTisefpaThrf 9 . [mosobafu]
imusobafu] 1 5 . [irascJpafiT)
l£, [muscipafir
U. [imjsafjpafu] 10. [mnsdp&u] 1 5 . [nrujsopapa"]
5 . [mugcjpaFu] 1 1 . [mi»opajCti!] 1 7 . [musopajCu]
6 , [mus«Wfu] 12. [musopafu] 18. [masowfeyfi
RE U.19. Mimicry
The g l i d e may be e i t h e r r i s i n g or f a l l i n g .
1. [musopafu] 2 . [musopatj^ 3 . [nra^WCuT

he [muisôW'tif] 9 . [musopû] l i u [muôpapu]
5 . [raupoTpafu] 10. [musopafi^l 15. [musA)8toi]
6. [mtisopaffu] 11. [muôâfu] 16. [muôjiafcu]
7 . [musdpafu] 12. [mtôpafW] 17. [musoW^]

_i '^J
8. [mus^pafbu] 1 3 . [muWparu] 18. [musypa?u]
RE I4..201 Vietnamese^-. Mimicryt Humming only
1. ['lonjhOT] ' l o u d e r ' 1 1 . [tiof&i.] •enough 1
2 . [noyjmaaw] •speak f a s t ' 12. [koj»t£e] •may, can'
3 . [tiAnllA^m] 'your language' 1 3 . [kAyiyÂ] •dish'
li. [cufyn!!toy_] «-vre( e x c l u s i v e ) ' ll).. [noyj'laay] 'repeat'
5. [ t ^ i l h a a y ] •Monday' 1 5 . [guA!«fiik] •Sunday*
6. [#2l|aa] •Tuesday' 1 5 . [kAyj»Saa] 'house 1
7. [t^ti] •Wednesday" 17. [kAyfrbaaq] 'table'
8. [ t ^ I n a a m ] •Thursday' 18. [kAyjikwin] 'trousers'
9 . [kayllkiA] •that' 19. [kAyi»nAy] 'this'
10. [ko*h>w] 'understood' 20. ['ni/vkj'nAy" • t h i s w a t e r '
"Tor source, see fn. p. U2.

72 Lesson h
21. [ttVjjsaaiir] 'how?' 2U. [ • saaw|_d^ra] ' six

piastres'
22. [•aawj'kwin] 'clothes' 25. [*taam|dAnm] "eight
~ piastres'
23. ['bon| dArm] 'four 26. [t c in|dA n m] 'nine
piastres' piastres'
RE U.21i Kpelle (Liberia) . Mimicryt Humming only
1. [pere ka t i ] 'That's a 5. [pere loolu] 'Five houses'

house'
2. [kwsla jka t i j ' T h a t ' s a 6. [kwalajloolu] 'Five monkeys'
'<—! monkey'
3. [kajli;ka t i ] 'That's a 7. [kali|loolu] 'Five hoes'

hoe'
h» [kojfrajka t i j 'That's a 8. tfcofrajlooluJ 'Five m o r t a r s '

mortar'
Listen t o RE U.13-4.19 again, t h i s time drawing t h e con-

tour as you hum. Use t h e following symbolizationi
[/ ] SHORT RISE [ ] LEVEL
[/] LONG RISE [/\] RISE-FALL
[\ ] SHORT FALL [\/] FALL-RISE
[\ ] LONG FALL
The c o r r e c t t r a n s c r i p t i o n i s given i n t h e t e x t .
Tiata from William E. Welmers' lessons i n Kpelle [multi-

l i t h ] , p . 6 . The recording was read by Moses Peter of Parak-
welle, Liberia.
Reading Exercises
Check your s k i l l i n reading t h e p i t c h contours by t h e use
of RE km 13-Iu 19. Read off t h e contour (by humming, or by a r -
t i c u l a t i n g ) before t h e t a p e says i t , and compare your reading
•with the t a p e , j u s t as you did i n Lesson 3 .
LI /\)6U ISTKS - 1?egf <PV*J Dêc+ 5
v 8
Boonrt B i P P V &oorvi PIDPVBOOO^ &oorr\ B»ooiV\...
7U
LESSON FIVE
Facial Diagrams* Voiced Stops
In this lesson you are going to learn to make your own

facial diagrams of various sounds. One purpose in doing this
is for convenience of conmunication in this course. We want to
make sure that you are able to read those ire draw for you in
explanation, and are able to express your understanding of
speech articulations through drawing diagrams. Thus the draw-
ing of diagrams Serves both as a means of communication and as
a testing device. However, the other reason is basically much
more important. In the drawing of diagrams, you are forced to
pay attention to the various inter-playing movements of the
speech tract. It is one thing to understand in a vague way
what is going on, but it is another to be able to represent it
specifically in a schematized diagram.
In Sammy 5.1 you see the three basic articulations which

must be drawn in on all Sammy diagrams. They are the lips, the
tongue, and the velic.
Sammy 5.It Basic Articulations to be Drawn
In making Sam Mansfields of stops there are two things

particularly to remember. The velic must be closed to show
that the air is not going out through the nose, and the artic-
Facial Diagrams* Voiced Stops 75
ulator must be shown closed against the point of articulation.
To show this complete closure we draw the line of the velic and
of the articulator tightly against the point of articulation,
letting no white space show. Sammy S»2 will show you a correct
drawing of the articulation of a [t].
Sammy 5«2t [t] correctly drawn
Sammy S»3 is incorrect because the articulation is not shown

as being closed in stop position. Sammy 5,h is incorrect be-
cause the velic is not closed. Study these diagrams. Be sure
that you understand the principle that a stop [t] implies full
closure at both these points. A diagram of a [p] or a [k]
would be the same except that the point of articulation would
differ in relation to the articulator. Sammies $,3 and $,h
are on the next page.
Fricatives are diagrammed as in Sammy 5»5« A narrow slit

is le±Jt between the articulator and the point of articulation
to show the fricative nature of the sound being diagrammed.
Sammy 5.6 is incorrect because too little space is left, making
a stop. Sammy 5.7 shows too much space. For the time being we
will draw fricatives with the velic closed as we do stops. It
is, however, perfectly possible to pronounce fricatives with
the velic open.
76 Lesson 5
Sammy 5.31 [t] incorrectly Sammy 5.U» [t] incorrectly

drawn (space between artic- drawn (velic open)
ulator and point of articu-
lation)
Sammy S.Si [x] correctly drawn

Facial Diagramsj Voiced Stops 77
Sammy 5.6» [x] incorrectly Sammy 5.7t [x] incorrectly

drawn (no space between ar- drawn (too much space be-
ticulator and point of tween articulator and point
articulation) of articulation)
Of course voicing and voicelessness must be drawn simul-

taneously with the other articulations. They are therefore in-
dicated on all of the diagrams of the articulations which we
have illustrated earlier in this lesson. The indication of the
voicing or lack of it is in the larynx at the vocal cords. A
wavy line shows voicing. A broken line shows voicelessness.
(See Sammies 5.8 and 5.9 on the next page.)
The direction and source of the air stream must also be

represented. Up to the present we have not studied any other
air stream than one coming out of the lungs. Therefore, for
the present we will simply draw the air stream as an arrow
pointing upward from the lungs to the larynx. Notice that it
should not extend through the larynx. lou will later have
other kinds of air stream to represent. (See Sammies 5.10 and
5.11 on the next page.)
The final Sammy diagram in this lesson is a "blank Sammy."

This is the kind of Sammy on which, from time to time, you will
be asked to diagram specific sounds.
78 Lesson 5
Sammy £»8i [p] Sammy 5.9* [g]

note voicelessness note voicing
Sammy 3>.10» [z] Sammy 5.Hi Air stream

note voicing and placement incorrectly drawn through
of arrow indicating air larynx
stream
Facial Diagrams^ Voiced Stops 79
Samny 5.12t Blank Sammy
In Sammy 5.12 you are introduced to Blank Sammy, in the

Workbook (p. 7ff.) copies are available in Targe size (Big
Blank Sammy, one to a page) or small size (Little Blank Sanmy,
four to a page) to save you time. The general configurations
of Sammy are drawn except for certain parts such as the articu-
lators, the velum, and the larynx. You have to fill in the
missing parts. If you do not have some Blank Saranies to use,
you can trace Sammy 5.12 or draw it freehand. When you are
given an exercise in -which you draw the articulation for more
than one sound, using different colored pencils or different
kinds of lines to do so, it is more convenient to use a Big
Blank Sammy. When you are asked to draw individual specific
sounds, you will find a Little Blank Sammy more convenient.
Sairjny Exercises 5.1-5.3
On a Big Blank Sammy, draw [b] and [m], using two differ-
ent colored pencils, pencil and ink, or different kinds of
lines (like regular line and dotted line). On another Big
Blank Sammy do the same for [d] and [n] and on a third do the
same for [g] and [rj]» What constitutes the difference between
these pairs of sounds in each diagrams
Voiced Stops
In Lesson 3 you learned to distinguish between voicing and

voicelessness. We used fricatives as examples because voicing
80 Lesson 5>
or voicelessness is easy to hear in fricatives. However, it

should be pointed out that stops can also be either voiced or
voiceless. In English /p, t, k/ as in pill, till, and kill are
voiceless} /b, d, and g/ as in ball, doll, and gall are often
at least partly voiced in my speech (but not in everybody's).
This is hard to hear for two reasons. Stops cannot be pro-
longed as much as fricatives can, but furthermore they cannot
be pronounced except with associated vowels. The vowels with
which they are pronounced are voiced. This may lead you at
first to be confused about whether the stop is voiced or voice-
less. For example, if I pronounce [apa] versus [aba], the first
one has a voiceless stop in the middlej the second one has a
voiced stop in the middle. The vowels in both cases are voiced.
You simply have to learn to recognize voiceless and voiced stops
by practice. Cover your ears to check on the voicing in your
own production, and (if culturally permLssable) put your hand
on your informant's or instructor's head to feel his voicing.
In many speakers of English (and you may be one of them),

both /p/ and /b/ are voiceless, and the difference is due only
to other factors. You should check with an instructor if you
want to know what your pronunciation of /b, d, and g/ is.
We can line up English stop phonemes according to whether

they are voiceless or sometimes voiced (in my speech) as in the
following diagramt
Voiceless stops /p t k
(Sometimes) voiced stops b d g/

In phonetics work, however, when we are discussing sounds
without relation to the phonemic system of any language,
[b, d, g] will always represent voiced stops, giving us this
diagramt
Voiceless stops [p t k
Voiced stops b d g]
RE 5.1. Demonstrations English Stops and Fricatives
Listen to RE 5.1 to hear the voicing and voicelessness on

stops. On the tape /b d g/ are pronounced with voicing whether
they so occur in your speech or not. Notice the symbols as you
go along, but do not try to memorize them now. You are concen-
trating on the difference between voicing and voicelessness at
this point. Each sound is given medially first in a nonsense
syllable, (with /a/ because stops cannot be pronounced without
Facial Diagrams} Voiced Stops 81
a vowel), and then initially, medially, and finally in English

words. Follow the transcription.
Voiceless Stops Voiced Stops
/apa/ as in pea, appear, ape /aba/ as in buy, about, ebb
/acta/ as in tea, attack, ate /ado/ as in die, adorn, Ed
/oka/ as in key, acclaim, ache /ago/ as in guy, ajain, egg
Students who do not voice English /b d g/ should be care-

ful not to become confused at this point. In all of our phon-
etics work, where we are dealing with sounds as sounds, regard-
less of the language in which they occur, we will use the sym-
bols [b d g] for voiced stops only. For your English phonemic
transcription you will continue to use these symbols for the
initial sounds in buy, die, and guy, regardless of whether in
your actual pronunciation you voice them or not. In other words
for English phonemic transcription continue to use the symbols
as you have learned to do. But for phonetics work you will have
to learn to make fully voiced stops for use in other languages,
and you will transcribe such voiced stops with these symbols.
Recorded Exercises 5.2-5.5. Demonstration/ Voicing [b d g]
Listen to the following demonstration exercises on tape,

and practice them yourself, following the directions, to help
you get a good, full voicing on [b d g] such as you may need in
some other languages than English. Remember that the voicing
is a rumble which is very audible in your ears when you cover
them with the palms of your hands. You can also sense it by
feeling the top of another person's head as he speaks.
RE 5,2. Negative Practice/ Exaggerating the Voicing on English

Stops
This exercise is built around English words which have

/b d g/ in the middle of the words, with a following unstressed
syllable. These are more likely to be voiced than in most po-
sitions in English. Listen to the tape as it says the words
first naturally, then in elongated fashion, preserving the
voicing. (The raised dots indicate the lengthening.) Follow
the transcription.
la. baby lb. b«a*b«y lc. b»y
2a. able 2b. a«b«l«e 2c. b»l
3a. adder 3b. a»dd*er 3 c d»r

82 Lesson 5
Ua. puddle 1+b. pu*dd*le Uc. d*l
5a. ugly 5b. ug*ly 5c. g*ly

6a. August 6b. Aug'ust 6 c . g*ust
I n Column c prolong t h e stop as long as you can. Tour mouth

w i l l f i l l up with a i r so you cannot pronounce i t very long. Be
sure you are not making a n a s a l i n s t e a d of a s t o p .
RE 5*3. Demonstrationt Avoiding S u b s t i t u t i o n of Nasal f o r Stop
Here we w i l l t r y t o help you d i s t i n g u i s h between a long

voiced stop and a long n a s a l . This i s important because some
people tend t o s u b s t i t u t e a n a s a l when they are t r y i n g t o l e a r n
t o voice a s t o p . For t h i s exercise pinch your nose shut w i t h
your fingers and f e e l the degrees of v i b r a t i o n i n your nose as
you say the u t t e r a n c e s suggested. You should get heavy v i b r a -
t i o n on t h e [m] but l i t t l e on t h e [ b ] . I f i t continues when
you think you have switched t o t h e [b] you are fooling yourself.
The same applies t o [n] v s . [d] and [n] v s . [g]« Follow t h e
transcription.
1. [can* a am* a ab*a ab*a] 7» [am* ab* am* ab* am* ab*]
2 . [an*a an*a ad*a ad*a] 8. [an* ad* an* ad* an* ad*]
3 . [an*a an*a ag*a ag*a] o . [an* ag* an* ag* an* ag*]
U. [am*a ab*a am*a ab*a] 10. [m*a b*a m*a b*a m*a b*a]
5. [an*a ad*a an*a ad*a] 1 1 . [n*a d*a n*a d*a n*a d*a]
6 0 [an*a ag*a an*a ag*a]
RE 5.U. Demonstrationt Voicing of Stops by Analogy with

Fricatives
Here i s another approach t o the problem of f u l l voicing of
s t o p s . S t a r t with long voiced f r i c a t i v e s a t t h e same point of
a r t i c u l a t i o n and cut them off i n t o stops i n t h e manner i n d i c a t e d
below. L i s t e n t o t h e tape and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Then
t r y i t f o r yourself.
1* [ate* ate*b* ab*b» ab*] lu [ate*a ate*b*a ab*a]
2 . [az* az*d* az*d* ad»] 5. [az*a az*d*a ad*a]
3 . [ag* ag*g* ag*g<> °E*] 6* [ag*a ag*g*a ag*a]

7. [b*a b«b»o b»a] 8. [z»a z»d»a d»a]
RE 5 . 5 . Negative P r a c t i c e t Exaggerated English Voicing of Stops

Work on English phrases such as the ones below, s t r i v i n g
for exaggerated voicing on a l l of the s t o p s .
1. b»ig» b»ad» b»oy 3 . d»oes D»otty d»ream
2. g»ooey g»reen g»rapes
RE 5 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VOICED OR VOICELESS
I n t h i s e x e r c i s e you a r e asked t o recognize voicing or
v o i c e l e s s n e s s , as you did i n Lesson 3 , but now, of c o u r s e ,
stops are included i n the d r i l l . Be sure t o l i s t e n for voicing
or v o i c e l e s s n e s s i n the u t t e r a n c e on the t a p e . Do not r e l y on
your own pronunciation of t h e corresponding English phoneme.
Your pronunciation may not be what i s on t h e t a p e . Listen t o
voicing on t h e t a p e . Try t o do the exercise without watching
the transcription.
1. [asa] VL 1 1 . [za] VD 2 1 . [oel VD
2 . [ana] VD 12. [za] VD 22. [za] VD
3 . [ova] VD 1 3 . [bo] VD 23. [ada] VD
U. [ a t h a ] VL Ik. [pM VL 2U. [apha] VL
5 . [ada] VD 15. [l£a] VL 25. [da] VD
6 . [a9a] VL 16. [ajJ1] VL 26. [ak11] VL
7. [ama] VD 17. [ab] VD 27. [«3] VD
8. [ a l a ] VD 18. [a©] VL 28. [asa] VL
9 . [aga] VD 19. [am] VD 29. [ga] VD
10. [aga] VD 20. [ a t h ] VL 3 0 . [ala] VD
Recorded Exercises 5.7-5.10. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Description oi

Sounds
I n t h i s s e r i e s we take you through a progression toward
the l a b e l i n g of sounds, as we did i n Lesson 1. This w i l l be
review of much of t h e m a t e r i a l , but the d i s t i n c t i o n between
voicing and voicelessness w i l l be added.
81* Lesson 5
RE 5.7
Use one term from each column below. Listen to the tape
and give the label. Do not consult the transcription which
follows unless you have to do so,
VOICED STOP
VOICELESS FRICATIVE
LATERAL
1. [asa] VL F 2 3 . [4a] VD F 25. [an] VD N
2 . [ana] VD N Ik. [tha] VL S 26. [ax] VL F
3 . [apha] VL S 1 5 . [bo] VD S 27. [as] VL F
h. [ada] VD S 16. [fa] VD F 28. [ « ] VL F
5. [aza] VD F 17. [go] VD S 29. [ad] VD F
6. [ala] VD L 18. [so] VL F 30. [ag] VD S
7. [aGa] VL F 19. [pho] VL S 3 1 . [9a] VL F
8. [akha] VL S 20. [lo] VD L 32. [am] VD N
9. [aga] VD F 2 1 . [ad] VD F . 33. [aba] VD S
10. [ama] VD N 22. [or] VD F 3h. [ga] VD F
1 1 . [no] VD N 23. [of] VL F 3$. [az] VD F
12. [va] VD F 2k. [ot h ] VL S 36. [ad] VD S
RE 5.8
Take one t e r m from each column. D o n ' t peeki
VOICELESS LABIAL STOP
VOICED DENTAL FRICATIVE
ALVEOLAR NASAL
ALVEOPAIATAL LATERAL
VELAR
1* [ofa] VL DENTAL F 1 3 . [aQa] VL DENTAL F
2. [ava] VD DENTAL F ll+. [ana] VD VELAR N
3 . [aia] VD DENTAL F 15. [an] VD ALVEOLAR N

h. [ a t h a ] VL ALVEOLAR S 16. [az] VD ALVEOPALATAL F
5. [aba] VD LABIAL S 17. [sa] VL ALVEOPALATAL F
6, [ga] VD VELAR S 18. [aba] VD IABIAL S
7. [na] VD ALVEOLAR N 19. [as] VL ALVEOLAR F

8. [sa] VL ALVEOPALATAL F 20, [a©] VL DENTAL F
9. [<ia] VD DENTAL F 2 1 . [an] VD VELAR N
10. [ga] VD VELAR S 22. [ag] VD VELAR S
11. [ala] VD ALVEOLAR L 23. [kâ] VL VELAR S
12. [am] VD LABIAL N 2k. [la] VD ALVEOLAR L
RE 5.9
Take one term from each column. Don't peekj
VOICELESS BILABIAL STOP
VOICED LABIO-DENTAL FRICATIVE
TIP-DENTAL NASAL
TIP-ALVEOLAR LATERAL
BLADE-ALVEOLAR
TIP-ALVEOPALATAL
BLADE-ALVEOPALATAL
BACK-VELAR
1 . [ofa] VL LABIO-DENTAL F k. [ a t h a ] VL TIP-ALVEOIAR S
2. [ova] VD LABIO-DENTAL F 5 . [aba] VD BILABIAL S
3 . [ada] VD TIP-DENTAL F 6. [ga] VD BACK-VELAR S

86 Lesson £
7 . [na] VD TIP-ALVEOLAR N 17. [sa] VL T I P - ( o r BLADE-)
8. [sa] VL T I P - ( o r BLADE-) ALVEOPALATAL F
ALVEOPALATAL F 1 8 . [ a b a ] VD BILABIAL S
9 . [4a] VD TIP-DENTAL F 19. [as] VL T I P - ( o r BLADE-)
10. [ga] VD BACK-VELAR S ALVEOLAR F
1 1 . [ a l a ] VD TIP-ALVEOLAR L 2 0 . [a©] VL TIP-DENTAL F
1 2 . [am] VL BILABIAL N 2 1 . [an] VD BACK-VELAR N
13. [a©a] VL TIP-DENTAL F 2 2 . [ag] VD BACK-VELAR S
liu [ana] VD BACK-VELAR N 2 3 . [ l ^ a ] VL BACK-VELAR S
15. [an] VD TIP-ALVEOLAR N 2U. [ l a ] VD TIP-ALVECLAR L

16. [az] VD T I P - ( o r BLADE-)
ALVEOPALATAL F
RE g . 1 0 .
This exercise reverses the previous procedure, giving you

the technical name and asking you to pronounce the sound between
vowels. The tape follows with the correct response. Don't
peekj
1 . VD BILABIAL N [ama] 1 1 . VD BACK-VELAR S [oga]
2 . VD TIP-ALVEOLAR N [ana] 1 2 . VD TIP-DENTAL F [ada]
3. VD BACK-VELAR N [ana] 1 3 . VL BACK-VELAR S [alâ]
lu VD BILABIAL S [aba] H i . VD BILABIAL N [ama]
5. VL BACK-VELAR F [axa] 1 5 . VL LABIO-DENTAL F [afa]
6. VL T I P - ( o r BLADE-) 1 6 . VD TIP-ALVEOLAR N [ana]

ALVEOPALATAL F [asa]
1 7 . VD T I P - ( o r BLADE-)
7 . VD LABIO-DENTAL F [ava] ALVEOLAR F [aza]
8 . VD BACK-VELAR N [ana] 1 8 . VD T I P - ( o r BLADE-)

ALVEOPALATAL F [aza]
9 . VL TIP-DENTAL F [a9a]
1 9 . VD BACK-VELAR N [aria]
1 0 . VL BILABIAL'F [apa]
2 0 . VD TIP-ALVEOLAR S [ada]
RE 5.11. Differential! [f v p b] (Review)
In this drill you will be asked to respond with any one of

the following! VOICELESS BILABIAL, VOICED BILABIAL, VOICELESS
LABIC-DENTAL, VOICED LABIC-DENTAL. This drill is difficult be-
cause the tape does not fully record the slight difference of
sound between the two voiceless fricatives and the two voiced
fricatives. You can also use this exercise as a mimicry exer-
cise, with your Manual open to the transcription of the exer-
cise, to practice the production of these fricatives. Remember
that when you pronounce the bilabial fricatives you cannot let
your lower lip touch your upper teeth. If you have any diffi-
culty, review Lesson 3. Don't peekj
1. [afo] VL LABIO-DEMTAL 1 1 . [ap] VL BILABIAL
2. [apa] VL BILABIAL 1 2 . [av] VD LABIO-DENTAL
3 . [apa] VL BILABIAL 1 3 . [aw] VD LABIO-DENTAL
k. [afa] VL LABIO-DENTAL ll+. [ab] VD BILABIAL
5. [awa] VD LABIO-DENTAL 1 5 . [tea] VD BILABIAL
6 . [ova] VD LABIO-DENTAL 16. [va] VD LABIO-DENTAL
7. [aba] VD BILABIAL 17. [fa] VL LABIO-DENTAL
8. [aba] VD BILABIAL 1 8 . [fa] VL LABIO-DENTAL
9. [ap] VL BILABIAL 1 9 . [pa] VL BILABIAL
10. [of] VL LABIO-DENTAL 20. [fa] VL LABIO-DENTAL
RE 5«12. Mimicry! F r i c a t i v e s
This exercise is designed to help you get facility in the

use of non-English fricatives studied so far. Practice in
mimicry of the tape. You may follow along by reading the ut-
terances as you mimic if you care to do so. Each item will be
given twice, with space for your mimicry after each repetition.
1. [av va awa] 5. [as va asva] 9 . [ax va axva]
2. [af va afva] 6 . [as va asva] 10. [agva agva]
3 . [ a i va aeLva] 7. [ap v a apva] 1 1 . [av x a avxa]
km [aG va a©va] 8. [ab va abva] 12. [af x a afxa]

Lesson 5
13. [ad xa adxa] 19. [ax xa axxa] 25. [as ga asga]
ll;. [a9 xa a€Ka] 20. [ag xa agxa] 26. [as ga asga]
15. [as xa asxa] 21. [av ga avga] 27. [ap ga apga]
16. [as xa asxa] 22. [af ga afga] 28. [ab ga abga]
17. [ap xa apoca] 23. [a* ga adga] 29. [ax ga axga]
18. [ab xa abxa] 2U. [a6 ga aGga] 30. [ag ga agga]
RE 5.13. Transcription
In the following exercise you are to write what you hear
on the tape, using the phonetic symbols you have been learning.
The voTfels in these utterances will be kept constant as a frame,
and will be [a]. You, however, should write the vowel every
time you hear it, along with the correct consonants. Check
your work with the key below after you finish your transcrip-
tion to your satisfaction.
1. [mada] 8. [soma] 15. [nafeaz]
2. [saza] 9, [xada] 16. [xamdaz]
3 . [bona] 10. [saga] 17. [labsag]

k» [xarja] 11. [manor) ] 18. [eanfarj]
5. [zaga] 12. [fadarj] 19. [feagsam]
6 . [Gava] 1 3 . [wazam] 20. [danxag]
7. [gaga] lit. [parjag]

Reading Exercise
Use RE 5.13 as a reading exercise by reading off the

transcription of each utterance before the tape recording
sounds the pronunciation.
89
LESSON SIX
Controlled I n t o n a t i o n
I n t h i s lesson we narrow our requirements i n t h e hearing,

mimicry, and control of p i t c h . We do t h i s l a r g e l y by s e t t i n g
a r t i f i c i a l l i m i t s on English p i t c h i n t h e exercises we u s e .
As we pointed out i n Lesson 2 , English has an extremely

complicated pitch system which i s used i n every u t t e r a n c e by
every speaker of t h e language. We mentioned t h a t l e a r n e r s of
another language must l e a r n t o use a d i f f e r e n t p i t c h system as
a p a r t of t h e i r learning p r o c e s s .
The English p i t c h system i s of a kind which we c a l l i n t o -

n a t i o n . We d i s t i n g u i s h t h i s from tone, which i s t h e kind of
p'itch~system which makes Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, and many
languages of Africa so d i f f i c u l t f o r English-speaking l e a r n e r s .
Both i n t o n a t i o n systems and tone systems employ p i t c h , but t h e
use t o which they put them i s d i f f e r e n t .
I n general, i n a tone system t h e pitches are r e l a t e d t o a

s i n g l e s y l l a b l e or t o a word. In an i n t o n a t i o n system t h e
pitches are r e l a t e d t o the whole phrase or sentence. Tone
serves a function l i k e t h a t of consonants and vowels, helping
t o keep words from sounding t h e same, and so being confused.
Intonation superimposes an a d d i t i o n a l meaning on the whole
phrase or sentence.
RE 6 . I t Vietnamese. Demonstration! Five Tone Contrasts
For example, here are f i v e Vietnamese words with f i v e dif-

ferent tones (but no difference of consonants and vowels). I f
i n doubt, l i s t e n t o them on t h e tape and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p -
tion.
Vietnamese Phonetic
Meaning Spellix Transcription
cheek ma [ma"*]
ghost ma [ma-]
?
tomb
ma
[ma*]
rice plant ma [ma.]

•
but ma [ma«]
90 Lesson 6
RE 6.2t English. Demonstration! Range of a Contour

English does not distinguish between words on the basis of
pitch in this way, but it spreads an intonation contour out
over a phrase, whether that phrase consists of one word or
many. Notice how the same contours, with the same meanings,
can occur on many words, or few. The tape will help you hear
the contours if the transcription is not enough. When the rise
or fall occurs on a syllable, the result is a glide [/ ] or
[\ ]• When it is between syllables it is a step [_f~] or
[""]_]• The part of the contour preceding the stress mark [']
is relatively non-significant.
. y
l a . Did you go j'yesterday? lb. Did you go;'yesterday?
2a. Did youj'got 2b. Did youi'W
, •
3 a. Did j'you? 3b. Didj'yW
Ua. 'You2 Ub. '"W.
5a. 'Yesterday? 5b. «Yes|terday.
6a. You j ' d i d ; ). IpuT'^d.

6b.
7a. »Hm2 7b. 'HSJ
Notice that the intonation used in Column a means question

all the way through, no matter whether it is oifone word or on
several, or on none (as in 7a). The intonation used in Column
b is more general, however. If there is a question word in the
utterance the result is a question, but if there is not, the
result is an affirmative statement.
RE 6.3i English. Demonstration! Contrasting Intonations
Now listen to the following English examples in which a

variety of intonations are used down the list. Here it is not
the lexical meaning which changes, as in Vietnamese, but the
added meaning which shows the attitude of the speaker, or indi-
cates something about the grammar (like question vs. statement).
Controlled Intonation 91
1. 'JoKh 6. 'John
2. «J*hn 7. 'John
3. 'Jol 8. 'John
U. 'John 1. 'John
/
5.. «Jdfo^ 10. '<J&m
RE 6.U. Mimicryt Contours in "The Hat with the Bird"
On p. 93 you w i U find part of "The Hat with the Bird,"

a brief story about Sally Mansfield (Sara's wife). It has been
transcribed with lines to indicate the intonation (pitch) con-
tours. In this transcription, however, only a very limited
number of pitch contours is used. Although normal English has
an enormous repertoire of pitch contours, in this exercise only
a small number of them is allowed. The contours used are dem-
onstrated first in RE 6.U. Following that (in RE 6.5) the full
page is read off at various speeds to help you learn to control
your own intonation in exactly the way indicated by the trans-
cription.
In practicing these exercises you should not only seek to

control your intonation pitch contours in the ways indicated,
but also to keep your voice from trailing off or rising at the
end of phrases in the English fashion. Your purpose is to help
gain mastery and control of your own pitch on English material.
la. 'Mansfield lb. ''iansjfield
2a. 'husband 2b. 'husjband
3a. 'vetry 3b. »very
Ha. 'women's lib, 'wcjmen's

92 Lesson 6
5a. 'Sam! Mansfield ?b. 'Sam; Mansfield
6a.
i, 03am 6 b . 'S^m
7a. •fti.ce 7b. 'n^ce
8a. ' W g h t 8b. t ^ U g h t
? a . 'Hijbit 9b. i h j b i t
I
t
10a. ' h a t s 10b. ' h a t s
1 c . h e r I'husband I d . h e r 'husband
2 c . a'jgreed 2d. a'greed
3 c . about ['-women 3 d . about 'women
Uc. I {'bought Ud. I 'bought
5 c . he ; ' u s u a l l y " 5d. he ' u s u a l l y
6c. a I'hat 6d. a ' h a t
7c. some ;«flowers 7d. some . 'flowers
8c. t h e j ' b i r d 8d. the ' b i r d
9c. 'regulaifly 9d. " r e g u l a r ] ^
10c. to;'day lOd. t o ' d a y

le. the!'last!hat If. the;"last hat
2e. it)'lookedjvery real . itf'iWa

oked very real
3e. t o | H e l l ' her . tgj'êr

11 her
he, t h e ; ' b i r d jon i t hfm theT'bXrd on i t
5>e. a j ' h a t ' I suppose SC..jj'ftalt I suppose
6e. a i'liveibird 6f. j j ' i X y e bird
7e. a j'niceihat 7f. _aj~'riice hat
8e, some i'flowers ion it 8f. some i'flowjers on i t
9e. an i'animalion it 9f. an!'animal on i t
lOe. a j'cat|on i t for example lOf. a j['*

s\
att on i t for example
RE 6.5. Negative Practicet "The Hat with the Bird"
listen to the tape demonstration of the reading of Sally

Mansfield with the restricted contours indicated. Then prac-
tice reading it yourself until you can follow the transcription
of the contours perfectly.
•Sally 'Mansjfield and her; 'husband. «S ami Mans field,
i 1 i 1 i — \ 1
disagreed 'very much about !'-wotmen'si 'hats. 'SamiMansfiel^
"T3y Frank Fletcher. Story and intonation contours adapted

from Kenneth L. Pike, The Intonation of American English, Ann
Arbort U. of Mich. Press, 19U7. pp. 129-131. Used by permis-
sion of the publisher.
9k Lesson 6
did notl ' l i k e ; t h e h a t s t h a t I'Saljlyf'T)Ought. He -was! ' t o o
'courteous t o h i s wife t o j ' t e l l i h e r t h a t he did not l i k e them,

' >.
however. He; 'usjually did not sayfânything.
'One I day, however, i 'Saljly bought ai ' h a t i w i t h ai 'birrfi on
it. I t w a s ; ' n o t [ a j ' l i v e ! b i r d . | b u t i t I'lookedj v e r y r e a l . Sally

I L I
was i'vejtyi'hapipy about t h e h a t with t h e ! ' b i r d I on i t .

1
'"Have you heard what I , ' b o u g h t to'dgy?" S a l l y asked Sain.
"You bought a ; ' h a t , , I suppose, B Sam s a i d , "ffomen are
'aljways buying h a t s . I t ' s aj'bad 'habit."

I i
'.liLi'd-011'"^ "think you are v e r y ^ ' n ^ c e , Sam," S a l l y answered.
"And i t ' s aj 'vejry f'n^ce h a t . I t has a j ' b i r d l o n i t . "
"Do you have t o | 'feed t h e b i r d 'regularity?" Sam asJced, but

. I I I
'Salhy didn't!'arjswer him. "The!' l a s t j hat you bought, " Sam
continued, "had some j'flowjers on i t . 'Thisi h a t has a i ' b i r d j o n
it. JThej ' t h i r d ! ' h a t i s going t o have anj'anjimal on i t , I sup-

I >
pose. 'Whyjdon't you buy a j ' h a t l t h a t has a ! ' c a t j on i t , for
example?" (Continued i n Lesson 8)

RE 6.6. Review of Pitch Glides (Self Test)
Number your paper from 1 - 5.

Listen to the tape, and mark your paper with a symbol to
represent the pitch contour of each item, as followst
/ or R for RISING
\ orF for FALLING
or L for LEVEL
A or RF f o r RISING AND FALLING
\ / or FR for FALLING AND RISING
You w i l l h e a r f i v e warmup u t t e r a n c e s , each given t h r e e

t i m e s . Write t h e p i t c h you hear for each u t t e r a n c e by using
one of the codes above. You w i l l then h e a r t h e answers for
these warmup examples on t h e t a p e , followed by a repeat demon-
s t r a t i o n of the warmup so you can check your mistakes.
Then number from 1 - 2 0 and take t h e t e s t i n t h e same

manner. The answers w i l l then be given a t the end of t h e t e s t .
Don't peeki
Warmup
1. 'never F h. gow'pz,y RF
2. HiJ R 5 . ,sz,mAn FR
3 . Ouch; L
Test
1. w e l l F 5. good RF
2 . no R 6 . mine R
3 . John R 7. some F
U. yes L 8. gas L
Lesson 6
9. semp FR 15. *wewga F
10. zwz-r) R 16. szym«pr,y RF
1 1 . I "don't F 17. 'gowtsy L

12. H e ' l l 'run FR 18. cA'nok R
13. Who's 'there R 1°. 'wahant L
lU. I'll 'see you L 20. slide R

RE 6.7. Differential! LOW RISE or HIGH RISE
In RE 6.7 you will distinguish between two English pitch

contours. The frame will be will you come here, with the first
three words on a level pitch. You are to listen to the last
word and are to respond with LOW RISE or HIGH RISE. Judge the
height by comparing the pitch to that of the preceding words.
If it is lower, count it low, but if it is higher, call it high.
The tape will correct you as usual. If you have a great deal
of difficulty with this exercise, try humming the pitch. Have
a friend listen to you hum to see whether or not you are really
mimicking the tape. Then go back and try the oral responses
again. If this does not work, try speaking in mimicry of the
tape. Say what the tape says, and with the same intonation. A
demonstration will be given you before you begin.
If you prefer, you may draw the contours instead of re-

sponding orally. If you do so, number from one to twenty, and
draw in the frame. Then as you hear the tape, draw in the pitch
of the final syllable. Tour possible responses will be as fol-
lows t
[ ] LOW RISE [ j J HIGH RISE
You can tell whether or not you were correct by listening to

the correct answer given on the tape, and comparing it with
your drawing, or you can correct your answers by referring to
the transcription of the drill. Don't peekl
1. will you come here LR U. will you come jhere H R
2. will you come here IS 5. will you come! here HR
3. will you come;here HR 6. will you come here L R

Controlled I n t o n a t i o n 97
7. w i l l you come'here ER 10. -will you come here LR
8. w i l l you come ftere LR 1 1 . w i l l you comejhere HR
9 . w i l l you come here LR 12. w i l l you come here LR
RE 6 . 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! LOT FALL or HIGH FALL
Follow t h e same procedure as f o r t h e preceding e x e r c i s a .

The p i t c h on t h e l a s t word w i l l now be f a l l i n g . Don't peekj
1* w i l l you come: here HF 7 . w i l l you come here LF
2 . . w i l l you come here LF 8 . w i l l you come here LF
3 . w i l l you comejhere"" HF 9 . w i l l you come [here A HF
km w i l l you come here LF 10. w i l l you comelhere" HF
5. w i l l you comei here LF 1 1 . w i l l you come here LF

i s 1 s
6 . w i l l you comejhere HF 12. w i l l you come here LF

1
S
RE 6.9. Differential! Various Contours
In RE 6.9 we add an additional complication of a long rise

and long fall on the frame my book. The possibilities of re-
sponses aret
LONG HIGH FALL

SHORT LOW RISE
Choose one from each column. Or you may draw the contour if
you prefer. In each case of a long fall, it will start high,
and in each case of a long rise, it will start low. Don't peek!
98 Lesson 6
1, ray «ba6c LONG L R 1 1 . my 'bop& LONG L R
2. ray "book SHORT L R 12. my 'book SHORT L F
3 . my!'book SHORT H R 1 3 . my| 'book^ SHORT H F
li. my. 'book' SHORT H F l i u royj 'book^ SHORT H F
5 . my 'book SHORT L F l g . myi"fb>ok LONG H F
6. myHbgok LONG H F 16. my i'book SHORT H R
7. my;'book" SHORT H F 17. j ^ ' b o o k SHORT L F
8. myj'book^ SHORT H R 18. n%_fbook SHORT L R
9. my 'book SHORT L R 19. my /book SHORT L F
10. my 'book SHORT L R 20. _my_,«book/ LONG L R
RE 6.10. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Various Contours
RE 6.10 i s the same as the preceding, except t h a t t h i s

time the words of t h e frame change. The pitch of t h e frame
does not change. Don't peeki
1. ray boak LONG L R 5. h e f c r i e s LONG H F
2. one cat SHORT L F 6 . t h i s fcar^ SHORT H F
3 . how lovely SHORT L F 7. she:gulped^ SHORT H F

i> s
U. never mind SHORT L R 8. the phone SHORT L F
Controlled I n t o n a t i o n 99
9. In.hepe LONG L R 1 5 . up^ s t a i r s SHORT L F
10, some,gum SHORT L R 16. t o y j t r a i n N SHORT H F
11. Christine SHORT L R 17. bright;light SHORT H P.
12. my;ear SHORT H R 18. he fell SHORT L R

t
13. up! h i l l SHORT H F 19. tired|ou^ LONG L R
Ik. M a i n f s W e t LONG H F 20. long nose SHORT L F
RE 6 . 1 1 . D i f f e r e n t i a l * Various Contours
RE 6 . 1 1 i s l i k e RE 6 . 9 , except t h a t the frame i s h i g h e r .

This gives you a d i f f e r e n t point of reference f o r deciding on
t h e h e i g h t of the f i n a l p i t c h . Use the same responses as i n
preceding e x e r c i s e s . Don't peek!
l. - my r i'boe(k LONG L R 9. myj'book SHORT L R

w t
I '
2. ^ri'book SHORT L R 10. my!'book SHORT L R

1 •>
3 . my 'book'' SHORT H R ll.l^'bQolc LONG L R
It. my «book s SHORT H F 12. ~my~!«book SHORT L F
5 . my 'book SHORT L F 2 3 . my 'book SHORT H F
N
6. my 'bV)k LONG H F 2iu my 'book SHORT H F
N
7. my 'book SHORT H F 1 5 . my 'book
k LONG H F
_y
8. my 'book SHORT H R 1 6 . my 'book SHORT H R
100 Lesson 6
17. my ;«book SHORT L F 19. my ['book SHORT L F
18. my ''book SHORT L R 20. myi'bo/k LONG L R
RE 6.12. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Various Contours
RE 6.12 i s l i k e RE 6.10, except t h a t t h e frame i s h i g h .

Use t h e same responses as i n preceding e x e r c i s e s . Don't peekl
^"myjbo^k LONG L R 1 1 . Chrisltine SHORT L R
2. one!cat SHORT L F 12. my e a r SHORT H R

i
3 . how!lovely SHORT L F 13. u p h i l l SHORT H F
lu never[mind SHORT L R 111. Main S t r e e t LONG H F

1 ./
5. he c r \ e s LONG H F l £ . "up!stairs SHORT L F
N N
6 . t h i s car SHORT H F 16. t o y t r a i n SHORT H F
7. she gulped ^ SHORT H F 17. b r i g h t l i g h t SHORT H R
8. TEelphone SHORT L F 18."Ke]fell SHORT L R
9. i nlihere
Uier/ LONG L R 19. t i r e d ' , LONG L R
•7
10. some!gum SHORT L R 20. long!nose SHORT L F
i s i
RE 6.33. Transcriptiont Pitch Contours
RE 6.13 is a transcription exercise. It is made on the

same pattern as the preceding exercises, but no response is
recorded on the tape. Draw the contours as your response.
Draw the frame as well as the final syllable. Check your
answers against the text of the exercise.
l.liaW Ik, go; site
2. had| a 15. followed

i
s
3. Utftle U5. her t o
k» lamb i t s 17. school) one

1
s
5. f l e e c e was 18. dayj which
6. white 19. was A
7. snow and 20. gainst; t h e

i
i
8. e v e W 2 1 . r u l e s 1 rfc
9. where)that 22. made tlie

i
lO.~Ma{ry- 23. children
1 1 . went!the 2U. laugh;and

1
s
s
1 2 . lamb was 25. the;end
13. sure %6
102
LESSON SEVEN
Voiceless Aspirated and Unaspirated Stops
If you pronounce the interjection Oh-oM deliberately and

carefully, you should be aware of a "break" or "catch" in the
middle. This break or catch is called a glottal stop. Or, if
you cough deliberately, the "catch" at the beginning is a glot-
tal stop. Most speakers of English use the glottal stop con-
stantly in some interjections and frequently also as an "attack"
or "opening" for words beginning with a vowel phoneme. In ad-
dition, many dialects of American English have glottal stops as
a substitute or replacement-'- for aft]in certain combinations
with other sounds. An example of this is the "Brooklynese"
bottle [«ba?}.], or kitten [k^r-'n], Americans from all parts
of the United States say some variety of ['sen'nts] or
[•se'ents] for sentence. The glottal stop is symbolized by
['], the top part of a question mark without the dot.
Recorded Exercises 7.1~7.3t English. Demonstration* Uses of
Listen to the tape demonstration of some English uses of

the glottal stop. Mimic the tape.
RE 7.1
1 . [«*>o*>o] Oh-ohl 8 . [ik^'n] kitten
2. [»m»m] negative grunt 9 . ['s&'n] sittin'
3 . ['MnPrn] negative grunt 10. [«bz,'n] bitten
U. [ " £ ? £ ] negative grunt 1 1 . [»ba?}.] bottle
5. ['senPnts] sentence 12. ['kree'}.] cattle
6 . [«sasPrdey] Saturday 1 3 . ['me'l.] metal
7. [«mt'n] mitten Ik. [«3*»|] little
T!n t e c h n i c a l terms ( f o r t h o s e who understand them by now),

[»] i s an allophone of / t / i n some English d i a l e c t s . Do not
l e t t h e s e English examples a f f e c t your phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n
of English. G l o t t a l stop i s not a s e p a r a t e phoneme i n most d i -
a l e c t s of English; although i t i s i n many languages. I t should
be indicated i n phonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n but not i n phonemic
t r a n s c r i p t i o n of English.
Voiceless Aspirated and Unaspirated Stops 103
RE 7.2. Demonstration! Glottal Stop at Medial Word Boundary

The first column indicates pronunciation with the glottal
stop, and the second without it. Both are common pronunciations.
The tape recordings read from left to right so that you can hear
the same phrase with and without glottal stop.
l a . [,t h vw "aeplz] 3b. [jt^mr «eeplz] two apples
2a. [,may "z-yrz] 2b. [,moy U y r z ] my ears
3 a . [»sowfi ,'aHrmz] 3 b . ['sowfi ,aHrmz] sofa arms

Ua. ['pâHpA ,*z.z] lib. [•pôfipA ,j.z] papa i s
$a. [fsAm " A y s ] 5b. [tSAm 'Ays] some i c e

6 a . ["aenA "aesks] 6b. ["aeriA »eesks] Anna asks
7a. [ t « r t y " e g z ] 7b. [,Grz,y «egz] t h r e e eggs
8a. [|drdz,y "asnk&ij.z] 8b. [idrdz,y «ean d i r t y ankles
9a. [tblpw »'ayz] 9b. [ f blvw »oyz] blue eyes
10a. [ f yelow " o t o w ] 10b. [ t yelow «otow] yellow auto
RE 7 . 3 . Demonstration* I n i t i a l G l o t t a l Stop
1. [•'eepl.z] apples 6. ["aeHsks] asks
2. ["z,yrz] ears 7. [»*egz] eggs
3 . [•'aHrrnz] arms 8. [«->ayz] eyes
U. [ , 9 z.z] jLs 9. [•'3Hnkhl.z] ankles

$, [ " A y s ] ice 10. [«*otow] auto
For English-speaking people glottal stop is hardest to hear in

initial position. Listen again carefully to RE 7.3. You will
get more drill on initial glottal stop later.
Producing Glottal Stops

In producing the glottal stop the vocal cords are briefly
closed, and air pressure from the lungs builds up behind them.
The sudden opening of the glottis releases the air. Note that
in a glottal stop the air stream is cut off at the larynx, be-
low all of the articulators. This means that for the duration
ldt Lesson 7
Sammy 7»1* Glottal Stop Sammy 7«2» Glottal Stop

in the sequence [a?a] in the sequence [m?m]
of this stop the position of the articulators is irrelevant to

the sound. The position is governed by preceding and/or fol-
lowing sounds. Compare Sammies 7*1 and 7*2. Most students
have very little difficulty producing glottal stops, but for
those who do, we provide the following exercises.
RE 7.U« Mimicryi Producing Medial [»]
Mimic the tape, pronouncing the words, and exaggerating

or lengthening the [»] in Column b .
l a . [so»»o] l b . [so"»o]
2a. [ s a " a ] 2b. [ s a ^ ' a ]

3a. [ s i " i ] 3 b . [si«*»i]
ha.. [su"u] lib. [su'^'u]

5a. [se' 9 e] 5b. [se»'»e]
RE 7>5» Mimicryi Producing Final [»]
In order to learn to produce a glottal stop in final posi-

tion, start with the sequence of RE 7.U and add a third column
without a final vowel.
la. [so"o] l b . [so»'«o] lc [«so»]
2a. [ s a " a ] 2b. [set"* a] 2c. [«so?]
3 a. [si«->i] 3b. [si»'»i] 3c [•si']
Ua. [su«'u] Ub. [ s u ' ^ u ] Uc. [«su']
5a. [se'ê] 5b. [se* 9 «e] 5c. C'se»]

RE 7.6. Mimicryt Producing Initial [»]
Learn to pronounce an initial glottal stop in the same
way, except that this time you leave off the first syllable of
Column b to form Column c.
la. [so"o] l b . [so» , »o] l c . [19.0]

2a. [so'â] 2b. [ s o " « a ] 2c. [ " • a ]
3a. [ s i " i ] 3 b . [si«»»i] 3 c . [»*•!]
Ua. [ s u ^ u ] Ub. [ s u " » u ] Uc. [«'»u]
5a. [se"e] 5b. [ s e ' ^ ' e ] 5c [•••e]

Eliminating Initial [»]
As you -will see in the To'a'ba'ita (Solomon Islands) data

in RE 7.12, languages occasionally require a phonemic distinc-
tion between initial [*] and lack of it before vowels. Such
contrasts in medial and final position are much more common,
and are easier for English-speaking people to learn. In the
next exercises we will concentrate on producing clear initial
vowels without a glottal stop.
RE 7.7. Mimieryt initial Presence and Absence of [»]

Listen to the tape and mimic The exercise reads across.
Follow in your text. As you mimic items in Column a be sure
you feel the [•] in your throat. As you mimic items in Column b
be sure there is no [*] in your throat.
la. ['©•] lb. [o«]
2a. [»o»] 2b. [a»]
3a. [•!•] 3b. [!•]

106 Lesson 7
Ua. [»u»] Ub. [u»]
5a. [»e«] 5b. [••]

RE 7 . 8 . Miroicryi Producing I n i t i a l Vowel
Another way t o l e a r n t o make an i n i t i a l vowel without a

g l o t t a l stop i s by making a s l i g h t [h] j u s t as you begin the
vowel. This opens the g l o t t i s . Listen t o , and p r a c t i c e t h e
c o n t r a s t between Column a (with [*]), Column b (with [ h ] ) , and
Coluran c (with i n i t i a l vowel). Say Column c l i k e Column b , ex-
cept t h a t t h e r e i s no audible [ h ] . Let t h e [h] open your g l o t -
t i s f o r you, but do not sound i t .
la. [f»o] l b . [«ho] l c . [»o]

2a. [ i ' a ] 2b. [«ha] 2 c . [to]
3a. [t'i] 3b. [»hi] 3c [ii]
Ua. [i»u] Ub. [«hu] Uc. [iu]
5a. [t»e] 5b. [«he] 5c [«e]
Another v a r i e t y of t h e same exercise i s t o b r e a t h e i n

s l i g h t l y f o r Column b i n place of t h e [ h ] . Breathe i n t o open
the g l o t t i s and then say the vowel.
Recognizing G l o t t a l Stops
I n t h e following exercises you should l i s t e n f o r any g l o t -

t a l stop which may be pronounced. Each of the exercises w i l l
focus on a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e word. I n RE 7.9» when
t h e r e i s a [ ' ] i t w i l l be medialj i n RE 7.10 i t w i l l be f i n a l j
and i n RE 7.11 i t w i l l be i n i t i a l . Do not watch t h e t e x t of
t h e exercises i n your books.
RE 7 . 9 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! GLOTTAL or NO
1 . [«ma'o] GLOTTAL 7 . [«ka«ka] NO
2 . [«ma»] NO 8. ['kakaka] NO
3. [•ma»m] NO 9 . [»ka?aka] GLOTTAL
U. [»ma?am] GLOTTAL 1 0 . [«kaka?a] GLOTTAL
5. ['ma? a ] GLOTTAL 11. [»faLa'at h a] GLOTTAL

h
6. [•kanaka] GLOTTAL 12. [•fala«t a] NO
13. <folokat h a] NO 15. [«falatha°a] GLOTTAL
m. «fala*at h a] GLOTTAL 16. [ ' p a t a k a ' a l a ] GLOTTAL
RE 7 10. D i f f e r e n t i a l * GLOTTAL or NO
L i s t e n f o r f i n a l p o s i t i o n only. Don't peek!
1 . t mo?] GLOTTAL 8. ['maka''] GLOTTAL
2. [ ma»] NO 9. ['ma'ak] NO
3. [ maV] GLOTTAL 10. [ ' m a ' a ' ] GLOTTAL
k. [ maka?] GLOTTAL 1 1 . [«pataka»ld»] GLOTTAL
5. [ maka] NO 12. [ ' p a t a l a » l a k ] NO
6. [ maka»] NO 13. ['pataka»la] NO
7. [ maka] NO li*. ['pata?alak] NO
RE 7 1 1 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! GLOTTAL o r NO
L i s t e n for i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n only. Don't peekJ
1. [ ' a ] GLOTTAL 8. [ " a ? ] GLOTTAL
2. [ a] NO 9. [»a*a?ak] NO
3 . [ ' o f a] GLOTTAL 10. [ " a k a ' a k ] GLOTTAL
h. [ ' a » f a ] GLOTTAL 1 1 . [ia»*a'ak] NO
5. [ afa] NO 12. [»»akalaka»] GLOTTAL
6. [ of a''] NO 13. [ ' a k a l a k a ' ] NO
7. [ kafa?] NO Ik. [ ' k a ' a l a k a ' ] NO
RE 7 . 1 2 i T o ^ a ' b a ^ i t a ( S o l o m o n s ) . 1 Mimicry
Pay p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p a i r s of words irtiich dif-

f e r only by [ ' ] . Mimic the t a p e .
1. ' i l i a «do' 2. "ilia 'dig'
T)ata from lesson plans in use at the Summer institute of

Linguistics, Norman, Oklahoma, 1956.
108 Lesson 7
3. ai 'woman' 7. oe 'you (sg. )•
h. 'ai 'tree' 8. 'abu 'flood'
5. e'a'i 'it is not' 9. "abu 'holy'
6. 'o'e 'act of adultery'
Voiceless Aspirated and Unaspirated Stops
•When native speakers of English pronounce the words spill,

still, and skill, they normally do so with a simple voiceless
stop as the second sound. When they pronounce the words pill
till, and kill, they do so with a voiceless stop, but one which
has an additional phonetic feature not present in spill, still,
and skill. This feature is a slight puff of air immediately
after the stop. This puff of air is called aspiration. A stop
which has this puff of air is called an aspirated stop. One
which does not have it is called an unaspirated stop. The puff
of air is symbolized by a raised [n] immediately after the stop
symbol.
You can sense the difference in the aspiration of the / p / 1
"Tor those who have learned enough about phonemics to un-

derstand it, the following statement may be helpful. In English
the distinction between aspirated and unaspirated stops is not
phonemic. That is why as speakers of English we do not need to
be conscious of the /p/ in spill ['spz-1] being different from
the /p/ in pill ['p^tl], English speakers make the difference
automatically, according to the sound environment in which the
stop phonemes /p t k/ occur. The presence of a preceding /s/,
for example, is one environment which automatically causes the
stop to be pronounced without aspiration in English.
Other languages do not have the same patterning of aspira-

ted and unaspirated stops. In many languages they are phone-
mically distinctive, making all the difference between some
words. See, for example, the Thai words in RE 9.l5t /pit/ 'to
close,' /p^xt/ 'wrong,' etc.
In your phonemic writing of English be sure not to trans-

cribe the aspiration, [p] and [p*1] belong to the same phoneme
/p/ in English (but not necessarily in other languages). Simi-
larly [t] and [v1] belong to the same English phoneme /t/, and
[k] and [k"] to the same English phoneme /k/. In your phonetics
work, however, where you want to be aware of various differences
of pronunciation within a phoneme, or of sound differences which
constitute phonemic differences in other languages, you need to
write the aspiration where it occurs.
in spill and pill if you hold the back of your hand close to
your mouth as you pronounce the two words in turn. Or, you can
hold a light slip of paper in front of your lips. Xou can feel
the puff of air (or see it if you use a slip of paper). You
need to learn to produce it at will and to hear it wherever it
occurs.
Perhaps you can hear the difference between aspiration and

lack of it in pairs like the following*
(a) loose pill [Ivws p^z-l] vs. (let) Lou spill (it) [Ivw sptl]
Diagrammatically, the difference between an aspirated stop
and an unaspirated one may be shown as follows. The "word"
being diagrammed is shown in the first line. The dashes show
the occurrence of the feature (articulation or manner of artic-
ulation) shown in the left column.
[a a] [a a]
Air stream
Voicing —
Stop closure
In the unaspirated stop the voiceless stop release coincides
very closely with the onset of voicing in the vowel, in the
aspirated stop the release of the stop is followed by a brief
period of continued voicelessness before the voicing of the
vowel begins. It is this voiceless current of air which is
called aspiration.
RE 7.13. Differential! ASPIRATED or UNASPIRATED
Distinguishing between aspirated and unaspirated voiceless

stops is not difficult when you hear the two in a controlled
sequence as in the following drill. Listen for the stops alone.
Do not let other consonants confuse you. Don't peek!
1. [•cjfcx] ASPIRATED 6. [«akV| ASPIRATED
2. [•ctpa] UNASPIRATED 7. [•apa] UNASPIRATED
3 . t'afca] UNASPIRATED 8. [•alcana] ASPIRATED

h
h. [«at h a] ASPIRATED 9. [«at asa] ASPIRATED
5. ['oka] UNASPIRATED 10. [•apkala] ASPIRATED

110 Lesson 7
11. [«aorta] UNASPIRATED 23. [«athana] ASPIRATED
12. [«avaka] umSPIRATED Ik. favosa] ASPIRATED

RE 7.1k. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ASPIRATED or UNASPIRATED
1. [«Fâ] ASPIRATED 8. [»tama] UNASPIRATED
2. [«pa] UNASPIRATED 9. Enfold] ASPIRATED
3 . [»ka] UNASPIRATED 10. [tphasa] ASPIRATED
h. [ikô] ASPIRATED 1 1 . [«kama] UNASPIRATED
5. t'Fâ] ASPIRATED 12. [•pala] UNASPIRATED

h
6. [«t a] ASPIRATED 1 3 . ['tasama] UNASPIRATED
7. [»ta] UNASPIRATED Ik. [•kâmalo] ASPIRATED

Aspirated and Unaspirated Voiceless Stops i n Relation t o Voiced
Stops
Here is a chart of the stops with which we have been work-

ing in phonetics up to the present timet
Bilabial Alveolar Velar Glottal1

Voiced b d g
Voiceless
unaspirated p t k *
Voiceless
aspirated p*1 t*1 k11
It is quite likely that as you were working on the previ-

ous exercises you noticed that the unaspirated stops sounded to
you very much like voiced stops. There are at least two reasons
for this. One lies in the phonetic facts, which we could dia-
gram as follows!
"The glottal stop belongs here with the others because it

patterns as a regular stop consonant in many languages. It can
occur aspirated (as in a cough), but that is more rare in lan-
guages, so we do not include that possibility here.
[a a] [c a] [a a]
Air stream
Voicing —
Stop closure
The vertical lines mark the different segments, or pieces into

which the utterance is divided by the articulations. The aspi-
rated stop has an extra segment, whereas the voiced stop and
the voiceless unaspirated stop have the same number of segments
and seem more alike.
Another reason lies in a fact we referred to in Lesson 5,

when voiced stops were being discussed. It is that English-
speaking people do not voice their /b d g/ very fully, and some
of them do not voice them at all. In fact, such people who do
not voice them actually have phonetic voiceless unaspirated
stops for /b d g/. This stop differs from their unaspirated
variety of /p t k/ in the strength with which it is articulated,
but this difference is very slight.
Because of the tendency on the part of English-speaking

people to confuse voiced stops (which in some languages are
strongly voiced) and voiceless unaspirated stops (which in some
languages contrast phonemically with them), this distinction
needs particularly careful practice. It is the source of many
pronunciation mistakes in learning a second language.
RE 7.15. Differential! VOICED or VOICELESS

Listen for the voicing (or lack of it) in the stops of the
following exercise. Remember that you are listening for a
"rumble" in the stop. Do not watch the text of the exercise.
1. [»dba] TO 8. [•as aba] TO
2 . [«apa] VL 9. [•apano] VL
3 . [»apa] VL 10. [•alapa] VL
U. [«aba] TO 21. [«ata] VL
5. [»apa] VL 12. [»ada] TO
6. [»abala] TO 13. [«ata] VL
7. [' abama] TO lU. [•ata] VL

112 Lesson 7
1 5 . ;«oda] VD 23. "*aga] VD
15. ' ' atana] VL 2k. [•oka] VL
17. ['akida] VD 25. [«aka] VL
18. '«adasa] VD 26. [lagouna] VD
19. »adama] VD 27. [»akala] VL
20. [•anata] VL 28. [»asaga] VD
2 1 . [«aka] VL 29. [«cmaga] VD
22. [»aga] VD 3 0 . [•againa] VD
RE 7 . 1 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VOICED or VOICELESS
1. ['op] VL 16. [•amanab] VD
2. [•ad] VD 17. [ • a l a s a t ] VL
3 . [«ok] VL 18. [•analog] VD
U. t'og] VD 19. [•asamad] VD
5. t'ab] VD 20. ['arasab] VD
6. [«ta] VL 21. [ 'basa] VD
7. [»ko] VL 22. [•dava] VD

8. [»da] VD 23. [ ' g a l a ] VD
9. [«ba] VD 2U. [•taraa] VL
10. ['pa] VL 25. [«bafa] VD
1 1 . ['amat] VL 26. [•kamala] VL
12. [ ' a l a p ] VL 27. [»tasafa] VL
1 3 . [•asag] VD 28. [•gamana] VD
Hi. [»cnad] VD 29. [«pavama] VL
15. [«alak] VL 30. ['kalasa] VL

Producing Voiceless Aspirated and Unaspirated Stops
You use v o i c e l e s s a s p i r a t e d stops i n your English speech

a l l of t h e t i m e . A l l you need t o do i s t o l e a r n t o produce
them a t w i l l i n environments where they do not normally occur
i n English ( l i k e a f t e r / s / ) and t o c o n t r o l t h e amount of a s p i r a -
t i o n , making i t more or l e s s pronounced, according t o t h e l a n -
guage you a r e l e a r n i n g .
You a l s o use v o i c e l e s s unaspirated stops i n your English

speech. You need now t o take sounds which are conditioned by
t h e i r environment i n English, and produce them a t w i l l i n any
sound environment.
HE 7.17. Mimicryi Developing Strong Aspiration

Mimic t h e t a p e , maintaining i t s rhythm and speed. Exag-
gerate t h e amount of a s p i r a t i o n more than you would for normal
English.
1. [hohahaha] 3« [hahahaha]
[phapbaphapha] [lâlâkbakba]
[spbaspkaspkaspba] [skâskhaskbaskha]
2. [hahahaha] k. [hajfratfid&a]
[thathathatha] 5 . [haspbastbaskba]
[sthasthasthastha]
RE 7.18. Negative P r a c t i c e ! Exaggerated Aspiration
P r a c t i c e t h e following English words, exaggerating a l l of

t h e normal a s p i r a t i o n , and adding a s p i r a t i o n t o any v o i c e l e s s
stop which does not normally have i t .
11
1. [«P h ey] 2EZ 7. [ ' s t ^ p ] step
2. [«i£w] two 8. [ « t h a t h ] tot
3. [ t n o t h ] not 9. [pTA'reyd] parade
h. [«ot h ow] auto 10. [«bowt h ] boat

11
5. pp"owgow] pogo 1 1 . [•opbirsyt ] operate
6. [«seet h ] sat 12. [•stbrtyt 1 1 ] street

llli Lesson 7
1 3 . [ek^si-tênd] extend I S . [&n«k h liwdid] included
lU. [ t s t ^ w d i n t 1 1 ] student 16. [ t - n . t ^ i r p ^ r i t t b e y s i n ]
interpretation
P r a c t i c e other English words i n t h e same way.
RE 7.19. Demonstration* Producing Voiceless Unaspirated Stops

I n t h i s and the following exercises keep t h e back of your
hand i n front of your l i p s so t h a t you can f e e l t h e a s p i r a t i o n
i f t h e r e i s any.
1. S t a r t by making a long v o i c e l e s s s t o p , holding t h e c l o -
sure a second or sot
[ap»a ap»a ab»a oct»a ak»a ak«a]

2 . Now be sure you put t h e g r e a t e s t s t r e s s on t h e second
vowel. Try t o keep off every t r a c e of a s p i r a t i o n t
[ap#lpa at»'ta ak»»ka]
3. "Think" the first syllable of the utterances above but

do not say it. Just pronounce the second syllable, and keep
all aspiration off*
[papapapa] [tatatata] [kakakaka]
Now again, fasti
Go thru RE 7.19 again, this time starting with the "words"

[ab»a], [ad»a], and [ag»a] and whispering each part of the ex-
ercise before you say it aloud. As you whisper, your whole
utterance will automatically be voiceless. Get the feel of the
voiceless stops. As you change back to regular speech, continue
to "whisper" the stops even though you voice the vowels.
RE 7.20. Jemonstratiom Producing Voiceless Unaspirated Stops
This exercise is based on the English words spill, still,

and skill. The stops in these words are normally unaspirated
in English because they follow /s/. This exercise is designed
to help you take the / s / off the words without losing the un-
aspirated quality. Mimic the speed and timing of the tape. Be
careful that the words do not come to sound like the English
words pill, till, and kill.
1. Make a long [s]* ssssssssssss'pill

ssssssssssss'till
ssssssssssss'kill
2. Make a break between the [s] and the rest of the word*
ssssssssssss 'pill
ssssssssssss 'till
ssssssssssss 'kill
3. Just do the last part alone. Watch out for aspirationi

Think the [s] but do not pronounce iti
•pill
•till
'kill
km Run through the sequence rapidlyi
ssssssssss ss'pill
ssssssssssss 'pill
'pill
'pill 'pill 'pill
Do the same for [t k ] .
5. ['pzJHl pa p i po pu]
[«t&Hl t a t i t o t u ]
[•laHl ka ki ko ku]
In the following exercises listen carefully to the tape,

repeating after it exactly what you hear, maintaining the
rhythm, stress, and speed, but paying particular attention to
the articulation of the consonants. Tou may use your printed
text with these drills.
RE 7.21. Mimicryt Buildups to Longer Sequences with Stops
In this exercise each item on the tape will be given only

once. Mimic in the space provided. The items grouped together
with the same number build on each other and become cumulatively
116 Lesson 7
longer. The first number is written out in full to show the

sequence. Those which follow are built on exactly the same
pattern. Follow the transcription.
1. [»'ct?a] 3 . ['papapapa] 7. ['dadadada]
U. [•babababa] 8. [ ' k ^ x k ^ x A d ^ a ]
5. [•thobhathobho] 9. [•kakakaka]
2. ['Fâphaiâpâ] 6. ['tcctatata] 10. [«gagagaga]
RE 7.22. Miniicryt Baildups to Longer Sequences with Stops and
This time the tape will repeat each item more than once
when it comes to the longer sequences. Mimic after each repe-
tition. As in the previous exercise, the first number is writ-
ten out in full so that you can see the progression. From
there on, however, only the sequence to which you are building
is written out. You will build toward it in the same fashion
as in number one. Follow the transcription.
1. ["aj&x] 5. [ • * cqpkapabaeapa]
["cqAcfcVl 6 . [*malafabap"a]
["aphathakha] 7. ['pakaxabata]
2. ["apatotka] 8. [»'afeagasada]
3. ["abadaga] 9. [ 'pakaphabala]
h, ["atâtadazasa] 10. ['gapkadalaxa]
RE 7 . 2 3 . T r a n s c r i p t i o n
Listen to the tape, and write down the utterances you hear.
The vowels will all be [a], but be sure to write them in in
their proper places. Watch for the new sounds or sound distinc-
tions which you have been drilling. Check your transcription
afterwards against the correct transcription below, but do not
peek until you are satisfied with your transcription.
1. ['pax] k. [kNxs] 7. [«tava]
2. [«daf] 5 . [«mat h ] 8. [«naka]
3 . ['gap] 6 . ["zapVl 9 . [«baxa]

10. [«pa'a] 12. [«fa'ap] lh» [»panas]
11. f l a s a g ] 33. t'gozab] 15. [«thaval]
Read off the items in RE 7.23 before you hear them pro-
nounced on the tape. Then listen to the tape to compare with
what you have just said. Stop the machine between items if
necessary to give yourself the time to read them off.
"Baddy System" for Phonetic Study
You can work to considerable advantage, and perhaps help

avoid at least the grosser mistakes in practicing phonetics, by
working in a -team with another student. As you practice togeth-
er you can point out to each other where you do not correspond
to the tape. You can also get practice in reading and trans-
cribing by dictating to each other.
Sammy Exercise 7.1

Draw articulations of [v b x S] on Little Blank Sammies.
Suggested Reading
Page numbers in parentheses may not apply specifically to

the points of this lesson, but have been listed in previous
lessons, and you may want to read them while you have the book.
W. Nelson Francis, The Structure of American English,

pp. 72-78 (51-70). — — •
n
JUST A BAD CASf 0P ToH60E FATI60E.
118
LESSON EIGHT
Longer Sequences of Pitch
RE 8.1. Reading! "The Hat with the Bird" (continued)1
The following material continues with the Sally Mansfield

story, read with artificially controlled English intonation.
Remember that your purpose here is to be able to say something
without the intonation which you would usually attach to it,
but with an intonation which is prescribed for you, and which
will seem unnatural at times.
Before you turn on the tape recorder for this exercise,

read over the remainder of "The Hat with the Bird" which is
given here, practicing the intonation contours indicated, When
you think you have the reading down fairly well, turn on the
recorder and check yourself against it. You read each numbered
sentence aloud in the space provided on the tape, and the tape
will give it correctly after you. Listen to the tape and com-
pare it with what you said. Have a classmate listen to you and
the tape to help you realize where you are off. Turn on the
tape recorder before you begin to read. You should read the
first sentence after the tape says "Number One."
(1) 'Saljly was ;'angry. (2) She was •'sensitive when Sam
talked aboutf '"hats. (3) He ;'alyrays | 'tried;to be ;'fugny.
(h) "'That;i;'dea jis abj*surd," she said. (5) "I have never
'heard !of it before."
(6) "«I; haven't;'either," said Sam, (7) "but it's ar^
oj'rigijnal idea, 'anyway. (8) I am going t o w r i t e a|'po|em
about women's i~'ha^,s. (9) I t i s going t o go l i k e j ' t h j . s j
"Continued from Lesson 6, p . 9h

Longer Sequences of Pitch 119
(10) A I'birdican s i t upon af'ftqt,
(11) Bat a j 'hat'; c a n ' t have a j ' c a t j u p o n it|
(12) To have a j ' c a t ; -would be abpsSp-d
(13) But a j ' h a t jean have a j ' b i r d i u p o n i t .
(lU) I j'wonjder i f i t ' s j'posjsible t h a t
A | ' b i r d ;can have a ; ' c a t I upon i t ?
(150 'Sajjly went| 'out; of t h e | 'room^because her | ' f e e l i n g s

:
>
were h u r t . (16) She rej'turned ' q u i c k l y and she was;'cryp.ng.
(17) "^Sam, 'Sam," she s a i d , " O u r i ' c a t l i s t r y i n g t o eat.
t h e | » b i r d ; o n myj;'' W
h a t.. (19) The I•cat I thought the i 'bird!was
_aj*li®-e and she i' .jumped i upon i t . (20) 'TOiat I s h a l l IJ' cto, Sam? *
\ 1
(21) 'Sam|tried; ' n o t j t o T'lûgh but he could j 'hardily }
prej'vent; himself.
(22) "'TSherejis t h e c a t f ' r W S " he asked.
(23) " I t i s j 'sitfting on my \ ' h a t i n t h e I ' c h a i r ! i n t h e ?
•livjing room, 'eatjing t h e j ' b i r d ! on t h e ['hat." (2li) ' S a l l y

120 Lesson 8
began t o j ' c r y jmore than bej"'"fbre. (25) '^T J ' t h i n k ) you a r e
•terjrible, Sam. (26) I t h i n k t h e e a t j'realfty I'heard [what you
•said i L about_j'hats."
(27) 'Sam|did notj'say)anything, (28) but he tried to

t
L
appear unfrhappy about the f'"h\t, the j"'c\t, and the j"'"5ird.
(29) He knew he wouldf'l&ugh if he opened his mouth to j'say
anything.
Mimicry of Pitch Combinations.
For the remainder of this lesson you will concentrate

primarily on the mimicry of tone drills of various kinds. The
emphasis will be on three level tones, two glide tones, and
combinations of these.
RE 8.2. Mimicryt Three Levels
In this drill you will be helped by the fact that a part

of your frame will be the words low, mid, and high, each cor-
responding with the pitch level of that particular syllable.
For example, if the pitch sequence is low-high-low, the syl-
lables of your drill will be the words low, high, low as well.
In this exercise the first syllable will always be low to give
you an additional peg point. Mimic the tape. Try to avoid a
"singing" quality. Each item will be given twice.
1 . low mid! h i g h U. low mid mid 7. low low.high

1 1
2 . lowj h i g h h i g h 5. low low mid

1i
8. low low low
1
i
3 . low! h i g h j mid 6 . low mid low 9. low; high;low

r
i i
j
10. low; high; mid 12-. low! high] low llw low mid mid
I ! ' ;
1 i i i
1 1 . low low low 1 3 . low! high high I S . low raid.; high
_i
RE 8.3. Mimicryi Three Levels
Here the words of your frame are one, two, and three. As
in the last exercise, these words will correllate with the
pitches you will hear. One will be low pitch, two mid, and
three high. The initial syllable will always be low.
1. one two three 9. one! three itwo

i '
i i
2. one two one 10. one one three

i >
•
3. one one two 11. one two three

i
lu one one three 12. one two one

i 1
i
5. one one one 13 o one|three i one
6. one two two lli. one two two

i
?. one'three three 15. one one two

-i
8. one! three|one 16. one one i1 three

! ! i
RE 8.U. Mimicryi Three Levels
This exercise will be the same as the preceding one, ex-

cept that the tone of the last syllable (rather than the first)
will be the frame tone, and it will be high.
1. three lone;three 2. two twojthree

122 Lesson 8
3. three three three 10. two one\three

1 I
I i
U. one ;three t h r e e 1 1 . twp_twpj t h r e e
i
S>. one one[three 12. t h r e e t h r e e t h r e e

i
I
6. one two three 13. three'one(three

1 1
7. two one [three lU. t h r e e ; t w o ' t h r e e
p
i i '
8. three itwojthree 15. two oneithree
9. two |three three 16. one one i three
RE 8.5. Mimicryt Three Levels

Follow exactly the same procedure as the preceding exer-
cise, except that this time the syllables of your frame are
nonsense syllables [ha kê mu]. The final syllable remains
high. Note that there is no correlation here between the syl-
lable and the tone as there was in the preceding exercises.
The syllables retain the same position throughout the drill, no
matter what the tone. Do not be concerned about your pronunci-
ation of the vowels, but be careful of the aspiration on the
1. [hc^kê'.muj 6. [hajhfre jmuj 11. [ha kê mu]

1
I
i I
2 . [ha kh e mu] 7 . [Ealkhermu] 12. IKaj kfoe frail

! I
I I
h
3 . [haj k e mu] 8 . [ha kêlnm] 1 3 . [ha kftejmuj
! '• !
i 1 1
U. [ha k h e;mu] 9 . [ha kfoeimu] l l ; . [ha kfoejmuj

RE 8.6. Buildupt Three Levels
There now follows a series of exercises in which you will

be working with the same kinds of pitches as the preceding ones,
but this time your sequences will be longer, and you will build
up to those sequences by adding a syllable at a time. The tape
gives three repetitions for each item.
The text of the first item in this exercise is written out

in full, showing each step of the buildup. The remaining items
have only the final utterance transcribed for you here. In
this exercise the buildups will begin with the final syllable
of the long utterance and add preceding syllables one by one.
The tape has the full buildup recorded for each item. This
drill corresponds to RE 8.2 in that there is a correlation be-
tween the syllables high, mid, low and the pitches they contain.
Mimic the tapej watch the transcription.
1. mid low;high
I i
high; mid lowIhigh
i i
mid;high;mid low|high
i
i
low mid'high jmid low Ihigh
low low mid;high;mid low|high

T" | '
high;low low mid;highjmid low'high
i i
2. high ;mid low mid mid mid;high high
3 . high'lowihigh high ;mid mid low high

I I 1
U. mid;high,low midIhigh |low mid mid
' | [ ' ' ^ ~
i i
5. mid mid mid;high high;mid low low

12k Lesson 8

Follow the same buildup procedure with this exercise,
which is patterned after RE 8.3.
1. one [three three

i
i
two one jthree t h r e e

i I
two two one [three t h r e e
~ 1 i
1 i
one two two one ithree t h r e e

r~ —;i Ii
t h r e e lone two two one ithree t h r e e
i , , i
1 I I I
two [three .one two two one fthree t h r e e
I ! 1 !
: i I i
2. three lone two jthree [one two two jthree
3. one one 'three jtwo jthree lone one one
U. three jtwo
i
two two iJthree three i lone one
5» two [three lone one jthree lone two jthree

Continue in the same fashion. Be sure you get good as-
piration on your stops, but do not be concerned about the pro-
nunciation of the vowels.
1. [ha kê mu]

i
[th Iha lê mu]

[so t n i j h a kfoe ma]

i i
[sejso t h i ! h a kfoe mu]
[ l u sejso t ^ i ; ha kê ma]
[ g i ; ! ^ s e j s o t n i | h a kê mu]
2. [t"u na i zi Ida b o j l e j h i me]

! ' '
3 . [yoIge n i bu!kû wa li!p&e]

! ' ! I
U. [da ye l u p o Qi nti. wujsa]

\ • \ !
' I J
5. [go khjjnu da wojtê f i zu]
RE 8 . 9 . Buildupt Three Levels

This exercise i s of the same p r i n c i p l e as the preceding
one except t h a t the p a t t e r n of buildup i s reversed, building
from t h e beginning of t h e f i n a l u t t e r a n c e r a t h e r than from t h e
end. The consonants used t h i s time are not r e s t r i c t e d t o Eng-
l i s h ones. I n t h i s e x e r c i s e , t h e r e f o r e , you w i l l have t o pay
close a t t e n t i o n not only t o t h e t o n e , but a l s o t o t h e non-
English consonants.
1. [xej~sa~;po] [xej sa; poi bo t ^ i zu Qel
[xejsa;po bo] [xejsaipo bo t n i zu ,9ei*u]
[xejsa; po i bo t ^ i ]
i F It
[ x e | s a ' p o bo t i zu]
126 Lesson 8
2. [pa 6e *i jte d u g u ^ a kîj

• i i i
3 . [ke gi kfr-ujxujga ">± kâfgi]
h. [si ea | t h i ; du t h o ?ta~[so du]
5. [pfrp be pi be;vilpoifalpô]
RE 8,10. MimLcryt Rising and Falling Pitch

In this d r i l l the word rise w i l l be said with a rising
pitch, and the word f a l l with a falling pitch.
1. iiê f a l l rgse
ri 9. rfse
cse f i l l rise
2 . riaej
i rise!rise 10. r a t t - T a l l r±/i
3. W l rise^fall 11. * a l l r i s ^ ' f a l l
h. f&n|fVu[fsai 12 . r^"fasLLJl*all
5. " t o . r i s e i r i s ^ 13. ri/e~~rall rise'
6. "faTLff'all rise' Ik. fall|">all! r a i l
7. riê"faU.!?all 15. rise] rifte
!risi"f\rL 16. risB| rise f a l l

[.
RE 8.11. Mimicry t Rising and Falling Pitch

You w i l l now do the same kind of d r i l l on nonsense syl-
lables.
Longer Sequences of Pitch
l. [fc rifV] 9. D^Nioâ]
2. DRefno toft 10. [toi nKrfW]
3. fo£Vh$o] 1 1 . [ w £ ^ n$)<|
lu Cê|î|iw] 12. [ryitVg^
5. ftû n^xtf 13. [t£"\re ph*]
6. [ b t f i ^ ' V ] 111. Iôrjâfsro]
7. Dfe wfê] 15. (v «^wi
8, [xfjwftatf 16. CâNio V I
RE 8.12. Buildupi Rising and Falling Pitch
In this exercise you will use the words rise and

again, but will build up to longer sequences.
1. risel ris£ iVLl

128 Lesson 8
3 . r i ^ O a T L ["faU. [fall |fall i±s/\ris£"ta^2.
5. r s l l f f ^ l ris^risef'j rise'" f a l l risertriser

\ v/i/i/ \y[/
HE 8„13. Boildupt Rising and Falling Pitch
This time you w i l l build up to longer sequences of non-
sense syllables.
i. rui're m
oJYe piAô]
^Ve p/ôi>]
[Wê p / ^ | W | > u ]
Dk<!Ve p/\horSupjm WJ
¥î]
3. [p^^yjn^\e;>o yigpO
i. [ l a f ^ i zj/>u Wjkirû:im]
5. [ ^ i ^ o ^ ^ r f k ]
RE 8. ill, Mimicryt Levels and Glides
I n t h i s d r i l l you w i l l hear t h r e e l e v e l s plus r i s i n g and
f a l l i n g p i t c h e s . The s y l l a b l e s w i l l c o n s i s t of the words which
describe t h e p i t c h i high, mid, low, r i s e , f a l l . Each item w i l l
c o n s i s t of t h r e e s y l l a b l e s . The l a s t s y l l a b l e w i l l be the con-
s t a n t frame.
1* high high jmid 9. h i g h ' f s l l mid

\
2. risêrf low mid 10. rise^jrisje" Imid
3 . lowTfajJlL mid 11. Wirhigh Imid

i N
12. mid low mid
U. mid r i s ^ m i d 1 1
i i
13. high|mid mid

5 . f a l l mid mid
6. f&rLJhighjmid lU. l o w f f ^ l , ] ^
7 . mid mid mid 1 5 . highjriseImid
8. low low mid 16. faU. jhigh|mid
RE 8.15. Mimicryt Levels and Glides
Now you w i l l do t h e same t h i n g with nonsense s y l l a b l e s .

I n i t i a l low tone w i l l be the constant frame.
1. [pi pajfli] 5. [£i!ê!si]
2. [p_ha | jo_ | ea] 6 . [bi ;xo z i ]
3 . [be ku stf] 7. [fu t#ojleT
h. [ma l A f ^ o ] 8. [vu ' a roj

230 Lesson 8
9. [wa palni
nefl 13. [do p u ^ a ]
\
10. [tu[phj ye] lU. [©e me^ga]
11. [ t h o bi wu] 15. [siHtefkL]

-J M\
12. [do feu ka] 16. [zi!vo to]
RE 8.16. Buildupi Levels and Glides
This drill is like RE 8.lU except that it builds up to

longer sequences.
1. lowffall ndd
_J X T -
low ("fall mid ndd
low ndd mid ri
low mid mid r i s e " high
low["&kH mid mid ^ s e ^ hhigh

i high
_J N
low mid mid ri&e' high highlrise'
P^r
2. hiXLThm. risef high i mid low \fh%L [ f o i l
3 . m i d j h i g h X a l l r i s ^ l l o w mid; high Iris, (not recorded)
h. high|midjhigh Ball :risjej low mid jhigh (not recorded)
5. ri&gilow mid|high
^h]ris€ £ a l l low mi
mid (not recorded)
! I
RE 8.17. Buildup* Levels and Glides

This time t h e d r i l l w i l l be l i k e RE 8.15, except t h a t you
w i l l b u i l d up t o longer sequences.
1. [ba l e fa]
[ba l e f a j x i ]
[ba l e f a j x i su]
[ba l e f a j x i sujmo7]
r u
[ba l e fa ixL su jm/| Wj
1 1/1/
[ba l e fa jxi su Imo/jbo
2. [teirq/&/frjL\â go k i za]
3 . [yi fou g o / z e ; p h e wi [gê t W ] (not recorded)
km [b</!do/jni/""*a j"§i ''e xa s i ] (not recorded)
5. IV •></'£& lûpo h*W"So] (not recorded)
RE 8.18* Gola ( L i b e r i a ) . 1 Mimicryi Tone
The following d r i l l s constructed from phrases i n t h e Gola

language of L i b e r i a consist p r i m a r i l y of l e v e l p i t c h e s , b u t
with a downward g l i d e i n some p h r a s e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n s . Gola has
t h r e e phonemic tone l e v e l s , marked as follows i n t h e phonemic
t r a n s c r i p t i o n t / * / high, / - / (or unmarked) mid, and / * / low.
You w i l l see t h e s e i n t h e phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n . As you d r i l l
t h i s group of e x e r c i s e s , however, you should concentrate on t h e
^-The informant who supplied t h e data for t h i s e x e r c i s e , and

whose voice i s heard on the t a p e , i s Miss Amelia M i t c h e l l , Suehn
Mission, L i b e r i a . The phonemic a n a l y s i s represented i s t e n t a t i v e .
132 Lesson 8
phonetic transcription (in brackets). Listen selectively for

the tone. Some of the consonants and vowels may be difficult
for you, but try not to let them bother you. Mimic the tone.
If the consonants and vowels get in your way, hum the tone, or
whistle it. The recording is at an unnaturally slow speed of
utterance, which makes it easier for you, though less realistic.
Part It /* / tone sequence
1. [fali sy|~sye] /falx syr sye/ 'very good pail'
2. [kana sy| sy^] /kana sye' syr/ 'very good chief'
3. [siyz, sye sye] /siye syr sye/ 'very good Palm nut'
U. [bvla sye syej /bula sye" sye/ 'very good side'
5. [fela sye sye] /fel£ sye" sye/ 'very good man'
6. [nawa syj sye] /nyaw£ sye" sye/ 'very good bush rope'
Part 2i /-*/ tone sequence
1. [SbanSba sye sye] /gbaqgba sye- sye/ 'very good stock fish'
2. [dojmo sye sye] /dom5 sye" sye/ 'very good beads'

s
3. [gojlo sye sye] /gol5 sye" sye/ 'very good palm cabbage'
k» [ddno sye sye] /dono sye" sye/ 'very good net'
Part 3t /s'/ tone sequence
!• [gbe[tu sy^ sye] /gbetu sye sye/ 'very good play devil'
recording is incomplete in this lesson for lack of space

on the tape. The full recording will be found as KE 32.13 (p. UU?).
2 . [SbifLi sye sye] /gbili sye" s y e / •very good cat1
3. [gejLz, sye^ syej /glle syr syr/ 'very good hawk*
km [golo sye sye] /sSlo sye syr/ 'very good hole1
£. [Sbemee sye sye] /gbSmee syr sye/ 'very good door'
6. [mojtu sye sye] /m3tu syr sye/ 'very good friend'
Part kt /—/ tone sequence
1* [tuwa sye sye] /tuwa syrsye/ •very good leaf'
2. [koma sye sye] /koma syr sye/ 'very good seed'
3. [fall sye syej /fall syr syr/ 'very good comb'
k» [tawa sye sye] /tawa syr sye/ 'very good tobacco'
£. [toiribo sye sye] /tombo syr syr/ 'very good work'
6. [mama sy| sye] /mama syr sye/ 'very good grandmother'
Part 5» /*-/ tone sequence
1. [g8l& sye sye] /ge'le syr sye/ 'very good peanut'
2. [dad§_ sye sye] /daMa syr syr/ 'very good father'
3. [^bvma sye sye] /gbuma syr syr/ 'very good bed'

X3U Lesson 8
U. [golo sye sye] / g d l o sye" s y e / ' v e r y good cola nut 1
Part 6t / * V tone sequence
1. [gbcfl.i sye sye] /gboli s y r s y e / ' v e r y good bowl'
2. [saJLi s y | syej /salf syfsye/ 'very good f l y '
3 . [sejm^ sy^ sye] /seme s y f s y e / •very good f a n '

i
l+. [ji|na sye sye] / j f n a sye" s y e / •very good s p i r i t '
Part 7t /~.V. tone sequence
\ ' V
1. [kuma sye sye] /kuraa sye" sye"/ 'very good shirt'
2. [gbodi sye_ sye] /gbodi sye" sye/ 'very good hat'
3. [kile sye sye] /kile sye" sye/ 'very good pepper'
U. [bana sye sye] /bana sye~ sye/ •very good banana'
5. [rlawa sye sye] /nyawa sye" sye/ 'very good onion'
Part 81 / % V tone sequence
1. [gant sye sye] /g^ne* syf sye/ •very good monkey'
2. [ g bara sye^ sye] /gbab.1 sye" s y e / ' v e r y good cassava'
3 . [gbama sye sye] /gbtmS sye s y e / ' v e r y good gun'

£ t «•
U. [vana sye sye] /vSnya1 sye s y e / ' v e r y good apron'
5. [zuwen sye sye] /zuweny sye" s y e / ' v e r y good b u l l frog'
Part 9i tone changes (odd numbers are the same as Part 1)
1, [ f a l i sye sy^] 2 . [falifgydn] /gun/ 'one p a i l '
3 . [kana sye sye] U. [kanafghdn] /gun/ 'one chief'
5. [siyz- sye sye] 6 . [siyz-[g>dn] /gun/ 'one Palm nut'
7, [bula sye sye] 8, fbulafg\dn] /gun/ 'one s i d e '
9. [fela i y ^ sye] 10, [felarg\dn] /gun/ 'one man'
11, [fiawa sye sye] 12. [nawa fgXdn] /gun/ 'one bush r o p e '
RE 8.19, Reading Exercise
In this exercise you are to read the material of RE 8.15

before the tape gives it to you. Compare the tape utterance
with your own.
Use any of the following exercises as transcription exer-

cises! RE 8,5, 8.8, 8.9, 8.11, 8.13, 8.15, 8,17, 8.18. Instead
of mimicking the tape, transcribe what you hear. Then check
your transcription by comparing it with the text in your book.
136
LESSON NINE
Affricates
Whenever any two consonant sounds occur i n immediate s e -

quence we c a l l t h e sequence a consonant c l u s t e r (abbreviated
CC). I n t h i s as i n a l l phonetics work, we a r e , of c o u r s e , con-
cerned with spoken consonants, not w r i t t e n ones. Notice t h e
consonant c l u s t e r s i n t h e following English wordst [begz] begs,
[•€GB3k] thank, [•mensin] mention. I n many languages, including
English, one important kind of consonant c l u s t e r i s a sequence
of a stop plus a f r i c a t i v e . Such c l u s t e r s sometimes work t o -
gether very t i g h t l y , and sometimes even work phonemically l i k e
a s i n g l e u n i t , even though they are p h o n e t i c a l l y a sequence of
two segments. This p a r t i c u l a r sequence of s t o p plus f r i c a t i v e ,
when i t i s i n t h e same s y l l a b l e , and pronounced t i g h t l y t o g e t h e r ,
we c a l l an affricate-*- / ' e e f r i k i t / .
Read over t o yourself t h e following English words, paying

a t t e n t i o n t o t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n of the consonants as you do s o .
Note t h e final CC which i s an a f f r i c a t e i n each case. Sense
t h e s t o p sound followed by a f r i c a t i v e sound i n each of t h e s e .
1. kicks [k^ks] 6. tax [t h seks]
2. ships [st-ps] 7. adze [adz]
3 . bags [bsegz] 8. Zipf [zz,pf ]
k. boards [boHrdz] 9o Ritz [r&ts]
5. lymph [lz,mpf] 10. drugs [drAgz]
Now try the same procedure on the following words, paying

particular attention to the final CC of Column a and the initial
CC of Column b. The alternative forms given in the phonetic
transcription are not alternative pronunciations, but alterna-
tive symbolization. 2
Please note that although this word is obviously related

to the word fricative, and with good reason, it is not simply
fricative with an af- on the front, as some students seem temp-
ted to pronounce i T 7
These sequences are affricates, just as much as are the

sequences in 1 - 10. Some of you may notice, however, that
the affricates i n 1 1 - lf> (a and b) seem more nearly like a
Affricates 137
11a. beach [bj,yts] (or [bz,yc]) l i b , cheap [tistyp] (or [ctyp])
12a, bridge [brtdz] (or [ b r z j ] ) 12b, jeep [dzj,yp] (or [ftyp])
13a. etch [ s t s ] (or [ec]) 13b. chip [tsr,p] (or [ct-p])
lUa. edge [edz] (or [ e ^ D lkb. jyp [dzz<p](or [jz-p])
l ^ a . church [ t s r t s ] (or [ c r c ] ) l$b. judge [dzAdz] (or [3AJ])
Here are segmental diagrams showing the i n t e r p l a y of d i f f e r e n t

f e a t u r e s involved i n t h e s e a f f r i c a t e s .
[ a a ] [ a a ]
air stream
voicing
stop closure
fricative closure
You may have noticed that the stop and fricative in some
of the affricates had the same point of articulation, and in
others had different points of articulation. For example, [ps]
has a stop with a labial point and a fricative with alveolar,
whereas [ts] has both stop and fricative at the same point.
Table 9.1 gives you the possibilities so far of affricates with
both segments at the same point of articulation. Note that the
tongue tip actually changes point of articulation to coincide
with the point of [©], [s], and [s] on the stop part of the
affricate in which it is involved.
single unit to you than do the ones in 1 - 10. This, and other
more sophisticated reasons we cannot mention here, make many
linguists analyze these particular affricates in English as
single units phonemically (although they are complex phoneti-
cally). See Archibald A. Hill, Introduction to English Struc-
tures, pp. 36-37. This is why we asked you to transcribe these
sequences as /c J/ in your phonemic writing of English. In the
examples above we included the [ts dz] transcription to empha-
size the phonetic complexity of the affricates. From here on,
however, we will transcribe these affricates as [c J] wherever
we find them in this course, on the analogy of English, simply
to avoid the confusion of double symbolization.
338 Lesson 9
Labial Dental Alveolar Alveopalatal Velar
Voiceless
Unaspirated pp t© ts c (or t s ) kx
Aspirated pp h tfi^1 ts 1 1 &1 (or ts^ 1 ) kx11
Voiced bfe del da J (or dz) gg
Table ° . l j Affricates with Both Segments a t Same Point

Table 9»2 gives some of the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of a f f r i c a t e s
with the segments a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s of a r t i c u l a t i o n . Remem-
ber t h a t as you l e a r n other stops and f r i c a t i v e s i n l a t e r l e s -
sons these w i l l add a l s o t o the number of possible a f f r i c a t e s .
pf p6 ps ps px
pf h pe11 ps h p s h px*1
bv bel bz hZ bg
tp tf tx
t* tfk tx*1
dfe dv dg
kp kf ke ks kS
1 1
kjJ1 kf* ksJ ks11 ks*
gfe gv gd gz gz
Table 9«2» Affricates with Segments at Different Points
Affricates in Initial Position
/c j / are the only affricates which we commonly use in

initial position in English. A few borrowed words like tsetse
are exceptions. The other affricates need to be practiced in
that position for other languages. Do not forget to practice
these drills on the "buddy system" (see p. H 7 ) as well as with
the recording.
RE 9»1» Demonstration! Affricates in Initial Position
Listen, read, and mimic as you go through this exercise.

Then use it as a model to practice all of the affricates in the
charts above. We will be working on the unaspirated-aspirated
Affricates 139
differences below.
1. tsetse 6. [ksaksa] 1 1 . [gvagva]

2. [ t s a t s a ] 7. [gzagza] 12. [pSapsa]
3 . [dzadza] 8. [pfapfa] 13. [bzabza]

U. [psapsa] 9. [bvabva] Hi. [ks'aks'a]
5. [bzabza] 10. [kfakfa] 15. [gzagza]

RE 9 . 2 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! AFFRICATE or FRICATIVE
Respond t o t h e t a p e , but do not watch youj ? Manual on t h i s
exercise.
1. [ t s a ] A 7. [xa] F 13. [PPô] A
2. [sa] F 8. [dga] A Hu [bva] A
3 . [sa] F 9 . [ca] A 3 5 . [2a] F
km [txa] A 10. [kpa] A 16. [ft] A
5 . [kxa] A 1 1 . [ba] F 17. [ksâ] A
6. [k0a] A 12. [pa] F 18. [kf h a] A
Aspirated, Unaspirated, and Voiced Affricates
A l i t t l e experimentation w i l l show you t h a t some of the

same problems which apply t o t h e r e g u l a r stops i n English apply
t o a f f r i c a t e s as w e l l . English /c/ i n church, f o r example, i s
a s p i r a t e d . H i o n e t i c a l l y , t h e r e f o r e , we w r i t e [c^rS* 1 ]. English
/%/ i n judge i s often very l i g h t l y voiced, or not voiced a t a l l .
For a p p l i c a t i o n t o some other languages, t h e r e f o r e , we need t o
p r a c t i c e t h e same kinds of d r i l l s on t h e s e a f f r i c a t e s as we do
on English s t o p s , learning t o make unaspirated v o i c e l e s s ones,
f u l l y a s p i r a t e d ones, and f u l l y voiced ones.
You can g e t t h e feeling of a s p i r a t e d , unaspirated and

voiced a f f r i c a t e s by saying t h e following English sequences to
yourself.
Aspirated Unaspirated Voiced
l a . change [cr1] l b . exchange [c] 1 c . Jane [Jl

2a. c a t ' s here [ t s ] 2b. c a t ' s e a r [ t s ] 2 c . Ed's own [dz]
IkO Lesson 9
3a. Mac's house [ks*1] 3 b . Maxwell [ks] 3 c . exact [gz]
RE 9 . 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l s ASPIRATED or UNA.SPIRATED
Do not watch t h e t e x t .
1. [ t s ^ a ] A 6. [ppa] U 1 1 . [tpa] U
2. [ t s a ] U 7. [ p ^ a ] A 12. [kpa] U
3. [â] A 8. [ksâ] A 1 3 . [txa] U
U. [ca] U 9. [teâj A lh. [ps^-a] A
5. [pxa] U 10. [p9a] U 15. [pf h a] A
RE 9.U. D i f f e r e n t i a l VOICED or VOICELESS
Don't peekt
1. [dza] VD 6. [kxa] VL 11. [txa] VL
2. [ca] VL 7. [pfa] VL 12. [gva] VD
3. [tsa] VL 8. [bza] VD 33. [kea] VL
U. [bva] VD 9. [dekx] VD ill. [pxa] VL
5. [gza] VD 10. [psa] VL 35. [tea] VL
Recorded Exercises 9»5~9»6. Demonstrationt Producing Strongly

Aspirated Affricates
These drills will parallel closely those used to demon-

strate the approach to the production of aspirated stops. Mimic
the tape and watch the text. Keep the back of your hand in
front of your mouth to feel the aspiration, when you have
learned the sequence, try it with other voiceless affricates
in Tables 9.1 and 9.2.
RE 9.5. Mimicry
1 . [hahahaha] 2. [hahahaha] 3 . [hahahaha]
[phaphaâpka] [thathathatha] [khcdâkhakha]
[pphapjAxpphappha] ftkacâchacba] [kâkâkâkâ]

Affricates Ull
RE 9.6. Negative Practice

Practice the following English words, exaggerating the
aspiration on the voiceless alveopalatal affricate.
1. [ ' ^ r c * 1 ] church 6. [•c h op h ] chop

2. ['cheyn] chain 7. ['srS* 1 ] search
3 . ['c^z-ldrin] children 8. ['Ire 1 1 ] lurch
h, [«p h rcn] perch 9. ['c^z-mmy] chimney

5 . E'eySh] H 10. [ , c n aym] chime
Practice other English words i n t h e same way.

Recorded Exercises 9.7~9.8. Producing Unaspirated Affricates
Mimic t h e tape and watch t h e t e x t . Be careful t o keep
a l l a s p i r a t i o n off t h e stops and a f f r i c a t e s .
RE 9 . 7 . Mimicry
1. [papapapa] h, [kakakaka] 7. [tsatsatsatsa]
2. [tcctatata] 5. [patacaka] 8. [pfapfapfapfa]
3 . [cacacac'a] 6. [kacatapa] 9. [k9otk9akeak9a]
Practice the following English words, removing the aspira-

tion on the voiceless alveopalatal affricates.
1. [»crc] church 6. [•cop11] chop
2. [«ceyn] chain 7. [»src] search
3. [•cz.ldrin] children 8. [ • l r c ] lurch
U. ['F^rc] perch 9 . [•ccmnz-y] chimney
S. ['eye] H .0. [•coym] chime

lU2 Lesson 9
Recorded Exercises 9»9~9.10» Demonstration! Producing Voiced
Affricates
RE 9«9» Negative Practice
Exaggerate the voicing in the / j / of the following English
words. Prolong it, and get a good rumble of voicing. Follow
the transcription.
1. [ ' M l fodge 6. C'pMn] pidgeon
2. [»sls5] sledge 7. [«3foyinth] giant
3 . ['aefrl] agile 8. [»eyft Jfii

h
k. ['5san] Jam 9. [ « m ^ i t ] midget
5. ['msej] Madge 10. [•fclow] jello
RE 9»10« Mimicry
Cup your hands over your ears to hear the voicing as you
work this exercise. Keep the voicing for the full duration of
each •'word".
1» [ada ada ada ada] 3. [aja aja a^fa aja]
2. [a2a aza aza aza] U. [ada aza aja]
Practice the other affricates in the same manner if you have
difficulty in developing adequate aspiration, or voicing, or
in keeping the sequence unaspirated.
RE 9»H» Buildup* Stops and Affricates
These exercises parallel RE 7.21-7.22, with the addition
of the three affricates studied above. Mimic the tape. You
may watch the transcription below or not, just as you find most
helpful.
1. [*a'a] k, [dadadada] 9. [pfapfapfapfa]
['a'a'a] 5. [chachachacha] 10. [bzabzabzabza]
['a'a'a'a] 6. [cacacaca]
2. [phapâpkapâ] 7. [Jajajctfa]
3. [tatatata] • 8. [tshatshatshatsha]
Affricates lh3
Velar F r i c a t i v e s and Affricates
Velar a f f r i c a t e s , l i k e v e l a r f r i c a t i v e s , r e q u i r e s p e c i a l
a t t e n t i o n f o r speakers of English, although t h e y seem somewhat
l e s s d i f f i c u l t than f r i c a t i v e s . Continue careful p r a c t i c e of
both f r i c a t i v e s and a f f r i c a t e s through t h e use of t h e following
exercises,
RE 9.12. Buildup! Sequence -with Velar F r i c a t i v e s and Affricates
Listen t o the t a p e , and watch your t e x t . Mimic c a r e f u l l y ,

working f o r a c l e a r a r t i c u l a t i o n .
1* [xaxa] 5. [ggaggaggagga]
[xaxaxa] 6. [pxapxapxapxa]
[xaxaxaxa] 7. [txatxatxatxa]
2. [kxakxakxakxa] 8. [bgabgabgabga]
3 . [kxhakxhakxhcOocha] 9 . [pxrapxôpxâFDâ]
U. [gagagaga] 10. [txhatxhatxhatxha]
RE 9.13i Hull ( P a p u a ) . 1 Mimicry
1. [»p£ini] 'root' 6.[»nogo] 'pig1
2. f'pedia] 'eleven' 7. [ya'kxundi] 'star'
3 . f'kxadia] 'seven' 8.[ppu'dateu] 'wind'
k, f'kembobee] ' f r o n t of t h r o a t 1 9. [pi'aqgo] 'dog'
5>. ['tândagaba] 'painful'
RE 9.3ii. Buildupi Random Sequences
1. ['makacabapâ] 5. ['gadzapâdaxa]
2. [' pakaxabaja] 6 . [' kxatâfeavaga]
3 . ['tsa'abagasa] 7. ['falabappâja]
U. ['âkapâkfala] 8. [«dasakâbaxa]
Tteta from lesson plans i n use a t The Summer I n s t i t u t e of

L i n g u i s t i c s , Norman, Oklahoma, 1?56.
Lesson 9
9. ['pxafceapkadccta] 10. ['kâbvcxkfabzapa]
Recorded Exercises 9.15-9.2U. Reviews Thai Drills on Stops
The following are actual language drills from Thai.-*- They

are simple in syllable structure and length. Some of the vowel
qualities will be new to you. Do not let them bother you, as
you are working selectively on the stops. However, mimic the
vowel quality as best you can as you go along. Note the tone
as well, and mimic it closely. The written transcription of
these exercises is a phonemic transcription rather than a pho-
netic one. You may notice some difference in quality of some
of the phonemes. This will not affect your work with the stops.
The diacritic marks over the vowels are tone marks.
RE 9.l5i Thai. Listening
This is a listening exercise. Listen, and follow along

the text of the exercise below. Pay close attention to the
contrasts between voiced, voiceless unaspirated, and voiceless
aspirated stops. Note the phonemic contrasts involved. Make
sure you can hear the distinctions.
1. / b i t / 11. 21. /P^V

•twist 1 •to close' 'wrong'
2. / b i a t / 12. /pataV 22. /phaak/

' t o wound' •mouth' •forehead'
3 . /baw/ 13. /paw/ 23. /phaw/

•light' (not •to blow •to burn'
heavy) with mouth' (trans.)
h. /baa/ 31*. /paa/ 2it. /PhV

•crazy' •older s i s t e r 'cloth'
of father or
mother'
5. Alt/ 15. / p i t / 25. /p h eV

'fishhook' •duck' 'peppery 1
6. /bay/ 16. /pay/ 26. /P h ay/

•leaves' •to go' 'bamboo'
^ These exercises were prepared and recorded by R'ev. and

Mrs. Richard Johnston. The Thai speaker in RE 9.l5~9.l6 is Nay
Daeng, a judge of Srisaket Province, originally from Bangkok.
The speaker in the remainder is Nay Prasan of Surin Province.
Affricates TkS
7. A<V 17. / P 3k/ 27. / p ^ k /
•dry land 1 'cover' (as ' t o turn face'
of book)
8. /bSn/ 18. /pon/ 28. /p h 6n/
'complain' 'to mix, ' t o be free
adulterate* from'
9. /bdot/ 19. /poot/ 29. / p ^ o t /
•blind' 'lungs' ' t o inhale*
10. /bJtt/ 20. / p a t / 30. /pât/
'papers, cards' ' t o dust' 'to fry in
small pieces*
RE 9.36* Thai. Listening

Follow the same procedure for the following exercise.
1. /dam/ 11. /tarn/ 21. /t h am/

'black' 'to pound 'to do, make1
(in mortar)'
2. /duaq/ 12. /tuan/ 22. /t h i5an/
'particle for 'measure 'complete, en-
stamps, s t a r s ' (bulk)' tire'
3 . /doon/ 33. /toon/ 23. A h oon/
' t o pickle' 'must* 'gold'
h. /dan/ ll*. / t a g / 21*. A h a n /
'loud' •to s e t , place' 'bucket'
5. /daam/ 15. /taam/ 25. / t h V
•handle' ' t o follow' 'ask*
6. /d3k/ 16. / t 3 k / 26. / t h d k /
•fertile* 'fall' 'flay, skin'
7. /dom/ 17. /torn/ 27. /t h om/
•to smell' 'to boil' 'fill in a hole
with earth*
8. /dak/ 18. /tatk/ 28. / t h a k /

' t o ensnare' ' t o draw -water' ' p l a i t , braid'
9. /duu/ 19. / t u u / 29. A h u u /
' t o look at* 'cupboard, ' t o rub*
closet'
]ii6 Lesson 9
h
10. /daay/ 20. /tay/ 30. /t ay/
•can, to be •torch1 •to plough1
able*
RE 9*17t Thai. Mimicry
This is a mimicry exercise in which you will mimic a se-

ries of words each of which has the same Thai stop. The series
will be the first column of RE 9.15 (Nos. 1-10). Turn to that
exercise and follow down the column, mimicking the tape. Pay
particular attention to the stops.
RE 9«18-9.19t Thai. Mimicry
Follow the same procedure with the second and third col-
umns of RE 9.15.
RE 9.20
This time you will be drilling across the columns in
RE 9.15. Follow the same procedure of mimicking after the ut-
terances on the tape.
RE 9.21-9.2U
Follow the same procedures as for RE 9.17_9.20, but this

time use RE 9.16 as the text.
Transcribe the utterances on the tape, when you are Sure

of your transcriptions compare them with the answers below.
Don't peek until you are ready to check your answersI
1. ['sole*1] 6 . [»p h axa] 11. [•nakas]

h
2. [ipae] 7. [«lac a] 12. [«bat h av]
3 . [iJag] 8. [ t f a t s a ] 13. [•bva'am]
k. ['rap] 9. ['feasa] Ik. [«psadap h ]

5 . [•madz] 10. ['daza] 15. [•salax]
RE 9.26. Reading
1* [•gam] 3. [»thaf] 5. [«sak]
2. [ipac 11 ] U. [«bza©] 6 . [«*a«ia]

Affricates ikl
7. [«coga] 10. ['feajfa] 1 3 . ['datkâp]
8. [«dapa] 11. [tta?na] Ik. ['bapksag]
9. [«lasa] 12. [«kagrakx] 1$. [«zaxkfad]
Suggested Reading
Archibald A. H i l l , Introduction t o Linguistic S t r u c t u r e s ,

pp. 36-37.
W. Nelson F r a n c i s . The S t r u c t u r e of American English,
pp. 79-81 (51-70, 72-7U).
NO, MISS T A K E ! IT'S AM ASPIRATED AFFRICATE,

WOT AM E X A S P E R A T E D AFRICAN! !
lb8
LESSON NINE R
Review
Review lessons in the Manual merely give condensed sum-
maries of the material covered to the present. They are in-
tended to be supplemented by extensive review of exercises in
the previous lessons.
Alveo-
Alveolar
Tip-
Bilabial
Labio- H
dental
palatal
dental
CO O
fc"T 8-
4 H
STOPS
Voiceless
Unaspirated P t k
Aspirated I* th kh
Voiced b d g
AFFRICATES
Voiceless
V
Unaspirated PP Pf ts kx
c
Aspirated pph pfh tsh ch kxh
Voiced bb bv dz J gg
FRICATIVES
Voiceless J> f Q s s X
Voiced B V d z z g
NASALS m n
LATERAL 1
Check List of Review Items
1. Technical labels of consonants
2. Drawing of Sammies
3. Recognition, production, and mimicry of pitch

U. Recognition, production, and mimicry of all consonants
so far studied, including both English consonants and the
Review lli9
others so far taught. See the chart on p. lli8.
5. Other affricatesi Table 9.2 (p. 138)
6. Reading and mimicry control of the various exercises
in the Manual.
TE 9R.1. Matching Symbols
After you have reviewed the above chart try TE 9R.1 in

the Workbook Supplement (pp. 31-32). It will help you learn
the relationship between the symbols.
ivJOUJ TRV FOR A i-<TTi.E LESS ASPIRATION

350
LESSON TEN
Syllables and Some of Their Characteristics
Now we come to a new characteristic of speech which has

been implicit in the work done on pitch and on the articulation
of the consonants studied so far. It is the division of the
speech stream into syllables, which are groupings of sounds such
that each grouping carries rts own beat.
The division between syllables is indicated in this les-

son (and in following lessons when necessary) by [»], which is
spoken of as "period" or "syllable division." The sequences of
sounds separated by [.], therefore, are syllables, and each car-
ries its own separate beat.
RE 10.1. Demonstration! Syllable Beat
Listen to the tape and follow along in the book. Count

the beats in each utterance as you go along, and see if your
count agrees with the count indicated. Tap out the count with
your finger if that helps. In the second repetition of the
last utterance you will hear the beat tapped out on the tape.
No. of Beats (Syllables)
1. f a ] 1
2 . ['cupha] 2
3. t ' a . p h a . t h a ] 3
U. ['a.p h a.t h a.xa] k
h
5. [*a.p a.t a.xa.ma] 5
In the above example, each of the syllables was character-
ized by one of the consonants you have been practicing followed
by an [a]. Any other vowel would do just as well as [a]. Any-
other consonant would do just as well as the consonants used.
We can call this kind of syllable a CV syllable (with C repre-
senting consonant and V representing vowel). Other kinds of
syllables also occur, some of which are illustrated in the fol-
lowing exercise.
•'The phonetic distinction between vowel and consonant will

be discussed in Lesson 12.
S y l l a b l e s and Some of Their C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 13>1
RE 1 0 . 2 . Demonstration! Some Other S y l l a b l e Patterns
I n t h i s e x e r c i s e each u t t e r a n c e w i l l have t h r e e s y l l a b l e s ,
and each of the s y l l a b l e s w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r utterance w i l l be
s i m i l a r i n consonant-vowel sequence. L i s t e n t o t h e t a p e and
beat out t h e s y l l a b l e s as you study t h e s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e of
each s y l l a b l e t r a n s c r i b e d below. You w i l l hear two r e p e t i t i o n s
of each utterance on t h e t a p e .
Syllable Structure
1. [pam.tkctk.sof] CVC
2. [gla.ksa.s'na] GOT
3 . [feas.mrakh.sma?] 1 CCVC
lu [ a . e . i ] V
5. [ a p . e t . i k ] VC
RE 10.3. Demonstration! Consonants as Syllables
Syllables may consist of single vowels or of certain single

consonants. Listen to the tape, count the beats, and study the
syllable structure of each utterance, and mimic.
Syllable Structure
1. [ba.ba.ba.ba.ba.ba.ba.ba] CV
2. [a-a.a.a.a.a.a.a] V
3. [u.u.u.u.u.u.u.u] V
h. [m. m. m. m. m. m. m. m]
1 t 1 I ! 1 1 1J
c
5. [1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1]
t t l l t t t l
c
6. [ s . s . s . s . s . s . s . s ] c
Notice how the syllables have no break in sound between
them, but there is still an audible pulse, even when the same
vowel or consonant quality carries through.
T"or many languages, and from some points of view in pho-

netic theory, aspirated consonants could be considered CC. For
convenience, however, we handle them as single consonants.
252 Lesson 10
Syllables and Syllabicity

In the preceding exercise you saw transcribed a short ver-
tical line [,] under the consonants which were independent syl-
lables. This mark is a "syllabic indicator,11 or "indicator of
syllabicity." Every syllable has a syllabic, that is, one sound
which carries the beat, or which is the most prominent sound of
the syllable. If there is only one sound in a syllable, then
that sound is, of course, the syllabic.
Most commonly, vowels are syllables. For this reason we

do not mark the syllabicity of vowels with an extra sign. Any
unmarked vowel is assumed to be syllabic. Some kinds of conso-
nants, on the other hand, may be syllabic or non-syllabic. In
phonetic transcription we assume they are non-syllabic unless
they are marked with [,].
Syllabic sounds are most commonly sounds where the artic-

ulation allows a fairly wide opening for the air stream to move
out relatively unimpeded. This is true of vowels. It is also
true of nasals (where the air stream comes unimpeded through
the nose), laterals (where it comes unimpeded over the sides of
the tongue), or even fricatives (where it is partially impeded,
but where it may be less impeded than stop consonants around
it. 1
The following exercises are to help you distinguish be-

tween syllabic consonants (which carry the beat and are the
most prominent sound of a syllable) and non-syllabic consonants.
RE 10.U. Demonstration* English Syllabic Consonants
Listen to the tape and mimic. Each utterance is given

twice. Follow the phonetic transcription below as well to help
you focus on those consonants which are syllabic as opposed to
those which are not.
1. [ ' s m u ' n ] smitten 6. [»bo.tl] bottle
2. [•aem.phl] ample 7. fkV'n] cotton
3 . [»k h ar.*n] carton 8. [ n ' l e s ] unless
k. [ ' k ^ r . ' n ] curtain 9. [m'phowz] impose
S. [ > t h r . t l ] turtle 10. [ m , p n a . s i . b l ] impossible
•'•See Kenneth L. Pike, Rionetics, pp. I l 8 f f .

Syllables and Some of Their Characteristics 153
11« [m'l^rtnint] impertinent lit. [tay kn »sz.y] I can see
12. [»nMm] mhm 15. [«cUythr] date her
13. [pst] pst 16. [,hi,yn«ay] he »n' I
RE 1 0 . 5 . D i f f e r e n t i a l s SYLLABIC or NON-SYLLABIC
I n t h i s d r i l l l i s t e n t o the n a s a l consonant i n each u t -

terance and respond with SYLLABIC or NON-SYLLABIC, according t o
what you h e a r . Do not watch t h e t e x t .
1. [pom] N-S 6. [mom] N-S 11. [n«tath] S
2. [p^m] S 7. [son] N-S 12. [ a » t n t h ] S
3 . [k^m] S 8. [sn] S 13. [aitanth] N-S
k. [k^n] S 9. [ask*1] N-S Ik. [anttat* 1 ] S
5. [m] S 10. [nk*1] S 15. [an«tath] N-S
RE 1 0 . 6 . Buildupi Syllables with S y l l a b i c Consonants
Mimic t h e tape as you follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n below.

Each u t t e r a n c e w i l l be given t w i c e . This i s a buildup e x e r c i s e ,
so you w i l l begin with the l a s t t h r e e s y l l a b l e s of each item
for t h e f i r s t u t t e r a n c e , and then add a s y l l a b l e f o r each suc-
ceeding one.
1. [ k l km kn kf ks ks" kx k r ]
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t
2. [ p s t h p f t h p S t h p v t h p l t n p r t h p b t h p n t h ]
3 . ['a l a t h r va &]. r a p^n a]

U. [ths1 va a 11 ' a p^r
* i
t ^ n1 sa]J
5. [xa l a v t S a pz ka
t i t 1
6 . [da £n mn s r »ak zaz s t r a ga]

1 1 1
7. [sn zaz mn da s r *ak x a s t l ]

1 1 1 1
8. [da mn stz Sn 'at sr ga zaz]
Boundaries Between Syllables
As you learn to recognize the beats of the syllables and

the syllables, you can identify the center or crest of the
lA Lesson 10
syllable without any difficulty. The syllabic is the crest.

In some cases it is equally easy to identify the syllable boun-
daries, and in some of the exercises above these boundaries were
marked by [.] or by space. It is not always possible, however,
to determine an exact syllable boundary. A consonant between
two syllables may belong phonetically to both. We can diagram
it this way, using the English word money.
[m A n v y]
It is clear what the syllabics and non-syllabics are. However,

the [n] in the middle is a boundary between two syllables, and
does not belong more completely with one than with the other,
unless you pronounce the word in an over-precise way. When you
do you can pronounce it either wayt ['mAn.:.y] or ['ma..nz,y]. At
other times, however,(and in some languages this is always true)
syllable division is clearly audible.
In this book we mark syllable division when it is neces-

sary or helpful. Many times syllable division will be obvious,
and we will not mark it. At other times it will make no dif-
ference to the exercise, and we will often leave it unmarked
in that case as well. Then again, it may simply be impossible
to mark a precise boundary, for the reasons just indicated.
Stress
In languages different syllables have different degrees of

loudness or prominence. Just as one sound within a syllable
constitutes the syllabic, and carries the greatest degree of
prominence within the syllable, so some syllables in a sequence
carry greater prominence than the surrounding ones. This we
speak of as different degrees of stress.
Stress, then, is a matter of relative prominence of one or

more syllables in a sequence of syllables.•*• Actually, no
Not all speech sounds themselves are, of course, equally

loud| some speech sounds have what is called high phonetic
power and others have low phonetic power. That is to say, the
loudness actually measurable in terms of microwatts varies
greatly from sound to sound in any one speaker. Sounds such as
the vowels, for example, may have up to as much as 680 times
the power of the weakest consonant in English (6). This innate
power of the sounds of any one syllable may be modified by the
general level of loudness of the speech of a given speakeri it
may also be modified by the degree of stress occurring on that
Syllables and Some of "Their C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 155
s y l l a b l e can be produced i n any language without some degree of
s t r e s s . S t r e s s phenomena, t h e r e f o r e , are conveniently r e f e r r e d
t o i n terms of degrees such as primary s t r e s s , secondary s t r e s s ,
t e r t i a r y s t r e s s , weak s t r e s s , e t c .
I n t h i s course we w i l l usually work with only two l e v e l s

of s t r e s s i 1) primary s t r e s s ( t h e l o u d e s t ) which w i l l be sym-
bolized by ['J before the beginning of t h e s y l l a b l e which c a r -
r i e s the s t r e s s , and 2) degrees l e s s than primary, which w i l l
be l e f t unmarked f o r s t r e s s . This, however, i s not very r e a l -
i s t i c for many languages (including English) which have more
d i f f e r e n t degrees of s t r e s s than t h a t , and so i n t h i s lesson we
i l l u s t r a t e secondary s t r e s s as w e l l , although we do not contin-
ue t o i n s i s t on i t s r e c o g n i t i o n i n subsequent l e s s o n s . 1 Secon-
dary s t r e s s i s marked by [,] before the beginning of the s y l -
l a b l e which c a r r i e s t h e s t r e s s .
RE 10.7» Demonstration! Some English S t r e s s Contrasts
Here are some simple cases of s t r e s s difference i n English.

Listen t o the t a p e and watch t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n below. Listen
t o t h e difference i n s t r e s s between the s y l l a b l e s of any one
word, and a l s o t h e difference i n t h e placement of t h e loudest
s t r e s s i n t h e two columns. Remember the symbolizatiom [ ' ]
primary s t r e s s , [,] secondary s t r e s s , and [unmarked] l e s s t h a n
secondary s t r e s s .
la. /'ogmint/ APGment li>. /,og«ment/ augMEMT
2a. / ' r i y f r / REEfer 2b. / , r z , y » f r / reFER
3a. /•tormint/ TQRment 3b. /,tor«ment/ torMENT
Ua. /'prntt/t/ PERmit Ub. /,pr«mz,t/ perMIT
Sa. /<traansfr/ TRANSfer 5b. / , t r a n s « f r / transFER
6a. /'wnpoHrt/ IMport 6b. /jZ-m'poHrt/ imPORT
s y l l a b l e . These f a c t s r e v e a l something of t h e r e l a t i v e nature

of t h e f e a t u r e of loudness. See H. L. Barney and H. K. Dunn,
"Speech Analysis" i n L. Kaiser, Manual of Phonetics, p . l88ff.
Concern about more than two l e v e l s of s t r e s s (primary

s t r e s s and " o t h e r " ) d i s t r a c t s from the heavy volume of new
phonetic m a t e r i a l being introduced i n each l e s s o n .
1*6 Lesson 10
RE 10.8. Discrimination! Two Degrees of Stress

Answer SAME or DIFFERENT as the utterances are contrasted
in each item. Listen for difference of stress and stress place-
ment. Sustained level pitch will be maintained throughout the
following exercises. Do not watch the bookl
1. [ ' l a l a ] [lala] D
2. [ l a ' l a ] [la'la] S
3. [la'la] ['lala] D
U. [ ' l a l a ] ['lala] S
5. [ l a ' l a ] [la'la] S
6. [ l a ' l a l a ] ['lalala] D
7. [ l a l a ' l a ] ['lalala] D
8. [ ' l a l a ' l a ] ['lalala] D
9. [la«la»la] [la'la'la] S
L0. [ l a ' l a l a ] [la'Ixt'la] D
RE 10.9» Negative Practicet Three Degrees of Stress
Mimic the tape and follow the transcription below, in

each column you have a different sequence of English words.
Both can be said with different placement of our three degrees
of stress, with differences of meaning. Mimic them through once
noting the stress differences and reproducing them. Then follow
the tape as it goes on through the items again with controlled
pitch, keeping the pitch level, but preserving the stress pat-
tern.
1* ,elevator 'operator 5» idemon'stration ,exercises
2. 'elevator ,operator 6. ,demonstration ' e x e r c i s e s
3. 'eletvator ,opefrator 7. 'demonstration , e x e r ' c i s e s

U. ieletvator 'operator 8 . 'demon,stration »exer,cises
RE 10.10. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! PRIMARY,SEC0NDARY or WFAK

Do not watch' your t e x t . L i s t e n t o the t a p e , and respond
i n t h e time provided. For each item you w i l l hear an u t t e r a n c e
of four syllables which will have varying degrees of stress.
Listen selectively to the third syllable of the utterance and
respond according to the degree you hear. The difference will
be demonstrated first.
1. [«sazcX|Saza] S 11. ['tagata,ga] W

2. [,saza'saza] P 12. [,taga«taga] P
3 . [sa,za'saza] P 13. [taga,ta«ga] S
k» [saza'saza] P lit. ['taga,taga] S
5. [saza,sa'za] S 35. ['tagataga] W
6. [, saza'saza] P 16. [Haga'taga] P
7. [sa'za,saza] S 17. [ , ta,ga,taga] S
8. [saza,sa'za] S 18. [«ta,gata,ga] ¥
9. [sa,za'saza] P 19. [«taga,ta'ga] S
10. ['saza'saza] P 20. [,taga'taga] P
RE 10.11. Mimicryt Stress
Mimic the tape, following along in your book. The text of
this exercise is the same as the preceding one. Pay particular
attention to distinguishing the degrees of stress. Keep your
pitch constant.
RE 10.12. Demonstration! Onset of Stress
We mentioned earlier in this lesson that it was sometimes

impossible to tell exactly where a boundary between syllables
came, that sometimes a single sound belonged to both syllables.
Sometimes, however, the place where stress begins marks off the
beginning of a syllable. This is called the onset of the stress.
Listen to the following English examples, and notice the place-
ment of the stress marker at the onset of stress. Note the
contrasts in meaning that are possible in English by shifting
the onset.1
la. [A'neym] a name lb. [An'eym] an aim
•"The position of the onset of stress is not necessarily

the only distinction you can hear between these pairs.
158 Lesson 10
2a. ['t"z,yfmz,ytj,n] t e a meeting 2b. [*t"z.ym,i.ytz,n] team eating
3 a . ['ay,skrz,yin] I scream 3 b . ['aysi^rz-ym] i c e cream
Ua. [ ' n A y f t h r s y t ] nitrate Ub. [«nAyfc,reyt] night r a t e
5a. ['prley,t h rsak] play t r a c k 5b. ['pkley^rask] p l a t e rack
Juncture
Sometimes the division between syllables can be heard as

an audible break. This break we call juncture. When we need
it for our purposes in this Manual we will symbolize it by a
space between the symbols. Juncture, of course, like stress,
is a relative matter. There are varying degrees of break be-
tween syllables, ranging from those where we cannot distinguish
the exact syllable boundary, to a relatively long and audible
break. We shall speak of juncture wherever we hear an audible
break, whether long or short,
RE 10.13. Demonstratiom Some Examples of Juncture
Listen to the following sentences, and watch the trans-

cription. In this transcription space will always represent
the juncture for which you are listening, whether it comes be-
tween words or within a word. The sentences are taken from
different languages, and the particular language is indicated
in parentheses after the meaning is given. After each sentence
is read twice there will be a third utterance substituting [*a]
for each syllable, but maintaining the juncture, stress, into-
nation and timing of the sentence. Mimic this utterance.
1» /'tenah pi' tsa' 'piteia nakl kat4 'pu'etu 'miâari/ 'The

man with the big ears is walking in the road.' (Comancher-
2. /'name wah sikÎ ti£ 'pifeia kahni nii/ 'eight big houses'
(Comanche)
3 . / " o r i i 'nimi kuh t s u ' n i i ' p u u n i / 'Look a t t h o s e b u f f a l o l '
(Comanche)
li. /awn'noy kAwnAytrlak/ 'You ( s i r ) say i t f i r s t ' (Vietnamese)^
Comanche data from William A. Smalley, "Phonemic Rhythm

i n Comanche." The language i s spoken by Indians of the Ameri-
can Southwest.
'Vietnamese data from William A. Smalley and Nguyen-van-
Van, Vietnamese f o r M i s s i o n a r i e s , Book 1 , Part 1, pp. 13, 50.
S y l l a b l e s and Some of Their C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s "1$9
5 . / ' t o y sajoSy'laay 'Saaw'baX/ »l s h a l l repeat a f t e r you
(madam)» (Vietnamese)
6. /mok'cuwk 'yaabaawni.Tr/ 'Hew much f o r t e n ? ' (Vietnamese)
7. / s i ' l i i go'luijduum/ 'The corn r i p e n e d . ' (Khnni*)•*-
8. / b i n g e ' t a a y t lair ciiyoh 'phaan/ 'The o l d e s t said he would

go and k i l l i t . ' (Khmu'>)
9 . / i y o h >gaa da,tuup ' h r e ' g 9 t n i ' / 'He went and climbed i n t o
t h i s same r i c e f i e l d house." (Khmu')
10. /'mserty »3eyn »pz,ytirsin ikffintay»trAstyiwa'm&nit/ Mary
Jane Peterson, c a n ' t I t r u s t you a minute? (English"!
Juncture, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e s e examples, i s c l o s e l y
t i e d i n with s t r e s s , i n t o n a t i o n , and other f e a t u r e s , some of
them d i f f i c u l t t o s o r t o u t . An e a r quick t o d e t e c t t h e s e f e a -
t u r e s , and a ready mimicry of them can go a long way toward
n a t u r a l n e s s of speech.
Rhythm
Stress, the point of onset of stress, syllable structure,

and the kind of juncture between syllables, together with in-
tonation pattern and other features combine to give sentences a
rhythm, and to give different languages different characteris-
tic rhythms. Good pronunciation involves a close approximation
of this rhythm, running syllables together, separating them by
juncture, "slurring" them, keeping them discreet and distinct,
and in every way maintaining the timing which native speakers
do.
RE lO.llu English. Demonstration! Stress-Timing
English has a characteristic rhythm pattern -which often

produces bad pronunciation when carried over into another lan-
guage. It is based on a rhythm of primary stresses, between
which are squeezed varying numbers of lesser stresses. This
contrasts with many languages which give each syllable a more
nearly even timing. Listen to the English example, and follow
the transcription. On the tape you hear a beat which follows
the rhythm of the primary stresses.
Khmu' data from William A. Smalley, Outline of Khmu9

Structure, pp. ?6,97.
360 Lesson 10
1« The 'program was 'boring
2 . The 'program was not 'boring
3 . The 'program was very 'boring
it. The 'program we saw was 'boring
5. The 'program we saw was very 'boring
6. The 'program we saw was not very 'boring

Notice how t h e s y l l a b l e s are rushed or spaced out t o f i l l
i n the space between the b e a t s . Now l i s t e n t o RE 10.13 again
and note the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c rhythm of t h e d i f f e r e n t sentences
from t h e d i f f e r e n t languages. Mimic t h e sentences once more,
paying a t t e n t i o n t o t h e rhythm.
RE 1 0 . 1 5 . Negative Practice* S y l l a b l e Timing

This exercise takes t h e sentences of RE 10.lU and pro-
nounces them now i n non-English fashion t o mimic t h e rhythm of
Spanish and some other languages. I n these languages each s y l -
l a b l e gets much the same timing. Mimic t h e t a p e .
P r a c t i c e r e c i t i n g English with s y l l a b l e timing. Beat out

t h e timing with your finger as you do s o . Work on t h e buddy
system, and get your buddy t o help you know when your s y l l a b l e
timing breaks down.
RE 10.16. Transcriptiont Juncture and Primary S t r e s s
I n t h i s t r a n s c r i p t i o n exercise the sequence of s y l l a b l e s

each time w i l l be [mopaseni]. Transcribe t h e sequence, leaving
space for j u n c t u r e , and marking primary s t r e s s by [«] a t t h e
point of onset. Take t r a n s c r i p t i o n from t h e t a p e without look-
ing a t t h e t e x t below. Uhen you are s a t i s f i e d with your t r a n s -
c r i p t i o n , check i t with the t r a n s c r i p t i o n below.
1 . [mopa ' s e n i ] 6. [mopa'se ' n i ]
2 . ['mo p a s e ' n i ] 7. ['mopa ' s e n i ]
3 . ['mo ' p a »se ' n i ] 8. [mo'paseni]
U. [mo pa ' s e n i ] 9 . ['mo paseni]
5. [mo'pase ' n i ] , 10. ['mo 'pa s e ' n i ]

RE 10.17. Transcriptiont Syllabic Consonants, Syllable Division,
and Primary Stress
Transcribe the following items. The vowel [a] will be
used along with a variety of consonants which you have had,
both syllabic and non-syllabic. Mark any syllabic consonants
with a [i] under the consonant. Hark syllable division with
[•]• Mark the onset of primary stress with [»]. When you have
transcribed the tape utterances to your satisfaction, check
them with the text below.
1. [»bo.d}.] 6. [•khm.phm]
2. ['kkcu'n] 7. [fa.«nm]
3. [•pka.tr] 8. ["mj^.ta]
h. [k^r.tga] a. [ba.khn.«dl]
5. [pkr.'na] 10. [pra. "toug^]
Syllable Characteristics and This Manual
In this lesson you have been introduced briefly to some
of the more important characteristics of syllables and syllable
sequences, all of which contribute to effective pronunciation
when properly used in any language. All of these features
should be carefully observed and mimicked both in the materials
of this course and in actual language work. In this introduc-
tory course, however, we will not be able to pay f u U attention
to all of these features in an overt way by transcribing them
in every case.
Primary stress [•] will always be indicated at the point
of onset, and should be so indicated in any student transcrip-
tion. Other stresses will be indicated only when necessary or
convenient, and students will not be required to transcribe
them unless specifically instructed to do so.
Syllable boundary and juncture, likewise, will not always
be directly indicated in the transcription in the Manual, and
will not be required in student transcription except where the
instructions so indicate.
RE IO.I81 Hausa. Mimicryt Tone Review-*-
In the following exercises mimic as best you can, paying
-'•Data from Rev. Charles Kraft. The informant is Hamalai

Mubi.
162 Lesson 10
particular attention to the tone, but not neglecting also the
rhythm, stress, timing, etc. If the consonants and vowels are
too much for you, mimic on [la] or hum, maintaining the tone
and rhythm. The words are written in the normal spelling used
for Hausa, which does not distinguish between long and short
vowels which you will hear on the tape. Tone marks have been
added. /'/ represents high tone, and low tone is unmarked.
High-High High-Low Low-High
la. s&rki 'chief' lb. doki l c . jaki 'donkey'

2a. gxdi. 'compound1 2b. y&ro 'boy' 2c. ubS 'father'
3a. k£ff 'fish' 3b. bawa 'slave' 3 c . kare 'dog'
Ha. kukci 'cry' Ub. zaki 'lion' U c rago 'ram'
5a. ruwS 'wafer" 5b. daki 'hut' 5c. bako 'guest'
6a. tsoho ' o l d ' 6b. nSma 'meat' 6 c . raf£ 'brook*
7a. zafl 'hot' 7b. j e j i 'bush 7 c gorS 'bamboo'

country'
8a. uw£ 'mother' 8b. ido 'eye' 8c. kaz£ 'chicken 1
?a. ran£ "day* 9b. a i k i 'work' 9c. add! 'machete'
10a. g*w£ 'elephant' 10c. f a r £ 'grass-

hopper'
The following l i s t s continue with t h e same words, but i n

d i f f e r e n t groupings.
H-H and H-L L-H and H-L H-H and L-H H-H, H-L, and L-H
I d . kuka l e . ub£ If. kff* l g . giwS
2d. nima 2e. kare 2f. xni 2g. rago
3d. j e j i 3 e . <iaki 3f. ubS 3 g . bako
Ud. r£n£ Ue. kaza Ijf. tsoho kg, tsoho
5d. kofi 5e. n&ma 5f. jakx 5g. nama
6d. a i k i ,6e. ido 6f. giwS 6g. ido
7d. gida 7e. addS 7f. f a r £ 7g. kifi

Syllables and Some of Their C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 163
H-H and H-L L-H and H-L H-H and L-H H-H, H-L, and L-H
8d. zSki 8 e . y£ro 8f. addl 8g. zaki
9d. sSrk£ 9e. farS 9f. r a n i 9g. kare
lOd. b&ra, 10e. bako 10f. kazS log. jakl
Suggested Reading
Page numbers in parentheses may not apply specifically to

the points of this lesson, but have been listed in previous
lessons, and you may want to read them while you have the book.
Eugene A. Nida, Learning a Foreign Language, pp. 108-110

(110-118).
Kenneth L. Pike, Phonetics, pp. 107-120.
Charles F. Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics, pp. 33~

61 (15-32, 62-7U).
Archibald A. Hill, Introduction to Linguistic Structures,
pp. 13-30 (36-37).
l£k
LESSON ELEVEN
Dental, Retroflexed, Grooved, and Flat Articulations
Labial Dental Alveo- Alveo- Alveo- Velar

lar palatal palatal 1
k retro-
flex)
Stops
Voiceless unasp. p t t % k
As.
Voiceless asp. p*1 th t»» th k*

•
Voiced b d d d g
•
Fricatives
Grooved
•s/ V
Voiceless s s S s
•
Voiced Z z z
•
Flat
Voiceless p 9 X2
Voiced b * g
Affricates
Grooved
Voiceless unasp. ts ts c ts
^» A
••
Voiceless asp. ts11 ts h ch ts*
••
Voiced dz
AA
dz J dz
••
Flat
Voiceless
unasp. pp te kx
Voiceless asp. pp" te11 kx

A
Voiced bb dd gg
A
"Tip-palatal articulation is also used for retroflex sounds.
*Velar fricatives and affricates may be made with grooved

or flat articulation. There is an audible difference, but we
will not deal with it in this Manual.
Dental, Retroflexed, Grooved and Flat 165
Study the above consonant chart carefully. Notice the new
consonant symbols (enclosed in boxes), and study their relation
to the surrounding symbols. Notice that the fricatives have
been divided now into two groups, grooved fricatives and flat
fricatives. Notice the symbols for new sounds at dental point
of articulation, and the new retroflex column at alveopalatal
(or palatal) point of articulation. These new distinctions will
be taken up in this lesson. Although nineteen new sounds are
represented by the symbols within the boxes, these few new dis-
tinctions account for them all, and only two new symbols [,*J
"circumflex under the letter" and [ . ] "dot under the letter"
need to be learned, so long as their meaning is clearly under-
stood.
Dental Stops, Fricatives, and Affricates
Sammy ll.lt Dental Stop [t] Sammy 11.2t Dental Fricative [s]
Place the tip of your tongue firmly against the back of

your upper teeth, and pronounce [da], [iâ], [£a]. These are
dental stops, your articulation is now forward from the alveo-
lar position most characteristic of English /t d/ into the den-
tal position characteristic of Spanish / t / and that of many
other languages. The difference can be made very easily, and
can often be seen as you watch a native speaker talk, but the
distinction between dental stops and alveolar stops is so
slight accoustically that we will not require students to hear
the difference. You must learn to make it, however. Practice
by making dental stops on the following English sentences and
366 Lesson 11
others l i k e theini
Take Tommy t o t h e t r a i n . Dear Daddy, d o n ' t do t h a t .
A. ~ ^ A" A. /•, ^ A * * /^ A. A
Read whole paragraphs of English material substituting dental

stops for English alveolar ones. Practice with your buddy by
talking to him in this fashion.
But, whereas the difference between dental and alveolar

stops is so slight that we expect students to make the differ-
ence but not to hear it, the difference between dental and al-
veolar [s z] vs. [s z] is easy to hear, and students should
learn both to hear and to produce it.
Listen to the tape, and practice the following English

sentences, substituting dental [s z] for the English alveolar
A A
fricatives.
1. Sister Sue sits sewing socks for seasick, suffering sailors.

A A A A A A A A A * A " A. A
2. Zany zebras zip and zoom.

A ^ A A A ^ A
RE 11.2. Differential!ALVEOLAR or DENTAL
Listen to each fricative on the tape, and respond with its

point of articulation. In some of the items you will hear
other consonants besides fricatives. Listen to the fricatives,
and respond to them only. Do not watch your text.
1. [asa] A 8. [za] D 15. [sikatam] A

2. [asa] D 9. [sa] D 36. [maska] A
3 . [aza] D 10. [as] D 17. [maska] D
A
h. [asa] A 11. [sata] A 18. [dazka] D
5. [sa] D 12. [zata] D 19. [gakasp] A

6 . [za] D 33. [saka?] D 20. [dalazb] A
7. [za] A 3il„ [stoma] D 2 1 . [aspaka] A
The dental affricates present no special problem as they

are again simply a combination of stop and fricative, at this
point of articulation.
To summarize! For every alveolar sound there is a corres-

Dental, Retroflexed, Grooved and F l a t 167
ponding dental sound. To make it you simply move the tongue
forward from alveolar position to dental position. The symbol
for this forward tongue position is [^].
Flat and Grooved Fricatives and Affricates
We now have two different kinds of voiceless dental frica-

tives [s 9] and two different kinds of voiced ones [z d-]. If
you pronounce them you may notice a slight difference in the
point of articulation on the upper teeth. [8 d] may be lower
dorm on the teeth, at the edge. The tongue may even protrude
between the teeth.
In addition to the difference in point of articulation on
the teeth, however, there is an important difference in the
shape of the tongue. If we could look in at the top of the
tongue from the front we would see a groove the length of the
tongue on [s z s z § i] which is not there for [6 d ] . Look at
Fig. 11.1.
Tongue as a flat articulator Tongue as a grooved articulator

[6 d] [s z]
Fig. 11.1
It is the articulating surface of the tongue which is either
flat or grooved. The placing of [pfe]in the flat category in
the consonant chart at the beginning of the lesson was somewhat
arbitrary. Velar fricatives may be either flat or grooved, but
we will not insist on this distinction.
RE 11.3. Differential! FIAT or GROOVED
Listen to the fricative in each of the items on the tape,

and respond with FIAT or GROOVED according to the shape of the
tongue in their articulation. Do not watch the text.
1. [a9a] F 6. [aza] G 11. [zama] G

2. [ada] F 7. [aza] G 12. [zama] G
3. [a©a] F 8. [asa] G 13. [zama] G
k. [asa] G 9. [ada] F Ik. [8ama] F
6. [asa] G 10. [dama] F IS. [maska] G
168 Lesson 11
16. [maQka] G 18. [madga] F 20. [halas] G
17. [maSka] F 19. [naiad] F 21. [halaS] G
Retroflexed Stops, Fricatives, and Affricates
Sammy 11.3I Retroflexed Sammy 11.Ut Retroflexed

Stop [d] Fricative [f]
To achieve a retroflexed articulation simply curl your

tongue tip back from alveolar or alveopalatal [§] position,
until it points upward and touches against the alveopalatal re-
gion near the palate, or on the palate itself. Study Sammies
11.3 and ll.I| to see the formation. Be sure to curl your tongue
tip back and up to get the articulation. The result is a cup
in the surface of the tongue. It it this cupped, curled posi-
tion of the tongue •which is called retroflexed.
RE 11.3a. Demonstration! Making and Practicing Retroflexed Sounds
Here are some ways of getting the feel of retroflexed

stops, fricatives, and affricates. Read the directions for
each one, and mimic the tape. In many cases you can use the
same kind of exercises on other English words and phrases.
a. Say car slowly, exaggerating the /r/. Many (but not

all) speakers of English curl the tongue tip and sides upward
as they pronounce the /r/, making a cup in their tongues. Try
real, again exaggerating the /r/. Many speakers of English
Dental, Retroflexed, Grooved and Flat 16?
start the word with the tongue in this cupped position. Now
say car top, making the /t/ in the same position as the curled-
up /r/, but closing the gap to the point of articulation, of
course, to make a stop. The result should be [tr1]. Try the
same with car seat to get [s]» Listen to the tape, and mimic
these words with retroflexed tongue whether you normally pro-
nounce English /r/ in this fashion or not.
b. Mimic the tape in the pronunciation of the following

English words i
tree [tsh»z-y], extricate [*eksts»i,keyt], dream [dz»j,ym]

This gives you the affricates [^s tS dz]. This pronunciation
(though not so exaggerated in length) is normal for /tr dr/ with
many speakers of English.
c. Deliberately retroflex your alveolar and alveopalatal

stops, fricatives and affricates as you read a paragraph from
a book, practice with your buddy, or drill on the following
sentences which are demonstrated on the tape.
1. Take
. Tommy
. . to.the.train, [tsêyn]
«•
2. Dear Daddy, don't do that.
• • • ** • • •
3. S
• i s• t e r Sue
• s• i t••
s sewing
# socks
• • for seasick
• • stiffering
• s a i•l o r •s ,
U. Zany
« zebras
• • zip
• and zoom.
•
RE l l . U . Differential* RETROFLEXED or MO
Listen to the consonant i n the taped utterance, and decide

whether i t i s retroflexed or not. You may have noticed that
many retroflexed sounds seem to have a l i t t l e r - l i k e quality t o
them which also modifies the surrounding vowels. This i s one
of the principal ways i n which you can detect retroflexed ar-
t i c u l a t i o n . Do not watch the t e x t .
1. [ctfa] R 6. [aza] NO 1 1 . [tsa] NO

2 . [asa] NO 7. [ata] NO 12. [ca] NO
h
3 . [at a] R 8. [dfa] R 13. [ta] R
•
h
It. [ats a] R 9. [dta] NO m. [da] R
•• •
5. [aza] R 10. [tsa] R IS. [ad] NO
170 Lesson 11
16. [at] R 18. [az] NO 20. [at|] R
17. [of] R 19. [ath] R 21. [az] NO
RE 11.5. Differentialt ALVEOLAR or RETROFLEXED

h
1. [asa] A 6. [ za] A 1 1 . [at ] R
•
2 . [asa] R 7 . [dza] A 12. [as] A
3 . [atsa] R 8. [sa] A 13. [ats] A

h
U. [a&i] R 9 . [sa] R lit. [at ] R
•
f>. [ a t s a ] A 10. [dza] R 15. [az] R
•• •
RE 1 1 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l t ALVEOPAIATAL or RETROFLEXED
1. [asa] A 5. [&] A 9. [aS] A
2. [aga] R 6. [Jo] A 10. R

•
h
3 . [aza] R 7 . [za] R 1 1 . [atS ] R
« ••
k» [ a t s a ] R 8. [sa] A 12. [aj] A
••
RE 1 1 . 7 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VEIAR or RETROFLEXED
1. [ak*a] V 5. [xa] V 9. [ag] V
2 . [aga] V 6. [sa] R 10. [az] R

•
3. [atha] R 7. [za] R 1 1 . [ax] V
•
k. [ada] R 8. [dza] R 12. [akx] V
•
RE H . 8 » Vietnamese, Mimicry* [ | & t ] 1
Listen through the exercise, and then mimic the tape as

the words are read down each column. Concentrate particularly
on the retroflexed initial consonants, but do your best to get
the tone and the remainder of the syllable as well.
la. /|£aw/ 'six' lb. /|aa/ 'go out' lc. /tan/ 'white'
2a. /saan/ 'morning' 2b. /zaaw/ 'vegetable' 2c. /taay/ 'fruit'
•"•Data for this and succeeding exercises from William A.

Smalley and Nguyfn-van-Van, Vietnamese for Missionaries.
3a. /saay/ 3 b. / z o / 'clear' 3 c /tin/ «egg»
•incorrect' *
Ua. /gaair/ 'follow' Ub. /zo*y/ 'already' Uc. /tiAk/ 'precede'
• • •
5a. /soy/ ' b o i l ' 5b. /Z±A/ ' t o wash' 5 c /tarn/ '100'
. . .
6a. /So/ 'notebook' 6c. /tanm/ «in'
7a. /S£A/ 'correct' 7 c /ten/ 'on'
8a. /Sffi/ 'future' 8 c /taa/1 'tea'
9c. /to/ 'return'
RE 11.9* Vietnamese. Mimicryi [s g]
Continue, as in the preceding exercise.
1. /s«e/ 'future' 5. /sa^m/ 'finish'
2. /sae/ 'conveyance' 6. /saaw/ ' t o be after'
3 . /suAn/ 'go down' 7. / s a k / 'high tone'
U. /stsh/ 'correct' 8. / s u p / 'soup'
RE 11.101 Vietnamese. Mimicryi [t £ t11]
i. M/ 'leave' 8. /-Pi/ 'order, rank'

2. / t i / 'exclude' 9. /ttAk/ 'precede'
•
3. / t o / 1 •return' 10. /t^'ti'tiAk/ 'last Wednes-
d a y !
h *
U. /tTtPn/ 'large container'
11. / t i w / 'digested'
5. /tu n m/ 'center'
12. / t ^ w / 'lack, be short'
6. / t i / 'fourth'
33. /yoy't h iw/ 2 'introduce
7. /ti/ 'leave, go'
1U. /taay/ 'fruit'
^Tuo dots under the [o] mark a difference of vowel quality

which you will study later.
2
A single dot under a vowel in Vietnamese examples is a
tone mark, following the Vietnamese system of representing tone.
172 Lesson 11
RE 11.11. Review* F r i c a t i v e s
Practice mimicry of t h e following sequences, as you read
along i n your t e x t . Work e s p e c i a l l y on [x g ] .
1. [apxa] 10. [axQa] 19. [avba]
2. [afxa] 1 1 . [axba] 20. [adba]
3 . [aQxa] 12. [axva] 21. [agba]
U. [abxa] 1 3 . [axda] 22. [afepa]
5. [avxa] 111. [axga] 23. [afefa]
6. [aebca] 1 5 . [apfea] 2U. [ab©a]
7. [agxa] 16. [afba] 25. [abxa]
8. [axpa] 17. [a9ba] 26. [abva]
9. [axfa] 18. [axba] 27. [abda]
RE 11.12. S u b s t i t u t i o n
The following drill uses a long frame, substituting a dif-

ferent sequence in it each time. The steady repetition of the
frame through the whole exercise helps to give intensive prac-
tice to the articulations. On the first utterance there is a
buildup to help you learn the sequence. On succeeding ones a
buildup should not be necessary because only a small part of
the sequence is new.
!• [,t"a.ja.psa.'ma.xa.san.'za] 6. [It"a»sa.psa.'za.ta.s'an.'za]
1
2. • kxa. l a 7. tsa.za
3. 'ppa.na 8. «gga.da
U. •ca.Ja 9. •psa.ya
5. •tsa.dza 10. 'dza.tsa

RE 11.13. Buildups
Mimic the tape and follow in your book The buildups will
begin with the first syllables in each case
1. [•tâ.bba.vax.ga.pa] 2. [•za.la.ba.da.ta]
3. [•da.tsa.kâ.ba.kxa] 7. [»path.bag.ma|.dax]
k» [»K a.va.pa.bza.pa.3 8. [«fag.dal.pat.ka?]
5 . [ , psax,k h ca5.ba.ca] 9. [«dap.sab.vak Q .tsad]
6 . [»*a.gal.garo.dza] 10. [»k h a.goa.kaps.5o-pf 3
RE H.lU. Transcription
Listen to the tape, and transcribe the full utterances
without looking at the text below. When you are satisfied with
your transcriptions, check them with the text of the exercise.
1. [kxag] 6. [ma'tsaf] 11. [»daBthal]

«• • •
2. [psam] 7. [tea'sag] 12. [tkanxap*1]
3 . [tadz] 8 . [bga'ksan] 1 3 . ['sapmats]
• •• • •
h. [sabv] 9. [ca"apx] llu flafkâb]
5. [zagz] 10. [za»tsas] 1 5 . [Tgga?pam3
RE U«l5» Reading
Read off t h e following items before you hear them p r o -
nounced on the t a p e . Then l i s t e n t o the tape t o compare with
what you have j u s t s a i d .
! • ["dama] 7 . ['pcckxam] 1 3 . ['ga'.p^ci]
2 . [<xaba] 8. [«lasag3 3iu [•pan.va]
3 . ['Fâta/l 9 . C'p h a*ad] 15. [«tsdb.la]
U. ['naka] 10. ['ggabap] 16, [«p h ax.pan]
5. [«xappa] 1 1 . ['maf.xa} 17. [«c'ces.gakh]
6. [»t h aban] 12. [ ' t a s . d a ] 18. f'dcf.laks]

nk
LESSON TWELVE
Vowels and Vowel Glides
We come at last to the beginning of the study of vowels.

For them we need a new framework of reference, for the points
of articulation useful in describing consonants do not fit
vowels. The characteristic which distinguishes vowels from
consonants phonetically is the fact that there is no stoppage
or friction in the oral cavity or throat of the kinds previous-
ly defined. The articulation of vowels is, therefore, more
open than that of consonants.
Different vowel qualities are produced primarily by chang-

ing the shape of the oral and pharyngeal cavities by altering
the position and configuration of the tongue, lips, and velic.
Sammies 12.1-12.3 show different positions for the tongue on
three different vowels, and Sammy 12.3 shows also the different
lip position for one of these vowels. Sammy 12.k shows these
three tongue positions superimposed on each other. You can see
that for the different vowels the highest part of the tongue is
in different positions. For [e] the highest part of the tongue
is in the front part of the mouth. For [a] it is in the cen-
tral part of the mouth, and for [o] it is in the back part of
the mouth. Wherever its position, front to back, the tongue
may take different heights, to give high tongue position, mid
tongue position and low tongue position. We also have the dis-
tinetion between rounded and unrounded lips. This can be char-
ted, as in Table l2.1. We have entered on the chart the three
vowels pictured in the Sammies, and in future lessons you will
be taught to distinguish vowels for other parts of the chart.
Note the relation between the position of the vowel in the chart,
and the position of the highest part of the tongue in the Sammy.
For the time being the velic is closed and the vowels are
voiced.
Front Central Back
Unrounded Unrounded Rounded
High
Mid e 0
Low a
Table 12.lt Chart of Basic Vowel Articulations
The names of the vowel symbols are [s] "epsilon" (from

Greek) /'epsitlaHn/, [a] "script §_" or "written a_", and [o] o.
Vowels and Vowel Glides 175
Sammy 1 2 . l t [e] Sammy 12.2* [a]
Sammy 12.3s [o] Sammy 12»kt [s a o] superimposed
Vowel Glides
Later on i n t h i s lesson ire w i l l p r a c t i c e t h e pronunciation
of t h e t h r e e vowels charted above. F i r s t , however, we need t o
176 Lesson 12
introduce and drill another characteristic of vowel articula-

tion. Just as it is possible for pitch to change or slur from
one frequency to another, a characteristic which we called a
pitch glide, so vowel articulations may change or slur from
one position to another. Such changes we call vowel glides.
Vowel glides may be off-glides or on-glides. That is,

they may glide out of a certain vowel quality or into a certain
quality. In other words, they may begin with a vowel and glide
from there, or they may glide into a vowel. In the material
which follows we will present off-glides first, and then the
corresponding on-glides.
RE 12.It English. Demonstration! Some Off-glides
Listen to the following words as pronounced in my speech.

For some of you it will be necessary to deliberately notice the
differences from your own speech. After you have heard the ex-
ercise through once, mimic the tape. Those who do not normally
pronounce the words in this way will need to mimic the "north-
ern" speech. Pay particular attention to the movement of your
tongue on the vowels. See if you can characterize the movement.
Note also any movement of the lips.
la. I /ay/ lb. OwJ_ /aw/ lc. art /art/
2a. buy /boy/ 2b. bough /bear/ 2c. bark /bark/
3a. my /may/ 3b. cow /kaw/ 3c. cart /kart/
Ua. tie /toy/ Ub. Dow /daw/ itc tarp /tarp/
5a. lied /layd/ 5b. loud /lawd/ 5 c lark /lark/
Disregarding the initial consonant (if any) in each case,

in the first column the tongue begins relatively low and flat
in the mouth (in [a] position), and moves upward and forward.
In the second column the tongue moves upward and backward, and
the lips round at the same time, in the third column the tongue
curls upward (retroflexes). Each of these movements will be
taken up below. The point now is that the tongue is in motion,
and we call that motion a glide. The direction of the motion
determines the kind of glide.
[y] Off-glide, Tongue Upward and Forward
The [y] off-glide begins with any vowel position and moves
upward and forward, as illustrated in Sammies 12.5 and 12.6.
We are not concerned with any exact point to which it moves,
but the glide consists in the audible upward and forward move-
Yowels and Vowel Glides 177
ment, as in Table 12.2.
Sammy 12.5* A r t i c u l a t i o n of Samray 12.6» A r t i c u l a t i o n of

[ay] Showing Tongue a t Be- [sy] Showing Tongue a t Be-
ginning and a t End of Glide ginning and a t End of Glide
Front Central Back

High
Mid e J • o
^5^
Low ^ a
Table 12.2t Movement Which Constitutes t h e [y] Off-glide
RE 12.2/ English. Demonstration! [y] Off-glides
The following English words contain [y] o f f - g l i d e s as they

are pronounced on t h e t a p e . They may not n e c e s s a r i l y i n your
speech. If these do n o t , see i f you can find some words i n
your own speech which demonstrate [y] o f f - g l i d e . There c e r -
t a i n l y are many. Mimic the t a p e , and f e e l t h e g l i d e . I t i s
e a s i e s t t o f e e l i n Column a and Column b because i t has f a r t h e r
t o t r a v e l (see Table 1 2 . 2 ) , but make sure you l e a r n t o f e e l i t
i n Column c as w e l l . Watch yourself i n a mirror, and see your
tongue move.
178 Lesson 12
la. I_ /ay/ lb. boy /b°y/ le. heyi /hey/
2a. buy /bay/ 2b. coil /kcyl/ 2c. may /mey/
3a. njy /may/ 3b. boil A°yV 3c. say /sey/
Ua. tie /toy/ Ub. Boyd /boyd/ Uc. same /seym/
5a. lied /layd/ 5b. boys /boyz/ 5c. late /leyt/
6a. time /taym/ 6b. coin /coyn/ 6c. rake /reyk/

7a. fine /fayn/ 7b. soil /soyV 7c. slake /slsyk/
8a. liner /'laynir/ 8b. soy /soy/ 8c. maker /»meykir/
?a. lion /»loyAn/ 9b. foil /foyV 9c. paste /peyst/
10a. grimey/' graymz,y/ 10b. annoy /A'noy/ 10c. blame /bleym/
[TIT] Off-glide, Tongue Upward and Back, Lips Rounding
Sammy 12.7# Articulation of Sammy 12.8t Articulation of

[cor] Showing Tongue and Lips [aw] Showing Tongue and Lips
at Beginning and at End of at Beginning and at End of
Glide Glide
The [ir] off-glide begins with any vowel position and moves
upward and back, together with a lip rounding, as illustrated
i n Sammies 12.7 and 1 2 . 8 . As i n t h e case of the [y] o f f - g l i d e ,
we are not concerned with t h e exact point t o which i t moves,
but with the audible upward and back movement, t o g e t h e r with
the l i p movement. See Table 1 2 . 3 .
Front Central Back

High
Mid
Low
Table 1 2 . 3 / Movement Which Constitutes t h e [w] Off-glide
RE 12.3t English. Demonstration! [w] Off-glides
The following English words contain [w] o f f - g l i d e s as they

are pronounced on t h e t a p e . These words may not n e c e s s a r i l y
contain them i n your speech. If they do not, see i f you can
find some words i n your own speech which demonstrate t h e [w]
off g l i d e . There c e r t a i n l y are many. These pronunciations do
not a l l r e p r e s e n t t h e same d i a l e c t of English. Mimic t h e t a p e ,
and f e e l the g l i d e . Whereas t h e [y] o f f - g l i d e was harder t o
f e e l with [e] than with the other vowels, the [w] o f f - g l i d e may
be harder t o f e e l with [ o ] , again because t h e tongue does not
have as f a r t o t r a v e l . You can watch your l i p s i n a mirror,
however, and have no t r o u b l e detecting t h e g l i d e . Get your
buddy t o watch you, a l s o .
l a . Owl /cor/ l b . house /hews/ l c . OhJ /ow/
2a. bough /beer/ 2b. note /newt/ 2c. note /nowt/
3 a . cow /kesr/ 3 b . coat /kswt/ 3 c . coat /kowt/
Ua. Dow /dear/ Ub. own /swn/ Uc. own /own/
5a. loud /lawd/ 5b. n o t i c e / ' n e w t i s / 5c. n o t i c e / ' n o w t i s /
6a. crown /krawn/ 6b. so /sew/ 6c. so /sow/
7a. allow / A ' l a w / 7b. go /gew/ 7c. go /gow/
8a. grouse/grows/ 8b. throne/Orewn/ 8c. throne/erown/
[r] Off-glide, Tongue t o Retroflexed Position
The [ r ] o f f - g l i d e begins with any vowel p o s i t i o n and moves

1B0 Lesson 12
Sammy 12.9t One Typical Sammy 12.l0t A Second Typical

English Retroflexed Position English Retroflexed Position
for [r] for [r]
into a retroflexed position. In Lesson Eleven you learned to

make retroflexed consonants, and you learned that the distin-
guishing characteristic of a retroflexed sound was the cup-like
surface of the tongue, created by the fact that the tongue tip
turned upward to articulate. Retroflexed glide position again
has a cup in the surface of the tongue, but because it is a
vowel type of articulation rather than a consonant type of ar-
ticulation, there is more space between the tongue and the top
of the mouth.
In English the [r] glide is made by different speakers

with two characteristic different tongue formations, both of
which have a cup in them to produce the retroflex quality. See
Sammies 12.9 and 12.10. In the one case the back of the tongue
is low, with the tip and sides curling up. In the other case
the back of the tongue is high, with the tip curling up slight-
ly, as illustrated in the Sammies. There is no audible differ-
ence between the two, and either is satisfactory for the [r]
glide. Again, as with all previous glides, it is a movement,
this time into retroflexed position, which constitutes the
glide.
RE 12.Ut English. Demonstrations [r] Off-glides

The following English words contain [r] off-glides as they
are pronounced on the tape. They may not necessarily in your
speech. If they do not, see if you can find some words in your
own speech which demonstrate the [r] off-glide. It is possible
that you do not have any, for some dialects of English do not.
Learn to produce this off-glide if you do not have it in your
speech. Get the feel of the tongue movement into retroflexed
position,
/art/ lb, ferry /'fert-y/ lc. story /'storty/
/kart/ 2b, merry /'merr,y/ 2c, sort /sort/
/mark/ 3b, Sperry/' speny/ 3 c pork /pork/

Ua, s t a r t l e / ' s t a r t a J L / Ub, Gerry / ' j e r t - y / Uc. f o r t /fort/
5a, p a r t n e r / ' p a r t i a r / 5b. b e r r y /»b&rc,y/ 5c. orchard/'orcard/
[H] Off-glide, Tongue t o Central Position
Sammy 12.11* A r t i c u l a t i o n of Sammy 12.12i A r t i c u l a t i o n of

[eH] Showing Tongue a t Be- [oH] Showing Tongue a t Be-
ginning and a t End of Glide ginning and a t End of Glide
The fourth and l a s t o f f - g l i d e which we w i l l t a k e up begins

with any vowel p o s i t i o n and moves i n t o mid-central p o s i t i o n , as
i l l u s t r a t e d i n Sammies 12.11 and 12,12. Again we are not con-
cerned with the exact point t o which i t moves, but with the au-
d i b l e movement i n t o t h e mid-central a r e a . See Table 12.U. Do
182 Lesson 12
not l e t t h e choice of t h e c a p i t a l H as a symbol for t h i s g l i d e
confuse you. I t has no r e l a t i o n t o [h] i n our -work. Neither
does i t have any r e l a t i o n t o the s i g n of a s p i r a t i o n ["]• I t i s
simply a symbol not otherwise used i n our work, and a v a i l a b l e
t o represent the c e n t r a l i z i n g g l i d e .
Front Central Back

High
Mid o
ft * f « H
Low- a
Table 12.U» Movement 'Which Constitutes t h e [H] Off-glide
RE 12. 5t English. Demonstration! [H] Off-glides
The following English words contain [H] o f f - g l i d e s as they

a r e pronounced on the t a p e . They may not n e c e s s a r i l y i n your
speech. If they do n o t , see i f you can find some words i n your
own speech which demonstrate the [H] o f f - g l i d e . I t i s very
common i n a l l d i a l e c t s of English. These pronunciations do not
a l l represent t h e same d i a l e c t of English. Mimic t h e t a p e
whether you have t h i s o f f - g l i d e on these p a r t i c u l a r words or
n o t . Get t h e f e e l i n g of t h e c e n t r a l i z i n g tongue movement.
l a . vea /yeH/ l b . four /foH/ lc. I /cfl/
2a. t h e r e /eleH/ 2b. sword /soHd/ 2c. fine /faHn/
3a. fair /feH/ 3 b . porch /poHc/ 3 c . mine /maHn/
lf.a. prayer /preH./ Ub. boa /boH./ He. car /kctH/
5a. mayor /mti/ 5b. pork /poHk/ 5c. f a r /faH/
RE 1 2 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! CAPITAL [H], RAISED [ h ] , [h]

The following d r i l l i s t o h e l p you f i x t h e t h r e e symbols
[H h ] so you w i l l not confuse them. You have not y e t had
[h] i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n , but i t sounds j u s t l i k e [h] i n i n i t i a l
^Some l i n g u i s t s maintain t h a t [H] and [h] are a c t u a l i z a -

t i o n s of the same phoneme i n English. Whether one holds t o t h a t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of English or not, these sounds are p h o n e t i c a l l y
d i f f e r e n t , and have no r e l a t i o n t o each other i n our phonetics
work.
p o s i t i o n , and i t i s demonstrated f o r you on t h e t a p e before the
exercise b e g i n s . In t h i s exercise you respond with the name of
the symbol, because i t i s t h e d i f f e r e n t use of t h e symbols which
you want t o l e a r n t o keep s t r a i g h t . Do not watch the t e x t .
1. [mop'1] R 7. [loh] h 13. [lop*1] R
2. [mdh] h 8. [loH] C 1U. [tak*1] R
3 . [mctH] C 9. [fsH] c 15. [taH] C

h
lu [t em] R 10. [p^rel] R 16. [tah] h
5. [sols*1] R 1 1 . [rah] h 17. [deH] C

•
6. [hoz] h 12. [zeh] h 18. [xoh] h
RE 1 2 . 7 . Diff e r e n t i a l i [y w r H]
I n t h i s d r i l l you are t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e kind of o f f - g l i d e

which you h e a r . Call out the name of the symbol used t o r e p -
resent i t .
11
1. [mey] 7 7. [fsHm] H 1 3 . [hawk ] w
2. [mew] w 8. [psoyd] y lit. [hayph] y
1
3 . [msH] H 9. [tserk* ] r 1 5 . [£eyn] y
11
k, [mer] r 10. [bzork ] r 16. [Jawd] w
5. [layk*1] 7 1 1 . [tfoHk*1] H 17. [fern] r
6. [sowk*1] w 12. [stoHv] H 18. [zawl] w
Up t o the present we have d e a l t only with o f f - g l i d e s ,

g l i d e s which begin with a s y l l a b i c vowel, and move t o one or
another of t h e four defined p o s i t i o n s i n a n o n - s y l l a b i c move-
ment. On-glides are j u s t t h e r e v e r s e . They move t o t h e p o s i -
t i o n of the s y l l a b i c vowel. The p o s i t i o n from which" they come
defines the g l i d e . In other words, any Sammy above which r e p -
r e s e n t s an o f f - g l i d e can be made t o represent an on-glide by
having t h e dotted l i n e r e p r e s e n t t h e non-syllabic beginning
p o i n t , and t h e s o l i d l i n e t h e s y l l a b i c vowel t o which t h e g l i d e
moves. See a l s o Table 1 2 . 5 .
RE 12. 8> English. Demonstration! On-glides
L i s t e n t o t h e t a p e , and mimic. Notice how t h e on-glide

(the g l i d e coming before t h e vowel) i n Column a i s j u s t t h e
lfiU Lesson 12
Front Central Back

High
Mid
\s;
e^"~
~——~^-<f~~~ ~~~
-y"l —* 0
Low ^ a
Table 12.5t Movements Which Constitute
the [y] and [w] On-glides
reverse i n tongue movement of t h e off-glide i n Column b . The

tape w i l l read a c r o s s . Follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic.
These pronunciations do not a l l r e f l e c t t h e same d i a l e c t of
English.
l a . y_es /yes/ l b . sag /sey/

2a. yacht /yc*/ 2b. tie_ /toy/
3 a . Wes /w&s/ 3b. so /sew/
Ua. wan /wan/ Ub. now /now/
5a. woe /wow/ 5b. woe /wow/
6a. wreck /rek/ 6b. care /tar/
7a. rock /rak/ 7b. c a r /kar/
We do not d r i l l [H] as an o n - g l i d e .
RE 1 2 . 9 . Demonstration! Lack of S y l l a b i c i t y on Glides
One of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e glides as t h e y have been

discussed above has been t h e f a c t t h a t they a r e non-syllabic
vowel movement. I n order t o help you f e e l t h e non-syllabic
character of t h e glides we provide t h e following d r i l l . Mimic
the tape and watch t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n . I n order t o h e l p you
v i s u a l i z e what i s happening, study t h e following diagram i n r e -
lation t o the f i r s t utterance.
r
[a a y]
Voicing
Syllabicity
1. [yayayoyayayayayay] 2. [yoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoy]
Towels and Vowel Glides 185
3 . [yeyeyeyeysyeyeyey] 8. [rorororororororor]
k [WCWCOTOWOWOWOWOWOW] 9 . [rarararararararar]
$. [wawawawowccwawawaw ] 10. [ aH oHaHaHctHaHaHaH ]
6. [wewewewewewewewew] 1 1 . [eHeHeHeHeHeHeHeH]
7. [re re re re re re re rer] 12. [oHoHoHoHoHoHoHoH]
As you drilled the above did you notice that sometimes you
could not tell whether the glide was off-glide or on-glide?
Actually it slurred imperceptibly from one to the other. This
illustrates the point made about syllables in Lesson 10, that
the syllabic is easy to identify, but the point of syllable
boundary may not be audible. Note also that the tongue stops
just as long at the end of the glide position as it does at the
vowel position. The fact that the vowel is syllabic, however,
helps to distinguish the glide.-*-
RE 12.10t English. Demonstration! Glide Onsets with Preceding

Consonant
Mimic the following English words, paying particular at-

tention to the on-glides, and to the consonant which precedes
each one. Notice that the articulation of the glide begins be-
fore the release of the consonant, and that the glide articula-
tion continues after the release of the consonant in the follow-
ing manner.
•Tfou have probably noticed that all of the glides except

[H] have previously been identified as consonants in your Eng-
lish transcription (Appendix A ) . Phonetically they are vowel
glides in English, as in any other language. Phonemically they
pattern as consonants in English and in some (though not all)
other languages. Some linguists prefer to use the term conso-
nant and vowel for phonemic classes, and vocoid and non-vocoid
for what we are calling phonetic vowel (and vowel glide) and
consonant. As valuable as this terminological distinction is,
we have not burdened you with it in this Manual. See Kenneth L.
Pike, Phonetics, pp. 66-79. You will remember from Lesson 10
that just as some vowels operate in some languages as consonants
(the glides we have been studying), so some consonants can be
syllabic, and can therefore operate in some languages as vowels.
If we were dealing seriously with the classification of sounds
on the phonemic level it would be worthwhile to maintain Pike's
distinction in terminology.
186 Lesson 12
[a p w a] [a P 7 a] [a P r a]
Stop closure ——
Glide
,
This is especially easy to notice in English with the [w] on-
glide because the lips round for the preceding consonant. No-
tice how your lips round for the /k/ in quick. Column b con-
tains words without the on-glide so that you can feel and hear
the difference. The tape recording reads across. Follow the
text as you mimic.
l a . dwell /dweHV l b . dell /dsHl/
2a. swell /sweHl/ 2b. s e l l /ssH3/

3a. twenty /'twsntz-y/ 3 b . tent /tent/
Ua. quotient /'kwowsint/ Ub. cogent /'kowjint/
5a. pure /py»Hr/ 5b. poor /pvHr/
6a. cute /kyiwt/ 6b. coot /kiwt/
7a. beauty /•byiwtty/ 7b. booty / »biwtz-y/

8a. few /fy*V 8b. foo /fuw/
9a. break /breyk/ 9b. bake Aeyk/
10a. pray /prsy/ 10b. pay /pey/

11a. shred /srsd/ l i b . shed /sed/
12a. fray /frey/ 12b. Fay /fey/

RE 12.11. Negative Practice* On-glides Following Consonants
Practice each of the following sentences with an inserted

[y] on-glide after the alliterative consonant. Then practice
them with [w] and then with [r]. These are written out in the
first example to make the exercise clear. The tape demonstrates
them for you. You can read whole paragraphs of English in this
way as well.
1* Pyeter Pyipyer pyicked a pyeck of pyickled pyeppyers.
Pweter Pwipwer pwicked a pweck of pwickled pweppwers.

Towels and vowel Glides 187
Preter Priprer pricked a preck of prickled prepprers.
2. Tiny Tim took ten tin tubs to Toronto.
3. Keen cool cats kick kittens constantly.
km Many mothers made much money Monday morning.
Pure vowels [a o s]
The glides which you have been studying in this chapter

may glide into or out of any of the many vowel qualities which
you will be studying in the remainder of this course. With very
few exceptions, however, we have restricted our examples and
drills in this lesson to three vowels as the end point or start-
ing point of glides. These three vowels are [a o c ] . See
Table 12.1. We now go on to practice these three vowels as un-
glided vowels, or "pure" vowels. We want to be able to say
them without the slightest audible trace of any of our four
glideso
The importance of gaining such control over all vowels

that you can keep them pure, or glide them at will, cannot be
over-emphasized. You will soon discover that you have an auto-
matic tendency to glide certain vowels in certain ways in Eng-
lish. This carries over into your learning of another language
in ways that sound atrocious. It is not that other languages
do not glide their vowels. Every language has its own patterns
of glided and unglided vowels, and you must learn to control
your speech so that English patterns are not applied to the
other language.
It is very important that you learn the vowel qualities of

this and succeeding lessons by mimicking your teacher and the
tape. Do not depend on English words as models or guides for
certain vowel qualities until you have checked your pronuncia-
tion of them with a competent person. The pronunciation of dif-
ferent speakers of English varies so much that you have to be
careful here. Furthermore, what may pattern as a phoneme in
English and be symbolized in a certain way, such as /e/, may
have several different pronunciations in any one person's
speecho In our phonetics work we are striving for phonetic
norms, and as much as possible we will seek for a uniform pro-
nunciation. The choice of this uniform pronunciation is a bit
arbitrary, and it is not possible in any absolute way, but we
can come close to it for practical purposes.
RE 12.12. Demonstration* [a o e]
Look back at Table 12.1, and read the first two paragraphs
188 Lesson 12
of this lesson again. Get a clear picture of the table in your
mind, and then do the following exercise. Listen to the tape,
and mimic it, following along in your text. Try to sense the
position of your tongue and lips, in accordance with the chart.
Be very careful not to get any glides. [•] indicates a pro-
longing of the vowel. For the [h] just blow out without chang-
ing the articulation. Each item will be given three times.
1. [*a« 'a 'a »a 'a] U. [»o»h]
2. [*o» ">o ">o *>o *>o] 5. [°o»h]
3. {">*• *e »e *e *e] 6. [*e»h]

For each of these pure vowels there are characteristic
traps which speakers of English are likely to be caught in when
they mean to produce pure vowels. For [a] the temptation is to
change the quality between the long and short pronunciations.
There is also the problem of tending to substitute your own
English pronunciation, which in many dialects of English is
considerably different from what you hear on the tape.
The trap in the [o] is the temptation to add the English

[w] off-glide. Watch your lips in the mirror as you pronounce
it. If there is any movement toward greater rounding you are
adding the glide.
The trap in the [e] is the temptation to add the English

[H] off-glide. Be especially careful of this. You cannot see
it in a mirror. You must learn to hear it and feel it.
Now go through this exercise again, remembering the traps,

and trying to avoid them. Work with your buddy so that you can
listen to each other and help each other find the points at
which you differ from the tape.
RE 12.13. Negative Practicet [ow o]
In the following exercise we are going to pronounce the

same English words with [ow] in Column a, and with [o] in
Column b. Neither of these pronunciations may be your natural
pronunciation of the word in some cases. The purpose is to
mimic the tape and learn to produce a glided or unglided [o] at
will.
la. [sow] lb. [so] SO
2a. [9ow] 2b. [»o] oh

3a. [low] 3b. [lo] low
Vowel and Vowel Glides 189
Ua. [bow] lib. [bo] bow
5a. [«mowtr] 5b. [«motr] motor
6a. [lowf] 6b. [lof] loaf
7a. [«gowz,n] 7b. [»gOMj] going
8a. [A»lown] 8b. [A'lon] alone
RE 12.lU. Negative P r a c t i c e ! [eH e]

This e x e r c i s e follows t h e same procedure and purpose as
the preceding one, except t h a t the vowel and g l i d e are d i f f e r e n t .
l a . [y6H] to. [ye] yea

2a. [weHl] 2b. [wel] well
3 a . [leHt] 3b. [let] let
ka., [meHnt] l+bo [ment] meant
5a. [freHnd] 5b. [frend] friend
6a. [beHst] 6b. [best] best
7a. [eHnd] 7b. [end] end
8a. [freHt] 8b. [fret] fret
RE 12.15. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! GLIDED or NO
I f you hear [w y H r ] respond with GLIDED. Otherwise r e s -
pond with NO. You get the same vowel with or without t h e same
g l i d e i n both s y l l a b l e s of each u t t e r a n c e i n Nos. 1-lU. This
gives you more opportunity t o h e a r and i d e n t i f y t h e g l i d e . Do
not watch t h e t e x t .
1. [keHseH] G 7. [keysey] G 13. [koHsoH] G

2. [kese] NO 8. [kese] NO Ik. [koso] NO
3. [kowsow] G 9. [kewsew] G 15. [kaH] G
k. [koyscty] G 10. [kowsow] G 36. [kay] G
5. [kaHsaH] G 11. [koysoy] G 17. [ka] NO
6. [kasa] NO 1 2 . [kaHsaH] G 18. [ke] NO
ISO Lesson 12
19. [keH] G 2 0 . [kow] G 2 1 . [ko] NO

RE 12.16. Mimicryt [g e o]
Follow t h e tape i n mimicking the following i t e m s , f i r s t
down the columns, and then a c r o s s . Be sure t o get pure vowels.
l a . [»lola] lb. [ilele] l c . [•lolo]
2a. [•baba] 2b. [«bebe] 2c. f'bobo]
3 a. ['nana] 3b. [»nene] 3c [•nono]

Ua. ['dada] Ub. [»dede] Uc. [•dodo]
< •
• •
5a. [' zaza] 5b. [«zeze] 5 c [•zozo]
6a. [ 'tscctsa] 6b. ["tsetse] 6c. [ • t s o t s o ]
7a. [*sasa] 7b. [ ' s e s e ] 7 c [«soso]
8a. [«gaga] 8b. ['gege] 8c. [«gogo]
Id. [la] le. [le] If. [lo]
2d. [ba] 2e. [be] 2f. [bo]

3d. [na] 3 e . [ne] 3f. [no]
Ud. [da] he. [de] Uf. [*>]

5d. [za] 5 e . [ze] 5f. [So]
6d. [ t s a ] 6e. [tse] 6f. [tso]
7d. [sa] 7e. [se] 7f. [so]

8d. [get] 8e. [ge] 8f. [go]
RE 12.17. Mimicry* Glides Again

Mimic t h e t a p e , and p r a c t i c e saying t h e following English
words with the glided vowels shown for each item. Notice t h a t
No. 6 contains some B r i t i s h pronunciation, Nos. 7, 8, 9 some
Deep South pronunciation, e t c .
1. [ey]» bay, say, may 3 . [ay]t buy, p i e , l i e

2 . [oy]# b o i l , coin, choice U. [aw]i how, cow, now
$• [ow]i s o , bow, low 9. [aH]i c h o i r , l i e s , l i o n
6. [ew]t go^ no^ oh 10. [ e r ] t t h e i r , f a i r , pear
7. [eH]i l a y e r , mayor, bed 1 1 . [or]* chore, door, core
8. [oH]« boa, Noah, four 12, [ar]t choir, p a r t , barn
RE 1 2 . 1 8 . Buildupsi Pure Vowels and Glides
Mimic t h e t a p e . These longer utterances w i l l be b u i l t up

from t h e end. Be very careful of your pure vowels and g l i d e s .
1* [»da.now.from.'kêy.mo.ben.»p"er.gay.seH.'soy]
2. ['so.S£n.t n af.«map h .m6H.feH.'z6Hk h .bol.wa. , broH]
3 . [ •c h oyv.5an".g6d. »vaHl.meyn.£|ew. 'goy.do.dow. >haH]
RE 12.19. Buildups* Review of S t r e s s and Timing
Follow along i n your t e x t , and mimic the tape on these

buildups. The consonants and vowels a r e kept simple so t h a t
you can concentrate on t h e s t r e s s , j u n c t u r e , s y l l a b i c i t y ,
timing, e t c .
1. ['nana na'nana na na *na na na'na]
2 . [bribn'bnbn bribn »bn bn >bn«bn »bnbribn]

t t t t i t t t t t i i i
3. [»srtsrtsrt»srt »srtsrt srt srt «srt »srtsrtsrt]
i i i t i i i i i I I I
km [mba'ba 'mbambcan *m 'm ba'm m m 'mmmba »ba]
I I I ! I I I I I I I I
RE 12.20. Reading
To h e l p you a s s o c i a t e t h e symbols and t h e g l i d e sounds you

have learned t o produce, l i s t e n t o the c o r r e c t form on tape
a f t e r you have read i t . Practice aloud and with another s t u -
dent i f p o s s i b l e . Be prepared for c l a s s d i c t a t i o n .
1. [sow'so] 6 . [say'saH] 1 1 . [so'soH] 16. [sew'se]
2 . [soH'so] 7. [saH'say] 12. [so'soy] 17. [se'sew]
3 . [soy'so] 8. [say'saw] 1 3 . [sow'sow] 18. [seH'sey]
U. [ s a y ' s a ] 9 . [saw'sa] lit. [ssy'sey] 19 • [seH'saH]
5 . [sa«soy] 10. [saw'Say] 15. [se'se] 20. [saw'ssH]

192
LESSON THIRTEEN
Nasals
Bilabial Dental Alveo- Alveo- Retro- Velar

lar p a l a t a l flexed
Nasals
Voiced ra n n n n n
Voiceless M (N)1 N N (N) N
The nasal manner of articulation was explained in Lesson 1

(p. 16). It consists of a closure in the oral cavity, and an
open velic to allow the air stream to come out through the nose.
We need now to learn to produce some nasals in positions where
they do not occur in English, and to learn some new nasals which
do not normally occur in English.
Names of new symbols in this lesson are [~] "tilde"

/'tz-ldA/, [ST] "enya" /'enya/, [n] "eng" /en/ or "velar n",
[n n] "dental n", "retroflexed ji", [M] "capital m", etc.
[n] in Initial Position
You are already familiar with [n] in final position and

some medial positions in such English words as sing [sz,n],
singer [«st.n»r], and finger ['f&n.gr] (see Appendix). We now
introduce it in initial position, where it also occurs in many
languages.
RE 13.1. Negative Practicet Learning to Make Initial [n]
Mimic the stress, timing, and length as demonstrated on

the tape, to help you get the rhythm, and you will find yourself
making initial [n] with no difficulty. Follow the transcrip-
tion.
1. Start by saying singing»ing»ing»ing ['stnt-n* "tn* *tn« 'tq]
2. Change the stress placement! [sMQi/'n'z-'n't-'n'r-]
3. Then change tot [•qt-'qi.'nz.'ni.]
^The voiceless dental nasal and voiceless retroflexed na-

sal articulations in parentheses are perfectly possible, but
we will not drill them in this course.
Nasals 193
h* [•ne'ne'n.e'ne]
5. [«no'no»rjO»]3o]
6. ['na'ga'na'na]
RE 1 3 . 2 . Mimicry* I n i t i a l [nj
Follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic the t a p e .
l a . [»na] l b . ['nana] l c . [«nanaq] I d . ['nan 'nananj
2a. [«ne] 2b. ['nene] 2 c . ['nenen] 2d. ['rjeij 'nenen]
3 a . [«no] 3 b . ['130130] 3 c . ['13013013] 3 d . ['13013 '13013033]
RE 1 3 . 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l STOP, NASAL, or BOTH
Say t h e following words t o yourself, and analyze t h e medi-

a l consonants! b i g g e r [«bz,gr], s i n g e r [ ' s t n r ] , finger ['f1.13.gr].
Note t h a t they have [g] STOP, [13j NASAL, and [ngj BOTH, r e s p e c -
t i v e l y . I n t h e following exercise respond t o the tape with one
of t h e s e l a b e l s according t o what you h e a r . Don't peek.
1 . [aga] S 6. [0130] N 1 1 . [aga] S
2 . [003a] N 7. [ene] N 12. [ege] S
3 . [anga] B 8. [aga] N 3 3 . [ango] B
it. [anga] B 9. [ege] S lit. [enge] B
5 . [aga] S 10. [eijge] B 35. [0130] N
Now go back and p r a c t i c e i n mimicry of t h e t a p e .
Production of W
Be sure your tongue t i p i s down behind your lower t e e t h .
Hold i t t h e r e with t h e t i p of your f i n g e r . A r t i c u l a t e w i t h
your blade where i t n a t u r a l l y touches the a l v e o p a l a t a l region.
I n many, i f not most, languages where [n] occurs i t has a

[y] automatically associated with i t , making an on-glide i n t o a
following vowel or an o f f - g l i d e from a preceding one. I n such
languages the [y] helps t o d i s t i n g u i s h [n] from [ n ] . Other
languages have no such o f f - g l i d e . I n t h i s course, however,
(except f o r t h e following e x e r c i s e ) [11] w i l l always be accom-
panied with a s l i g h t [y] glide which w i l l not be t r a n s c r i b e d ,
but w i l l be considered a f e a t u r e of the [ n ] . The glide movement
29k Lesson 13
Sammy 13.1* [n]
of [7] comes very close t o [n] a r t i c u l a t i o n .
RE 13 ,U. Demonstration* fn] With and Without [y] Glides
Listen and mimic t o hear and f e e l the presence and ab-

sence of t h e [y] g l i d e . Follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
Without Glide Following Glide Preceding Glide
l a , [ana] l b , [afrya] l c . [ayna]
2a. [ene] 2 b . [enys] 2 c . [syne]
3 a . [ono] 3 b . [onyo] 3 c . [oyno]
RE 1 3 . 5 . Mimicry! [n]
Be very careful t o see t h a t your tongue t i p stays behind
your lower t e e t h . If necessary, place the t i p of your f i n g e r
l i g h t l y a t the edge of your lower t e e t h t o hold your tongue
down. Follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
l a . [»na] l b . ['nana] l c . ['nanafi] I d . ['nan »nanan]
2a. [•&] 2b. [»nene] 2c. [»nenen] 2d. ['neii 'nenen]

3 a . [«no] 3 b . ['nono] 3 c . ['nonon] 3d. ['non 'norion]
Nasals 1°5
Production of [n n]
[ji n] do not present any new a r t i c u l a t i o n problem, but

simply tfie c o n t r o l of d e n t a l and r e t r o f l e x e d a r t i c u l a t i o n s
learned i n Lesson 1 1 , and t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n with n a s a l manner
of a r t i c u l a t i o n . Some speakers of English w i l l f e e l t h e a r t i c -
u l a t i o n of [n] i n t e n things [|tên«©i,nz]. Some, but not as
many, w i l l f e e l t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of [n] i n door knob
[•doHrna»b],
You w i l l need t o l e a r n t o make both t h e s e a r t i c u l a t i o n s ,

and t o hear [ n ] . As with [ t d ] , however, you may l e a r n t o
recognize [n] more by seeing t h e tongue a t t h e t e e t h than by
i t s a c o u s t i c difference from [ n ] .
RE 1 3 . 6 . Mimicry! [n n]
Keep the proper a r t i c u l a t i o n on t h e following items whether

you hear t h e d e n t a l a r t i c u l a t i o n or n o t . Follow the t r a n s c r i p -
tion.
l a . [*na] l b . ['nana] l c . [•nanan] J

I d . ['nan 'nanan]
*• A A A
2a. [»na] 2b. [•nana] 2 c . [tnanan] 2d. ['nan •nanan]
3 a . [«ne] 3 b . [•nene] 3 c ['nenen] 3d. [ , n e P 'nenen] J

A A A
ha.. [»ne] Ub. ['nene] Uc. ['nenen] Ud. ['nen •nenen]

• • • • • • • • • •
5a. [«no] 5b. ['nono]
L
A A J
5c [* nonon] 5d. [»non •nonon] J
A A fl
6a. ['no] 6b. [»nono] 6 c . ['nonon] 6d. ['non 'nonon]

• • • • • • • . • •
RE 1 3 . 7 . Negative Practice* [n n ny n n]
I n the following sentences t h e English / n / ' s w i l l be r e -

placed with various kinds of n a s a l s j u s t d r i l l e d , [ny] w i l l
also be p r a c t i c e d . Remember t h a t [1i] when i t has a following
[y] g l i d e , sounds very much l i k e [ n y ] . The a r t i c u l a t o r and
point of a r t i c u l a t i o n are d i f f e r e n t . Make the proper a r t i c u l a -
t i o n for each of the s u b s t i t u t e d sounds. P r a c t i c e a l l of these
v a r i a t i o n s u n t i l you can say them f l u e n t l y . Follow t h e t r a n s -
cription.
1. Nyee, nyee, nyee said the l i t t l e fox.

l a . nss nae ns3 s a i d t h e l i t t l e fox
2a. res ffe ife s a i d t h e l i t t l e fox

196 Lesson 13
l c . nyae nyse nyae said t h e l i t t l e fox

I d . nee n s nae said t h e l i t t l e fox
• • •
l e . nae nse nas said the l i t t l e fox
2. Ned never knew Nancy's new number.
2a. ned never new nancy's new number

A A ft /N /\ /N
2b. ned never new nancy's new number
2c. nyed nyever nyew nyancy's nyew nyumber
2d. ned never new nancy's new number
2e. red never new nancy's new number
3. Ten thin men man one gun.
3a. ten thin men man one gun

A A. A A A A
3b. ten thin men man one gun
3c. ten thin men man one gun
3d. ten thin men man one gun
RE 23.8. Differential! ALVEOPALATAL, RETROFLEXED, VELAR
Don't peek.
1. [oSo] A V 11. [ono] V
2. [ono] R 6. [ene] A 32. [ene] R
•
3. [ono] V 7. [ene] A 13. [ana] A
U. [ono] R 8. [efie] V lU. [ene] R
• •
5. [ene] R 9 . [ana] R 15. [ana] V
•
Voiceless Nasals 10. [ana]
You can produce any voiceless nasal by articulating for a

voiced one, and simply blowing. Voiceless nasals often occur
adjacent to voiced nasals of the same articulation, and in our
drills we will follow this practice as it makes the voiceless
nasals easier to identify. You should be prepared, however, to
find such voiceless nasals without contiguous voiced nasals in
Nasals 197
languages you may study.
RE 1 3 . ° . Demonstrationt English Exclamations •with [M]

l i s t e n , and mimic t h e t a p e on t h e following exclamations
which have [M]. Get t h e f e e l i n g of the a r t i c u l a t i o n of the
voiceless n a s a l .
1* hml [Mm] 2. hm-m [Mm?m] 3 . mhm OroMm]
RE 13.10. Negative P r a c t i c e i [N N N, Mj
Mimic t h e t a p e , and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
1. Ned never knew Nancy's new number.
l a . Nned Nnever Nnew Nnancy's Nnew Nnumber
l b . Nned Nnever Niiew Nnancy's Nnew Nnumber
l c . Nned Nnever f^rjew Nriancy's Nnew ^number
2 . Ten t h i n men man one gun
2a. tenN thinN menN manN onNe gunN
2b. tenN thinN menN manN onNe gunN
2 c . tenlj thinN, menlj manN, onNe gurjN,
3 . Mother, make me much more mush.
3 a. Mmother Mmake Mme Mmuch Mmore Mmush
RE 1 3 . 1 1 . Mimicryi Voiceless Nasals
Mimic t h e t a p e , and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n ,
l a . [»Mmo] l b . [*o'Mmo] l c . ['om'Mmo] I d . ['onM]
2a. [«Nno] 2b. f o ' N n o ] 2c. f'on'Nno] 2d. ['onN]
3 a . [«Nno] 3 b . [*o»Nnb] 3 c . ['on'finb] 3d. [*onN]
Ua. [«Nno] lib. f o ' N n o ] U c forj'Nno] lid. [*onNj
RE 13.12. Buildup and S u b s t i t u t i o n
Mimic t h e t a p e . The frame remains constant, with one

198 Lesson 13
syllable changing for each utterance. There is a buildup on

the first one because the sequence is long and the combinations
require practice. Work on them until you get them fluently.
Follow the transcription.
1« [gonM'new satâ'nonN] 6. [gonM'zVw satb-a'nonN]
2. 't h ca] 7. 'Ijfto
3. 'noz 8. •dana
U. 'nenN 9. 'neso
5. 'tsan 10. 'xenN.
RE 13.13i Khmtf >\ Mimicryt Voiced Nasals
Mimic t h e tape and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i on.
la. /naa/ l b . /fiaak/ l c . /naa/

•she' 'poor' 'tusk'
2a. / n a a y / 2b. /naam/ 2c. /naam/

•that' 'time when' •part of a plow'
3a. /naan/ 3b. /naan/ 3c /naak/

'Miss• •crawl' •nursing"
Ua. /neew/ Uc. A)eep/
'kind' 'roof overhang'
RE T3»lkt Khmu*. Mimicry! Voiceless Nasals
Mimic t h e tape and follow t h e t rans c r i p t i o n .
2 b . [Nna«y] I d . [Nna-p]
'there' •yawn1
2a. [Mman] 2b., [Nnam] 2d. [Nrjat]

'hold' •be l a r g e ' •recede'
3 a. [Mmo»n] 3 b . , [Nno«n]
'sad' 'be remaining'
Khmu' is a mountain minority language spoken in northern

Laos. Data from William A. Smalley, Outline of Khmu* Structure.
Nasals 199
Ua. []tfmu»c] He. [Hnlp] Hd. [Nne»k]
•ant' 'grab, 'hornbill'
grasp'
RE 1 3 , l 5 i Khimi?. F i n a l [n]
Mimic the t a p e and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n ,
1, [ma«rT] ' a s k ' 3 , [ta»n] 'weave' S>. [pin] 'shoot*
2. [ba»n] 'be drunk' h. [gu«n] ' s e e ' 6 . [kin] 'full'

RE 1 3 , l 6 i Black Bobo 1 . Mimicry! Nasals with Tone
Mimic the tape and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Note t h e

s y l l a b i c n a s a l s , and t h e tones on them, ~
1* [gq] 'oven' 6. [JjJ 'grease'
2, [gn] 'yesterday' 7, ( # K 'head'
3. [ ^ 'black' 8. [nl\ ' s l e e p5»
U. [kg] 'skin' 9, [Nn] 'sun'

i •
T
5. [SQ 'odor' 10. [Nn] 'man'
RE 1 3 . 1 7 . Review Buildupst General

1* [ea.ddye'po.mctr). ' a . n o ] h. [da.c&'t h on.t&en'd8ow.Nna]
2 . [gwax.'a'fa.neg.'pponN] f>. [ps n o.ke',jan.nom 'n.Nn&'']
3 . [tss.pom'pwa m'bo.Nns.doz] 6. [pra4.syex«boc n ,2er),sem.ton,
•Mme]
T3lack Bobo is spoken in Mali, West Africa, Data obtained

with the help of Rev, Grant Crooks, Recording simulated from
notes.
200 Lesson 13
RE 13.18. Reviewt [x g q]
^y now you should be g e t t i n g t h e v e l a r f r i c a t i v e s . Prac-

t i c e t h e following u t t e r a n c e s r e p e a t e d l y . Mimic t h e tape and
follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
1 . [gerj'xona] U. [gego<gaxar|]
2 . ['nagogex] 5 . [nen'xag.non.xa]
3 . [xe'naneno] 6. [xsx'xaxoq.goxo]
Transcribe the utterances on t h e t a p e , when you are s a t -
i s f i e d with your t r a n s c r i p t i o n , check i t with t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n
below. U n t i l t h e n , d o n ' t peeki
1 . [Nnem] 6 . [Gasa»]J]og]
2. [nairM] 7. [cs"og«k h o'']
3 . [tso'nan] 6. [mon.^gsb. ' t ^ a ? ]
U. [ne'Mman] 9. [pax.'zenM.nad]
5. [s^fTen] 10. [Jok h .fean.'gen]
RE 13.20. Reading
Read off each of the following items, and l i s t e n t o t h e
c o r r e c t reading on the t a p e . Go through t h e exercise s e v e r a l
times if necessary.
1 . ['mane] 6. [dz'o't^sn]
2. [«Nneno] 7. ['Iêf.tsa]
3 . f'xena] 8. [mok^'Niiep]
h. [so'Mme] 9. [Mman' kônl}]
5. [ppes«thoorj] 10. [nag«tseniy]

201
LESSON FOURTEEN
Some Back and Central Vowels
Front Central Back

High u
Lower-high V
Mid 0
Lower-mid 6
Low A 0
Lower-low
Table lli.li Vowels to Date
The names of the new vowel symbols on this chart (those

enclosed in boxes) are [A] "caret" or "upside-down v", [v]
"upsilon" (from Greek), and [o] "open o" or "backwards c_".
In Lesson 12 we discussed vowel qualities in terms of

three levels (high, mid, and low) as well as three regions
from front to back. Three levels were enough for our purposes
at that time, but now that we need to introduce more vowel
qualities we have further subdivided the levels as you can see
in the chart.1
Do not let this chart, and the careful drilling which you
will be doing give you a false sense of absolute precision on
these vowel qualities and positions we chart for them. You
will be working toward enormously increased control over vowel
articulation, but even so you should think of the areas of the
vowel chart and the positions of the various symbols as "target
areas." In actual languages there is a considerable variation
in the pronunciation of a single vowel phoneme, the various
pronunciations clustering in an area of the chart, giving a
scatter-shot effect. In this course we will be working toward
"T?his system of labels is modified from H. A. Gleason, An

Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics, p. 203. Many phoneTT-
cians use the terms high close, high open, mid close, mid open,
low close, low open.
202 Lesson lit
Sammy l U . l t [A] Sammy llt,2» [u]
Sammy lU.3» [v] Sammy ih.kt [0]
g r e a t e r c o n t r o l , so t h a t you can discriminate and produce

sounds i n more of t h e areas of t h e chart than you have been
able t o do a t w i l l b e f o r e . In order t o do t h i s we s e t up a
kind of phonetic norm for each vowel we t e a c h . Equally impoi—
Some Back and Central Vowels 203
tant is to learn to vary away from this "norm" at will in any
direction to mimic any variation you hear.
Remember that these "target area" qualities are also se-

lected from an infinite number of possibilities. Listen to the
different qualities created by the "slur" in RE lii.l, Nos. h"$»
If you still have any problems about the principles of

vowel formation, study Sammies lii.l-lU.U in relation to the
above chart.
RE l U . l . Demonstrationt Vowel Q u a l i t i e s i n Table l i i . l
Listen t o t h e exercise through s e v e r a l t i m e s , and mimic.

Follow along i n your t e x t , and by watching Table l U . l . Be
c a r e f u l t o t r y t o eliminate a l l g l i d e s . You w i l l have more
work on t h a t i n a l a t e r e x e r c i s e . The " s l u r s " i n Nos. h and 5
demonstrate t h a t the vowels you a r e now d r i l l i n g are only s e l e c -
t e d points out of a continuum.
1. [e A a o o v u] f>. s l u r from [a] t o [u]

9
2. [9VL V 9o 9
0 9
a *A 9&] 6 . [ma mA mo mo ma mA]
3 . [so so sv su s a SA ss] 7» [du dv do do dv du]
h» s l u r from [u] t o [o] 8. [xe XA x a xo xo xv xu]
Learning [uj and [v]
Now you w i l l have s p e c i a l p r a c t i c e i n hearing and produc-

ing the high and lower-high back rounded vowels. Do not be de-
ceived by any s i m i l a r i t y t o vowels i n your English speech.
Mimic what you hear on t h e t a p e , and l e a r n t o c o n t r o l both t h e
q u a l i t y and the tendency t o g l i d e .
RE l U . 2 . Discrimination! SAME or DIFFERENT
L i s t e n t o t h e paired words, and answer SAME or DIFFERENT.

After you have completed the e x e r c i s e , l i s t e n again and mimic.
Column a w i l l p a i r t h e vowels [u o ] , Column b [u v ] , and Column
c [v o]» Don't peekj
l a . [gom gum] D 5a. [gom gum] D 9a. [«mogi «mogi] S
2a. [gom gom] S 6a. ['mugi «mogi] D 10a. ['mugi «mogi] D
3a. [gum gum] S 7a. ['mugi »mugi] S
Ua. [gum gom] D 8a. [»mogi «mugi] D

Lesson Ik
lb. >vf wuf ] D lc„ [los l v s ] D
2b. wvf wuf] D 2c. [lus los] D
3b. wvf wpf] s 3 c . [lvs l v s ] S
Ub. 'wuf wvf] D Uc. [ I D S l o s ] D
5b. "wuf wuf] D 5 c [los l o s ] S
6b. wuf wuf] S 6 c . [ ' s o l a »sula] D
7b. [wuf wuf] s 7c. ['sola 'sola] S

8b „ [wvf wvf] s 8c. [«svla ' s o l a ] D
9b. [wuf wuf] D 9 c . [«sula ' s v l a ] S
10b. [wuf wuf] s 10c. [ ' s o l a ' s o l a ] S
I n producing [u] you must be very careful not t o make a

glided sound, [u] i s deceptively s i m i l a r t o t h e way many of
us pronounce boot ( a c t u a l l y often pronounced more l i k e [ b i w t ] ) .
[u] must be unglided, with t h e tongue high i n back and t h e l i p s
c l o s e l y rounded.
To produce [v] lower t h e back of t h e tongue s l i g h t l y from

[u] and l e s s e n t h e rounding s l i g h t l y . Or, r a i s e t h e back of
t h e tongue s l i g h t l y from [o] and i n c r e a s e the rounding s l i g h t l y .
RE l U . 3 . Mimicry* [u v o]
I n t h e following exercise mimic the tape and watch i n a

mirror t o see t h a t you do not get a [w] g l i d e . On a l l of these
sounds experiment with t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e back of your tongue
t o get the same q u a l i t y you hear on the t a p e . Work with your
buddy so t h a t he can t e l l you when you d o n ' t sound l i k e t h e
t a p e . Watch the t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
la. [buth] l b . [bvt h ] lc. [bot h ]
2a. [kup h ] 2b. [kut h ] 2c. [kot h ]

3 a . [sum] 3 b . [sum] 3 c . [som]
Ua. [suz] Ub. [suz] Uc [soz]
5a. [xuf] 5b. [xuf] 5c [xof]
6a. ['gudfen] 6b. ['gudfen] 6 c . ['godfen]
7a. [tgudfon] 7b. pgvdfan] 7c. [«godfan]
8a. [»gudfon] 8b. [«gvdfon] 8c. [»godfon]
9a. [«gudfun] 9b. ['gudfun] 9c. ['godfun]
10a. ['gudfun] 10b. ["gudfun] 10c. ['godfun]
RE Ib.U. Negative Practice* "This Is t h e House t h a t Jack Built"
Recite t h e following v e r s e , s u b s t i t u t i n g f i r s t [ u ] , then

[ u ] , then [o] i n t h e underlined words. A t r a n s c r i p t i o n i s given
you a t the s i d e for t h e words t o be changed. Do t h e whole verse
through with one vowel before going on t o another. The tape
w i l l demonstrate how each s e t s t a r t s , but w i l l not provide mim-
i c r y m a t e r i a l f o r the f u l l d r i l l . Be e s p e c i a l l y careful t o
avoid s l i p p i n g i n t o English sounds. Keep the d i s t i n c t q u a l i t i e s
on which we are working for each of the s u b s t i t u t e d sounds.
a b c
This i s the House t h a t Jack [hus] [hus] [hos]

built.
This i s t h e Malt [mult] [mvlt] [molt]
That l a y i n the House t h a t [hus] [hus] [hos]
Jack b u i l t .
This i s t h e Rat [rut] [rut] [rot]
That a t e the Malt [mult] [mult] [molt]
That lay i n the House t h a t [hus] [hus] [hos]
Jack b u i l t .
This i s t h e Cat [l&it] [k^t] [kôt]
That k i l l e d t h e Rat [rut] [rvt] [rot]

That a t e t h e Malt [mult] [mvlt] [molt]
That lay i n t h e House t h a t [hus] [hus] [hos]
Jack b u i l t .
This i s t h e Dog [dug] [dug] [dog]
That worried t h e Cat [kût] [kVt] [kôt]

That k i l l e d the Rat [rut] [rvt] [rot]
206 Lesson lU
a b c
That ate t h e Malt [mult] [mvlt ] [molt]

That l a y i n the House t h a t [hus] [hvs] [hos]
Jack b u i l t .
This i s the Cow with the [kV] [IAW] [lâw]

crumpled horn
That tossed the Dog [dug] [dug] [dog]
That worried t h e Cat [k*ut] [kVt] [kôfc]

That k i l l e d t h e Rat [rut] [rpt] [rot]
That a t e the Malt [mult] [mvlt ] [molt]
That l a y i n the House t h a t [hus] [hvs] [hos]

Jack b u i l t .
This i s the Maiden a l l ['mudn] t'mvdn] [•modn]

i t
forlorn
That milked the Cow with [k^w] [k*V| [kV]

the crumpled horn
That tossed t h e Dog [dug] [dug] [dog]

That worried t h e Cat [kût] [kV] [kV]
That k i l l e d t h e Rat [rut] [rvt] [rot]
That a t e the Malt [mult] [mult] [molt]
That lay i n the House t h a t [hus] [hvs] [hos]

Jack b u i l t .
This i s the Man a l l t a t t e r e d [mun] [mvn] [mon]

and t o r n
That kissed t h e Maiden a l l ['mudn] [•rnvdn] [•modn]

forlorn
That milked t h e Cow with [kkuw] [k?W] [kNr]

t h e crumpled horn
That t o s s e d the Dog [dug] [dyg] [dog]
That worried the Cat [kNit] [At] [kôt]

a b c
That killed the Rat [rut] [rut] [rot]
That ate the Malt [mult] [mult] [molt]
That lay in the House that [hus] [hus] [hos]

Jack built.
This is the Priest, all [pkrust] [p r u s t ] [p^rost]

shaven and shorn
That married the Man all [mun] [mun] [mon]

tattered and torn
That kissed the Maiden ['mudn] ['mudn] [•modn]

t i
all forlorn
That milked the Cow with [kNiw] [lûw] [ôw]

the crumpled horn,
That worried the Cat [lût] [kJhrt] [lôt]
That killed the Rat [rut] [rut] [rot]
That lay in the House that [hus] [hus] [hos]

Jack built.
This is the Cock that [kV] [kNk] [khok]

crowed in the morn
That waked the Priest all [p"rust ] [p h rust] [frrost ]

shaven and shorn
That married the Man all [mun] [mun] [mon]

tattered and torn
That kissed the Maiden [«mudn] [•mudn] [•modn]

all forlorn
That milked the Cow with [kûw] [khuw] [khow]

the crumpled horn
That worried the Cat [kVt] [khut] [kVt]

208 Lesson lh
s b c
That k i l l e d the Rat [rut] [rvt] [rot]
That l a y i n t h e House t h a t [hus] [hus] [hos]

Jack b u i l t .
This i s the Farmer who [*fumr] ['fvmr] ['fomr]
!
sowed the corn ' '
That fed the Cock t h a t [kNik] [khpk ] [k h ok]
crowed i n the morn
That waked the P r i e s t a l l [p^rust] [phrvst] [phrost]
shaven and shorn
That married the Man, a l l [mun] [mim] [mon]
t a t t e r e d and t o r n
That kissed the Maiden [»mudn] ['mvdn] ['modn]
a l l forlorn '
That milked the Cow with [kûrr] [k^vw] [lôw]
the crumpled horn
That tossed the Dog [dug] [dvg] [dog]
That worried the Cat [kVt] [kVt] [lôt]
That k i l l e d the Rat [rut] [rvt ] [rot]
That a t e t h e Malt [mult] [mult] [molt]
That l a y i n the House t h a t [hus] [hus] [hos]

Jack built.
Learning [o] and [A]
To produce [o] the back of the tongue is lowered from [o],

and the rounding is lessened. Be careful not to get an [H]
glide. Some speakers of English will tend to confuse [o] and
[a]. They should work especially hard on these drills.
To produce [A] the center of the tongue is raised from

[a] very slightly.
RE 1U.5. Discrimination! SAME or DIFFERENT
l a . [ ' s o f a »sofA] D l b . [foth f a t h ] D
2a. ['sofA »sofA] S 2b. [ f a t h fath] S
3 a . ['sofA ' s o f a ] D 3b. [fath foth] D
Ua. ["sofa 'sofA] D Ub. [ f o t h f a t h ] D
5a. ['sofa 'sofa] S 5b. [ f o t h f o t h ] S

6a. ['sofA ' s o f a ] D 6b. [ f a t h f a t h ] S
7a. ['sofane 'sofAne] D 7b. [nu'fath n u ' f o t h ] D
8a. ['sofane 'sofane] S 8b. [ n u ' f a t h n u ' f a t h ] S

h
9a. ['sofAne 'sofane] D 9b. [ n u ' f o t nu'foth] s
10a. [•s ofAne •s ofAne] S 10b. [nu«fot h n u ' f a t h ] D
l c . [hos hos] D 6 c . [hos hos] s

2c. [hos hos] S 7 c . [•hosmon 'hosmon] D
3 c . [hos hos] D 8c. ['hosmon 'hosmon] D

Uc. [hos hos] S 9c ['hosmon 'hosmon] S
5c. [hos hos] D 10c. ['hosmon 'hosmon] S
RE l U . 6 . Mimicryt [o o a A]
Mimic carefully, striving for the same pronunciation as

that which you hear on the tape. Get your buddy to listen to
you and help you compare.
la. [both] lb. [both] lc. [bAth] Id. [bath]
2a. [koth] 2b. [koth] 2c. [kAth] 2d. [kat h ]
3a. [som] 3b. [som] 3c. [sAm] 3d. [sam]
Ua. [soz] Ub. [soz] Uc. [SAZ] Ud. [saz]
5a. [xof] 5b. [xof] 5c. [xAf] 5d. [xof]
6a. ['zoglen] 6b. ['zoglen] 6 c . ['zAglen] 6d. ['zaglen]

210 Lesson ih
7a. ['zoglon] 7b. ['zoglan] 7c. ['zAglan] 7d. ['zaglan]
8a. [«zoglon] 8b. ["zoglon] 8c. ['zAglon] 8d. ['zaglon]
9a. [«zoglim] 9b. ['zoglpn] 9c. ['zAglpn] 9d. ['zaglvn]
10a. f'zoglun] 10b. [»zoglun] 10c. ['zAglun] lOd. ['zaglun]
RE l i i . 7 . Negative Practice* "This I s t h e House t h a t Jack Built"
Refer to t h e t e x t of RE lU.U, i f you need t o . The sounds

t o be s u b s t i t u t e d are i n d i c a t e d i n the columns below. The tape
w i l l s t a r t you off for each one.
House [hos] [has] [hAs]
Malt [molt h ] [malt h ] [mAlt h ]
Rat [roth] [rath] [rAt h ]
Cat [kôt] [k?*at] [k*At]
Dog [dog] [dag] [dAg]
Cow [kôw] [kôw] [ÂW]
Maiden ['modn] ['modn] [>m&dn]

t t
Man [mon] [man] [mAn]
Priest [purest 11 ] [phrast 11 ] [pkrAst 11 ]
Cock [lôk*] [lâk*1] [lÂk*1]
Farmer ['forar] [«famr] [«fAmr]
RE 111.. 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ROUNDED v s . UNROUNDED
Turn t o Table l U . l , p . 201, and watch i t as you go through

t h i s d r i l l or p a r t of i t . TOien you no longer need i t , cover i t
up and continue t h e d r i l l , or do t h e d r i l l again. Listen t o
t h e vowel sound on the t a p e , and respond with ROUNDED or
UNROUNDED. Do not watch the t e x t of the e x e r c i s e . A demonstra-
t i o n of the q u a l i t i e s on the chart down the columns from l e f t
t o r i g h t w i l l precede t h e d r i l l . This i s t o "tune you up" t o
the distinctions again.
Demonstration! [»e 9A ' a ' u ">v *o *o]
[kêm kÂm lâm kNim l^vm kôm lôm]
1. [»u] R 7, [k^fon] U 13. [ & g ] U
2. ['a] U 8. [kâm] U lit. [&*] R
3. po] R 9. [kNm] R 15. [zag] U
U. [•»] R 10. [kôm] R 15. [ & g ] u

5. [»o] R 1 1 . [khum] R 17. [zog] R
6. [»e] U 12. [kôro] R 18. [zvg] R
RE 1U.9. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! FRONT UNROUNDED, CENTRAL UNROUNDED, o r

BACK ROUNDED
Follow the same instructions as for the preceding exercise,

except for the enlarged response.
1. t ' e ] FU 7. [ t s a f ] CU 1 3 . [dfm] BR
2. [»o] BR 8. [ t s v f ] BR lit. [dgon] BR
3 . [*u] B R 9. [tsAf] CU 15. [d|an] CU
k. f o ] B R 10. [tsef ] FU 16. [djkn] C U
5 . [*v] BR 11. [tsof] BR 17. [dzon] BR
6. ['A] C U 12. [ t s u f ] BR 18. [dzvn] BR
RE l i i . 1 0 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Tongue Height
Respond with one of the following! HIGH, LOWER-HIGH, MID,

LOWER-MID, LOW, LCWER-LCW.
1. [»u] H 7. [Sun] H 13. [pogz] L
•
2. ['A] L 8. [Son] M lU. [pogz] M
3 . [*o] L 9. [Son] L 15. [pugz] H

*
k. [*e] Iril 16. [pvgz] L-H
10. [SAT] L
5. ['a] L-L 17. [psgz] L-M
1 1 . [|oa]] L-L
6. p v ] L-« IB. [pugz] H
12. [Svrj] L-H
212 Lesson lU
RE 1U.11. Differential! Full Labels
Select one term from each column to make up your response.
HIGH FRONT ROUNDED
LOWER-HIGH CENTRAL UNROUNDED

MID BACK
LOWER-MID
LOW
LOWER-LOW
L. [ » a ] L - L C U 9 . [reg] MFU 1 7 . [Mmoc*] L BR
2 . [*u] H B R 10. [rog] L B R 1 8 . [Mmue h ] HBR
3 . ['A] L C U 1 1 . [rog] MB R 1 9 . [Mmac*1] L~L C U
k. [*o] M B R 12. [rAg] L C U 20. [Mmvc11] L-H B R
5. [»o] L BR 13. [rug] H BR 2 1 . [Mmec5h] M F U
6 . f > e ] L-M F U 111. [rog] MB R 22. [Mmoc*1] L BR
7 . [*v] L-H B R 15. [rvg] L-H B R 23. [MmAch] L C U

8 . [*u] HB R 16. [rog] L B R 2U. [Mmvc11] L-H B R
Off-glides on the New Vowels
Any of the new vowels i n t h i s lesson (and a l l other vowels)

may have any of t h e four o f f - g l i d e s [w y H r ] . We w i l l not
d r i l l [w] glide on [ u ] , as t h e d i s t i n c t i o n i s very c l o s e i f you
have a proper [u]»
RE 1U.12. D i f f e r e n t i a l GLIDED or NO
The new vowel sounds occur with o f f - g l i d e s i n some words

i n t h i s e x e r c i s e . Listen t o the tape and respond accordingly.
Then l i s t e n again and mimic. Don't peekj
1. [sut] NO k. [sot] NO 7. [sut] NO
2. [svt] NO 5. [surt] G 8. [soyt] G

3 . [sAyt] G 6. [sAt] NO 9 . [svwt] G
10. [suHt] G 17. [sot] NO 2U. [sJUrt] G
11. [sAt] NO 18. [surt] G 25. [surt] G
12. [sArt] G 19. [SAt] NO 2 6 . [SAt] NO
13. [swt] G 20. [sut] NO 27. [sot] NO
Ik. [svb] NO 21. [start] G 2 8 . [sowt] G
15. [svHt] G 22. [soHt] G 29. [soyt] G
16. [svyt] G 23. [svt] NO 30. [sort] a

RE l b . 1 3 . Mimicry! Vowels With and W i t h o u t G l i d e s
Mimic t h e t a p e , and w a t c h t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
la. [thu] l b . [t h uy] I d . [tîH] le. [tîr]
2a. [ t h v ] 2b. [thvy] 2c. [t h vw] 2d. [thvH] 2e. [thvr]
3a. [th0] 3b. [th0y] 3c [thaw] 3 d . [thoH] 3c [thor]
U&. [i*o] Ub. [thoy] Uc. [thow] Ud. [thoH] lie. [thor]
5a. [th A ] 5b. [tÂy] 5 c [thaw] 5d. [thAH] 5e. [tÂr]
6a. [tha] 6b. [thay] 6 c . [thaw] 6d. [thaH] 6 e . [thar]
7a. [ t h 6 ] 7b. [they] 7c [th e w] 7d. [th e H] 7e. [ t h 6 r ]
RE l b . l i t . Negative P r a c t i c e ! "This I s t h e House t h a t Jack B u i l t '
This time s u b s t i t u t e various vowels with o f f - g l i d e s l i k e

those i n d i c a t e d below. These are not a l l of t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
You can take others from the preceding e x e r c i s e . The tape w i l l
demonstrate these b r i e f l y .
a b c d
House [hvys] [hows] [hoHs] [hurs]
Malt [mvylth] [mowlt h ] [moHlt h ] [murlth]
Rat [rvyth] [rowth] [roHth] [rurth]
[kVt h ] [kôwt 11 ] [kW1] [Art 1 1 ]

Dog [dvyg] [dowg] [doHg] [durg]
21k Lesson lU
Cow h
[k vy] [kV] h
[k oH]
h
[k ur]
Maiden [•mvydn] [•mowdn] [»moHdn] [•murdn]
Man [mvyn] [mown] [moHn] [mum]
Priest [phrvyst 11 ] [phrowst 11 ] [phroHst 11 ] [phrurst* 1 ]
Cock [kkpyk*1] [khowk11] [khoHk11] [kîrk 11 ]
Farmer [ »£ vymr] [•fowmr] [«foHmr] [•furmr]
RE lU.15. D i f f e r e n t i a l * MID or LOT

This i s a d i f f e r e n t i a l d r i l l on [oy] and [ o y ] . Disregard
any other vowels or vowel glides i n t h e words. Don't peekj
1 . [boy] M $. ['lôyn] L 9. [ ' f o y s t l e y ] M

2 . [boy] L 6. ['lôyn] M 10. [«foystley] M
3 . [boy] L 7. ['lôyn] L 1 1 . [«foystley] M
h. [boy] M 8. ['lôyn] L 12. [»foystley] L
RE l i w l 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! LOT or LOTER-LOT
This i s a d i f f e r e n t i a l d r i l l on [AH] and [cH]» Follow t h e

same procedure as i n t h e preceding e x e r c i s e .
1. [lÂHm] L 5. [sAH»t h u] L 9. ['xAHfegz] L
2. [Baffin] L-L 6. [sAH't h u] L 10. ['xaHfegz] L-L
3 . DÂHm] L 7. [saH't h u] L-L 1 1 . ['xaHfegz] L-L
U. [lâHm] L-L 8. [sAH'tî] L 12. ['xaHfegz] L-L
RE 1I+.17. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! LOWER-HIGH and MID
This i s a d i f f e r e n t i a l d r i l l on [vw] and [an]. Follow t h e

same procedure as i n t h e preceding e x e r c i s e .
1. [ n w ] L-H $, [»bztfwk] L-H 9. [»brvwsNna] L-H
2 . [mm] L-H 6 . ['bzowk] M 10. [«brvwsNna] L-H
3 . [now] M 7. [•bzowk] M 1 1 . ['browsNna] M
k. [now] M 8. ['bzowk] M 12. ['brvwsNna] L-H

Some Back and Central Vowels 21S
RE 111.18. Reviewt Glided Pitch and Glided Vowels
The purpose of t h i s exercise i s t o r e i n f o r c e the indepen-

dence of p i t c h glides and vowel g l i d e s . The e x e r c i s e c o n s i s t s
of longer sequences t o which you build up. You w i l l mimic the
pitch as w e l l as the consonants and vowels. Note t h a t pure
vowels may have r i s i n g or f a l l i n g p i t c h , and t h a t glided vowels
may have l e v e l p i t c h . Watch the t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic.
1. [sogl.s^'n&y 'yAwk 'p\nt.">ev»jvHJcu]
2 . [''uH\mArjpuyx.f\y.jkVr '6oH pug'b\H]
3 . [Vvn'npfrf.Iro^z.tornN'sAy1, tôH dur'ssef]
\y \ L_J \ _J
U. [pôwfnby* zer d^s.kvrj'gAHlzuy'v
RE lU.19. Reviewt Pitch and S t r e s s
I n most languages, p i t c h and s t r e s s are t o some degree

r e l a t e d . S t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s often tend t o have higher p i t c h ,
e t c . They are not so c l o s e l y r e l a t e d , however, but what t h e y
do have independent occurrence. I n t h i s exercise you w i l l
p r a c t i c e changing pitch and s t r e s s p a t t e r n s r e l a t i v e t o each
other.
1. ['9a|9e Go 9u!9o;9v] 6 . [na n&/ «noinu'no,ni/1
2 . [9a;9s 9o '9u;9o• 9u] 7. fhqt »ne no!nu]no,nv]
3 . [ 9 a l ' 9 e 9o 9u'9o'9v] 8. [na ne" no! nu |»noi ntf]

' — I : :./
km [9a!9e Go Quieol'Qv] 9. [ha 3 / noj nu !no \'nv]
5. [9o?;96 '9Q Qu;"e7; Qv] 10. ['hajty no! nu S , np]
RE I k . 2 0 . S u b s t i t u t i o n
Mimic t h e tape i n the following u t t e r a n c e s . The f i r s t one
216 Lesson lU
w i l l be b u i l t up, and t h e remainder w i l l c o n s i s t of s u b s t i t u -

t i o n s made i n the f i r s t one. P r a c t i c e for fluency. Work on
p i t c h , s t r e s s , timing, e t c . , as w e l l as on consonants and
vowels.
RE l U . 2 1 . Transcription
Transcribe t h e u t t e r a n c e s you hear on the t a p e . Mien you

are s a t i s f i e d with your t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , check them a g a i n s t t h e
t e x t below, u n t i l t h e n , d o n ' t peekJ
1. [Mmvnk] h. [pso'dpy] 7. [tvH'yoHn]
2 . [tSoyf] 5 . [«&nrthonN] 8. [pSe'ksur]
3 . [gawte] 6 . [«poytsApf] 9. ['nayljnawkx]
RE l l t . 2 2 . Reading
Read off the item and check your reading with t h e tape i n
t h e usual manner.
1* [mAyn] 5. [bsw«te6] 9 . [sal'Nnard]
2. [duyf] 6. ['nuH.gus] 10. [»d 6 g-.p h 6 Hs]
3 . [soHnN] 7. ['voy.khoz] 1 1 . [jAx«bArc h ]
h. [porz] 8. [t h aw«ppo] 12. [voz'koHts]

217
LESSON FIFTEEN
Laterals
Alveo-
Dental Alveolar palatal Retroflexed Velar
Laterals
Oral
Voiced
High tongue r i* i U) 1
Low tongue ¥ r (1)
Voiceless <L> L (L) (L) U)
•
Fricative
Voiced (!) i (i) (1)
•
w
Voiceless (*> i (!) (B) (%>
Affricate
Voiced :<&) di (di) (ft)
Voiceless
Unaspirated (t|) t£ (tL)
(Kb) (k£) (k£) (k£) (k%)

h h
Aspirated t£ (t£ )
••
(k£h) (k£h) (k£h) (W1)
•
Table l^.lt Some Lateral Articulations
The lateral manner of articulation was explained in
Lesson 1 (p. 17). It differs from other articulations in that
one or both of the sides of the tongue are open to allow the
airstream to pass, but some part of the tongue (usually the
tip) is touching a point of articulation so that the airstream
cannot come over the center of the tongue. Whereas in English
there is one lateral phoneme /!/» this has several different
Symbols in parentheses represent sounds which are per-

fectly possible and are included for the sake of the record,
but which will not be drilled in this course. Brief descrip-
tions are included in the lesson.
218 Lesson 15
pronunciations in the speech of any one individual, depending

on the position in the word. Some languages have more than
one kind of lateral in phonemic contrast. Others which have
only one lateral phoneme have a different selection of allo-
phones from English. The pronunciation of laterals is one of
the principal characteristics of the foreign accent of Ameri-
cans speaking many languages.
Although the array of symbols in the above chart may look

imposing, there is nothing much new by way of symbolization, if
analogy with the symbols for nasals (p. 192) is kept in mind.
All of the symbols in the chart are built around two basic onesj
[1] (for voiced lateral) and [L] "capital 1" (for voiceless
lateral). The use of the capital is analogous to the symboli-
zation of the voiceless nasals. Around these two symbols are
arranged a variety of diacritics exactly analogous to those
used for the nasals, to indicate points of articulationt [„]
"dental," [~] "alveopalatal," [.] "retroflexed," and the tail
on the symbol (like the tail on the [n]) for "velar." The line
through the symbols to indicate the fricatives is analogous to
Actually there are only two really new symbols in this

chart. They are the diacritics on [1* lv ] "high tongue 1" and
"low tongue 1." The articulatory significance of these will be
discussed and" drilled below, but for the moment notice the sym-
bolization. The diacritic for the "high tongue 1" points high,
and that for the "low tongue 1" points low. [1A"J is sometimes
called "clear 1," or "light 1," and [V] "dark 1" or "velarized
1" in other linguistic materials.
RE l£.l» Demonstrationt High and Low Tongue Laterals
Pronounce these English words, and notice the difference

in jbongue position for the /l/t William [»WklAyAm] and callous
['Ir'ael" A S ] . Prolong the lateral in each caset [1~ • 1"• J, and
alternate them. Note that the point of articulation does not
necessarily change (although it may change slightly in some
speakers), but for many speakers of American English the sur-
face of the tongue behind the point of articulation is notice-
ably higher (nearer the palate) for the / l / in William than for
the one in callous. It is because of this difference in tongue
height that the one is called "high tongue 1" [1~], and the
other "low tongue 1" [lv]» Now pronounce th"e English word
little, and see if-you have a difference between the two /l/«s»
I • 1A vtl" ], as many American speakers do.
In these dialects of American English the choice between

high and low tongue laterals is made for the speaker by the
Laterals 21?
Sammy l5.1» [1*]. Note the Sammy l5.2« [1*]. Note the
relatively high position of relatively low position of
the tongue surface behind the tongue surface behind the
the point of articulation. point of articulation.
language system. [1A] occurs before high front vowels (p. 232)
and the [1"] in other positions, making them allophones of one
phoneme. Many languages, such as French and Spanish, do not
have this use of [l v ], and the carryover of this unconscious
English habit is one of the causes of an undesirable
pronunciation.
Actually, a lateral at a given point of articulation may

be said with a variety of different tongue contours, giving it
different sounds. Listen to the tape as you follow along in
the Manual, and watch for the different qualities associated
with the laterals pronounced. This is done by changing the
configuration of the tongue behind the point of articulation
and of the lips. Nos. 7~10 are vowel qualities which you have
not yet had.
1. [1] with [u] quality 6. [1] with [a] quality
2. [1] with [v] quality 7. [1] with [e] quality
3. [1] with [o] quality 8. [1] with [i] quality
h. [1] with [o] quality 9. [1] with [e] quality

5. [1] with [A] quality 10. [1] with [a] quality
220 Lesson 15
Now listen to the two following laterals, which show the

relation between these different kinds of quality and the two
on which we are focusing (high tongue and low tongue).
11. [Y-] ie., [1] with [i] 12. [lv] ie., [1] with [A]
quality quality
High tongue lateral, in other words, has an [i] quality, while

low tongue lateral has an [A] quality.
Practice pronouncing laterals with various vowel qualities.
RE lg.2. Differentialt HIGH or LOW
After you have studied the above paragraphs, listen to the

tape and respond with HIGH when you hear a high tongue lateral
and LOW when you hear a low tongue lateral. The words are
adapted from French or Spanish, which use high tongue laterals.
The low tongue laterals represent the way some Americans speak
these languages. Don't peek I
1. [ e l l H 6. [ r a ] H 11. [ T o p s z ] H
2. [cOT] L 7. [ l v a ] L 12. [ » 1 ¥ 0 P 6 Z ] L
3. [ o r ] H 8. [ l v o ] L 13. [ l A e » t e ] H
h. [mal A ] H 9. [ l v u ] L A
l i l . [ku«l e] H
5. [mal v ] L 10. [ l " u ] H 15. [ k u ' l v e ] L
When you have practiced this exercise enough so that you

can respond orally to the tape, run through it again, this time
transcribing the items on a transcription form. Check your
transcription against the exercise above, and tally your errors
on the Transcription Tally Form in your Workbook Supplement,
p. 27 ff. Repeat the exercise at intervals if you need to do
so.
RE 15.3. Negative Practicei [1 A l v ]
Practice saying each of the following sentences first with

high tongue laterals, and then with low tongue laterals. Be
careful to keep the laterals the same in any one repetition of
a sentence, and not mix them in English fashion. As with any
negative practice drill, you can practice this at odd moments
when you are not otherwise engaged in phonetics study.
1. Let me call little IAl later. 2. Will Nell feel ill all day?
3. Little Lulu loaned Lynn the lumber.
Laterals 221
RE lg.Ui French^Mimicryi [1* ]
Mimic the t a p e , s t r i v i n g f o r a c l e a r [1 A ] i n each case.

Follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n i f you care t o do so.
1. [ m o r a ] molle ' s o f t (fem.)> 5 . [l"o] l'eau ' t h e water'
2. [fol 4 ©] f o l l e ' i n s a n e (fern.)' 6. [ l ' u ] loup 'wolf'
3 . [ k u l ' a ] coule ' f l o w s ' 7. [ r e n a l l a i n e 'wool'

h. [ f u ^ § ] foule 'crowd' 8. [l'oma] l'homme ' t h e man'
RE l 5 « 5 . Demonstrationt [L]
Listen t o the t a p e , and t r y the English words f o r yourself.
Notice how the / l / i s v o i c e l e s s because i t coincides with the
a s p i r a t i o n from the s t o p , or a t times t h e r e i s a v o i c e l e s s
l a t e r a l followed by a b r i e f voiced l a t e r a l [ L I ] . This i s the
t h i r d allophone of English /!/ demonstrated i n t h i s l e s s o n .
L i s t e n t o the examples, and p r a c t i c e t h e words u n t i l you can
sense the v o i c e l e s s [L] i n t h e examples below. Follow the
t r a n s c r i p t i o n , reading a c r o s s .
l a . please [pLi> yz] or [ p K T i ' y z ] l b . [Li» yz] l c . [Li>y]
2a. play [pLe-y] or [pLl* e«y] 2b. [Le«y] 2c. [Le]

3 a . plunder [«pLAndr] or [«pLl v Andr] 3 b . [«LAndr] 3 c [LA]
Ua. clock [kLak11] or [kLl'ak 11 ] lib. [Lak11] kc. [La]
5a. claw [kLoH] or [kLlyoH] 5b. [LoH] 5c [Lo]
Fricative Laterals
The l a t e r a l s demonstrated t o the present have a l l been

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c allophones of t h e / l / phoneme of many speakers
of American English. As such they are not "new" sounds, but
nevertheless present a l e a r n i n g problem f o r a second language
because the English phonemic h a b i t s must not be c a r r i e d over.
We t u r n now, however, t o another p a i r of l a t e r a l s which are
not so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of American English, but which may be
heard i n the speech of some i n d i v i d u a l s . Of these f r i c a t i v e
l a t e r a l s , t h e v o i c e l e s s one i n p a r t i c u l a r i s very common i n
languages around the world.
•^Recording by Renate Wiesmann. Mimic t h e f i n a l sound of the

f i r s t words as b e s t you can.
222 Lesson 15
HE 15,6, Demonstration! [S 1]
Listen to the tape and follow along in the Manual. Mimic

and imitate until you can make clear fricative laterals like
those on the tape.
a. Say the English word leaf, and isolate the [1 A »].

Then say it with greater force of air from the lungs. This
may produce [I*].
b. Say [1 A »], but instead of a greater thrust of air,

raise the sides of the tongue slightly to get [!•].
c. Whisper William, and then isolate a whispered [L*•].

Say it with greater force of air. This may produce [£•].
d. Raise the sides of the tongue from a whispered [L*»]

to produce ft*].
e. If you find it easy to produce [1], but not [£], say

[1] and then "whisper" it, or stop the voicing.
f. If you find it easy to produce [£], but not [1], say

[L] and voice it, or "buzz around it."
g. One kind of lisp in English consists of producing [£]

for / s / and [1] for /z/. Usually people who lisp in this way
make their laterals on one side only, rather than on both sides
simultaneously, as you probably did above, and as you should
practice for most languages. Mimic the following English
words "lisped" with lateral fricatives.
1. see [i±> y] U. zebra [«li>ybrA]
2. set [Let] 5. zeplin ['lepl&n]
3. sunny [•BAni>y] 6. zone [lown]
RE lg.7. Differential! VOICED or VOICELESS
In this drill we will include both oral and fricative

laterals, high tongue, low tongue, etc., but your response is
to be only VOICED or VOICELESS, according to what you hear.
When you can do well on the oral response to this drill, try
transcribing what you hear. Transcribe the laterals only, or
transcribe each whole utterance, with its vowels as well as
consonants. To do the latter you will have to stop the machine
after each longer utterance to have time to write. Check your
transcription'against the exercise below. Don't peek.
Laterals 223
v
1. DL-] TO 7. [ctl a] TO 1 3 . [*v»mAn] VL
2. [1] TO 8. [sLe] VL Ik. f e ' d v l ] VD
3 . [L] VL 9. [olo] TO 15. [*>u«koL] VL
U. [£] VL 10. [ol*o] VD 16. [•o'qafi] VL
5. [L] VL 1 1 . [ufcuj VL 17. ['A'gel*] VD
6 . [B] VL 12. [ATA] TO 18. f o ' x A T ] TO

RE 1 5 . 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! FRICATIVE or NO
I n t h i s d r i l l t h e r e w i l l be the same v a r i e t y of s t i m u l i as
i n t h e l a s t , but your response i s d i f f e r e n t . Again you can t r y
your hand a t t r a n s c r i p t i o n a f t e r you do t h e o r a l p r a c t i c e . Pay
p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e l a t e r a l s . Don't peek.
v
1. [1 A ] NO 7. [ a l a ] NO 13. [ l e ' s o n ] F
2. [ i ] F 8. tele] NO Hu [La'duH] F
v
3 . [L] NO 9. [olo] F 15. [l o'mAn] NO
lu [£] F 10. [01*0] NO 16. [Lv«far] NO
5. [L] NO 1 1 . [uini] F 17. [ r o ' p h o y ] NO

6 . [£] F 12. [A1*A] NO 18. [SA'reH] F
RE 15.9. Differential! ONE segment or TWO
Voiceless laterals, whether fricative or oral, often oc-

cur adjacent to voiced laterals, although they do not neces-
sarily do so in all cases. Here is a segmental diagram of what
happens.
[a a] [a 1 L 1 a] [p a]
Lateral
articulation
Voicing
In other words, the lateral articulation holds throughout two

or more segments, with and without voicing.
Listen to the following exercise and respond with ONE or

TWO, depending on whether or not you hear two lateral segments.
22U Lesson 15
After you have worked t h e exercise o r a l l y , t r y t r a n s c r i p t i o n cf

i t . Don't peek.
1 . [61* a] TWO 5. ['A.£u] ONE 9 . [pcan'LT'or] TWO

2. [So] ONE 6 . [»u.£l"e] TWO 1 0 . [zur/BAw] ONE
3 . [Le] ONE 7. [ ' v . L T e ] TWO 1 1 . [fez'£L A i;t h ] TWO

k. [ L l ' o ] TWO 8. [«o.lA] ONE 12. [dog'Lav] ONE
RE 15.10. Mimicryt [L i, i ]
Mimic t h e tape on t h e following e x e r c i s e , following along

i n your Manual as you do s o . Pay j u s t as much a t t e n t i o n t o
g e t t i n g c l e a r , unglided vowels as you do t o t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of
t h e consonants. Read a c r o s s .
l a . i 'c&a] l b . ['a.£L A a] l c . [«al*.ta] Id. ['alA.£l*a]

2a. | ' a i a ] 2b. [ ' a . l l A a ] 2c. [ « a l A . l a ] 2d. ['al^.lTa]
3a. 'aLa] 3b. [ ' a . L l A a ] 3 c [»al A .La] 3 d . [ ' a l ' . 1 1 * a]
Ha. «u£u] Ub. ['u.El A u] Uc. [ ' u l A . 6 u ] kd. ['uT-.fcl'u]
5a. "'uiu] 5b. [ • u . l l A u ] 5c ['ul'.iu] 5d. [«ur.iru]
6 a. :«uLu] 6b. [•u.Ll A u] 6 c . [»ul A .Lu] 6d. ['ul A .Ll A u]
7a. •o£o] 7b. [•o.ELAo] 7c [»ol A .Lo] 7d. ['or.fcl'o]
8a. I'vlv] 8b. [ ' » . i r » ] 8c. ['i>l A .±v] 8d. [«vl A .41 A v]
9 a. "'ALA] 9b. [»A.L1AA] 9c [«A1A.LA] 9d. [«Al A .Ll*A]
RE l 5 » l l i Humf. Mimicryt [fcl ]

Mimic the tape and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n . After you
have p r a c t i c e d mimicry, t r y your hand a t t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
1. [£l A a»p] /hlaap/ ' s t o p , cease'
2 . [fcl* ok] /hlak/ 'fish trap pole'
3 . [il A Arj] /hlan/ 'building
H. [ELAa°] /hlaV 'leaf'
5. [£1 A 6«ID] /hleen/ 'tether'

Laterals 22$
6 . [£L*vk] /hiok/ ' c h i c k e n ' s nesting basket'
7. [Sri?bm] /hlom/ 'capsize'
8. [KL'wg] /hlon/ 'to forget'
9 . [L^.Ada«t] /hldaat/ 'scatter'
Alveopalatal L a t e r a l
Some speakers of American English produce [1] f o r / l / i n

William, or w i l l ya? The a r t i c u l a t o r and point of a r t i c u l a t i o n
a r e t h e same as f o r / n / (see Sammy 1 3 . 1 , on p . 19U), though t h e
v e l i c i s closed and t h e sides of t h e tongue are open. Remember
t h a t i n any b l a d e - a l v e o p a l a t a l a r t i c u l a t i o n t h e tongue t i p i s
down behind t h e lower t e e t h . There i s often a s l i g h t [y] on-
g l i d e t o t h e following vowel or o f f - g l i d e from the preceding
vowel with t h e a l v e o p a l a t a l l a t e r a l s , as t h e r e i s with a l v e o -
palatal nasals.
[ 1 ] , t h e n , occurs as another allophone of English / l /

for some speakers. However, i n some d i a l e c t s of Spanish,
Portuguese, and I t a l i a n , for example, i t occurs i n c o n t r a s t
with t h e a l v e o l a r ( o r d e n t a l ) l a t e r a l , and c o n s t i t u t e s a sepa-
r a t e phoneme.
RE 15.12. Demonstration/ [1]
Listen t o the tape and p r a c t i c e the suggestions below f o r

t h e production of [ 1 ] ,
a. I f you can produce a c l e a r [n] s t a r t with t h a t , and
switch t o l a t e r a l a r t i c u l a t i o n without changing t h e point of
articulationt
[ana ana ana a l a a l a a l a ] [aiia a l a ana a l a ana a l a ]
b . Say t h e following words, being careful t o keep your

tongue t i p down behind the lower teeth* William, w i l l y a ? ,
b i l l i o n . Prolong t h e [1] and i s o l a t e i t .
RE 1 5 . 1 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ALVEOLAR or ALVEOPAIATAL
After you l i s t e n t o t h e tape and respond o r a l l y , t r a n s -

cribe the utterances.
1. [ a l a ] AP 3. [aTa] AL 5. [ala] AP
2 . [al A a] AL it. [al A a] AL 6. [l A a] AL
226 Lesson 15
7. [la] AP 10. [al] AP 13. [su'ien] AP

8. [1-a] AL 11. [al"] AL lU. [ti'loz] AP
9. [al] AP 12. [fo'naT] AL 1 5 . [wi«l*ux] AL
RE 15,2k* Mimicryt [1" l v 1]
Mimic t h e t a p e and f o l l o w t h e transcription.
la. [lAa] lb. [IT a ] 1c. [la] Id. [al]
2a. [lAe] 2b. [ l v e ] 2c. [le] 2d. [ e l ]
3a. [lAo] 3b. [lyo] 3c [lo] 3d. [ol]
Ua. [ 1 A A ] Ub. [l V A] Uc. [1A] Ud. [Al]
5a. [ l A o ] 5b. [l"o] 5c [lo] 54. [ol]
6a. [l*u] 6b. [l V Tl] 6c. [lu] 6 d . [Til]
7a. [l*»] 7b. [ l v v ] 7c [1P] 7d. [vl]
8a. [olAo] 8b. [alvo] 8c. [alo] 8d. [ a i o i ]
9a. [elAo] 9b. [elwo] 9c [elo] 9d. [ e l o l ]
10a. [U!AA] 10b. [tavA] 1 0 c . [ulA] lOd. [ulAl]
Dental Laterals
All varieties of laterals which may be articulated in al-

veolar position may have counterparts with dental articulation,
such as has previously been presented for stops, fricatives,
and nasals. The symbol used to represent dental articulation
[A] is the same as well. As with the stops, the difference
between alveolar and dental articulation is impossible to hear,
but i t may be seen. Its importance lies in the fact that by
mimicking i t closely in languages where i t occurs, the tongue
has a much better chance of developing a total set of articu-
lations which will result in good pronunciation.
RE 15.15. Mimicryt [£- 1" I]
Run the tape back and repeat RE 15.1U, this time substitu-
ting a dental lateral for each of the alveolar ones in that
exercise. The acoustic result will not be any different, per-
haps, but you should consciously place the tip of your tongue
solidly behind the upper teeth.
Laterals 227
RE l5.16« I t a l i a n . 1 Mimicry* [1 1A]
Mimic the tape and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n , reading

a c r o s s . Be very conscious of your a r t i c u l a t i o n .
la. [li] gli lb. [ri] li
'him, i t ' 'there'
2a. ['pala] paglia 2 b . [•pal* a] pala
'straw' 'shovel'
3a. [«fola] foglia 3b. [•fol-a] fola
' ''leaf' 'fairy tale'
Ua. [«iene] gliene Ub. [•l'yeve] lieve
'some of i t t o him' 'light'
5a. [»lel*o] glielo 5b. [>l A yeto] lieto
• i t t o him' 'happy'
6 a . [•elino] eglino 6b. ['el'ika] elica

'they' ' s h i p ' s screw'
7a. [tjilo] giglio 7b. ['l*ilAo] Lilo

'lily' (proper name)
8a. t ' e l i ] egli 8b. [el'imi'nare] eliminare
'he, i t ' 'eliminate'
9a. [ba'galo] bagaglio 9b. [«bal*ya] balia

'baggage' •wet n u r s e '
10a. [ p a ' l a c o pagliaccio 10b. [ p a l ' a ' t a l * i ] palatali
'clown' 'palatal'
Retroflexed and Velar L a t e r a l s
Retroflexed and velar laterals will not be drilled simply

because of insufficient time in the course. Here, however, are
some brief descriptive notes on them. (See Table 15.1.)
Retroflexed laterals are self-explanatory. As on all ret-

roflexed sounds, the tongue curls up somewhat to articulate
with the tip on or behind the alveolar ridge. A retroflexed
lateral in alveolar position is virtually the same as an ex-
tremely low tongue lateral. When the point of articulation is
"TData from Claude Merton Wise, Applied Hionetics, and

from Renate N. Wiesmann, who made the recording.
228 Lesson 1$
palatal, however, there is a distinctly retroflexed quality.

A true velar lateral is articulated with the back of the
tongue against the velum, leaving space for the airstream to
come around the articulation. There is another articulation,
however, which sounds much like it. It is really a vowel glide,
however, and does not have lateral articulation. This consists
of a backing and raising of the back of the tongue, together
with a configuration of the tongue which sounds like a low
tongue lateral. The articulation remains oral, however. This
"pseudo-lateral" glide is used by some speakers of English for
an / l / in final position, in such a word as ill. It may be
represented as [1'], but will not be further treated in this
course. It is a notable allophone in some dialects of Brazilian
Portuguese, occurring with simultaneous lip rounding in words
like Brazil,
Affricates with Lateral Release
Lateral fricatives follow stops to make affricates with

lateral release. Note the varieties in the chart at the be-
ginning of the lesson. Combinations with other stops are, of
course, possible, as are aspirated affricates. Combinations
of stops with other laterals also occur, but are not affricates
as the laterals are not fricatives.
Sammy l5.3t Stop articula- Sammy l^.Ui Stop articula-

tion in [t£] tion in [k&]
Laterals 22°
Sammies 15.3 and 15.H i l l u s t r a t e t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e
a f f r i c a t e s [t£] and [ k £ ] , which often sound very much a l i k e ,
depending on j u s t how the r e l e a s e of t h e stop i s made. In [t£]
t h e ft] i s released simply by lowering the s i d e s of t h e tongue
s l i g h t l y t o give [ £ ] , keeping the t o n g u e - t i p point of a r t i c u l a -
t i o n . However, i n [k£] t h e [k] i s a r t i c u l a t e d with a s i m u l t a -
neous t i p - a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l a r t i c u l a t i o n . The [k] i s r e l e a s e d ,
leaving t h e l a t e r a l f r i c a t i v e . These l a t e r a l s t h e r e f o r e end
the same way, b u t begin d i f f e r e n t l y .
RE 15.17. D i f f e r e n t i a l * VOICED or VOICELESS
Listen f o r t h e l a t e r a l a f f r i c a t e i n each utterance and

respond with VOICED or VOICELESS. After you are able t o r e s -
pond o r a l l y t o t h e t a p e , t r a n s c r i b e the u t t e r a n c e s . Don't peek.
1. [o'dio] VD 5 . [«t£amas] VL 9 . ['xAZedi] VD
2. [e't£e] VL 6 . [«t£ogey] VL 10. [<ts h vvodi] VD
3 . [u'dlo] VD 7. ['dius.mAt] VD 11. ["owladi] VD
k. [A't£»] VL 8. [«tioH.ni;*] VL 12. [«Mnm.tset£] VL
RE 1 5 . 1 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ASPIRATED or UNASPIRATED
L i s t e n f o r the l a t e r a l a f f r i c a t e i n each utterance and

respond with ASPIRATED or UNASPIRATED. After you are able t o
respond o r a l l y t o t h e t a p e , t r a n s c r i b e the u t t e r a n c e s .
1 . [u'tfcu] UNA 5 , [«t£ h omas] A ° . [«xAze.t£ h o] A
2 . [o'tfio] UNA 6. ['tôgey] A 10. [ « t s h v v o . t £ e ] UNA
3 . [u'tfikp] A 7. [«t£ h us.mAt] A 1 1 . [ «*>owIa.t£hu] A
U. [A»t£e] UNA 8. [«t£oH.nw*] UNA. 12. [«Mmv.tss.t£o] UNA
RE 15.19. Mimicryt A f f r i c a t e s
Mimic t h e tape and follow i n the Manual. Be careful t o

get f u l l v o i c i n g , c l e a r a s p i r a t i o n , or l a c k of i t , as the case
may b e . Read a c r o s s .
l a . [e'dio] l b . [e«t£o] 1c. [ e ' t i ^ o ]
2a. [o'dza] 2b. [ o ' t s a ] 2c. [ o ' t s h a ]
3 a . [u'dda.] 3 b . [u'tQA] 3 c . [u'teÂ]

230 Lesson 1$
Ua. [o'ggv] Ub. [o'kxv] Uc. [o'kA?]

h
5a. [A'bbe] 5b. [A'ppe] 5 c [Atpp 6 ]
h
6a. [alfr] 6b. [a"co] 6 c . [a'c o]
h
7a. [p«d|o] 7b. [p«t|o] 7 c 0'ts o]
8a. [e'bvu] 8b. [e'pfu] 8c. [ e ' p A ]
9a. O'bzA] 9b. [U'PSA] 9c [Vp§hA]

10a. [o'dle] 10b. [o'tfce] 10c. [ o ' t t h e ]
RE 15»20. Buildups
Mimic the tape, repeating those parts •which give you dif-
ficulty as often as necessary. Follow along in your Manual.
When you have gained oral fluency, transcribe the utterances,
running the tape back as many times as necessary.
1. [l A e»t£o.su now.ru.nA>fAT .MmA£]

2. [»gutn.pLos ne&'lpx.ka.mo. <lAApf .lvk11]
3 . [ilAn.go.l A s'lob 'MmAn.kuc.ttol.yag]
U. [no'la.ne.sow.net£ k^pz.felb.'zenlj]
Transcription
Use RE 15.2, 15.U, 15.7, 15.9, 15.10, 15.11, 15.13, 15.1U,
15.17, 15.18, 15.19, and 15.20 as transcription exercises.
Transcribe them after you d r i l l them orally, and then return
to them another time for retranscription. Transcribe repeated-
ly those which give you trouble. Do your transcription on a
transcription form in the Workbook Supplement and keep track
of your errors on the Transcription Tally Form, p. 27ff. Watch
to see whether or not you are improving in the transcription of
sounds which give you difficulty, or of symbols which tend to
confuse you. If you are having consistent trouble, go back to
the lesson where the sound was taken up and transcribe some of
the exercises in that lesson for practice.
Remember that in any transcription where there are small

differences indicated by d i a c r i t i c s , (like [1A l v ] ) , write as
much as you hear. That i s , if you hear a voiced l a t e r a l ,
write [1], whether or not you can distinguish i t s high tongue
or low tongue position. If you do hear that i t i s high tongue,
add the [ A ], or if you hear that i t i s low tongue, add the [ v ] ,
etc.
Laterals 231
Reading
Use RE 15.7 and 15.8 as reading e x e r c i s e s , reading off
the u t t e r a n c e s before the machine gives them, and checking
yourself against the production on the t a p e .
... AMP THIS IS T H £ SYrYlBoi- FOR- THE

VOICELESS FRICATIVE ALVEOPALATAL LATERAL.'
232
LESSON SIXTEEN
Some Front Vowels
Front Central Back

High i u
Lower-high z. V
Mid e 0
Lower-mid s
Low 88 A 0
Lower-low a
Table 16.It Vowels to Date
The names of the new vowel symbols on this chart are

[z,] "iota" /tt-y'owtA/ (symbol and name taken from Greek), and
[ee] "digraph" (meaning two symbols written as one).
In transcribing these vowel symbols by hand there are a

few cautions to observe, so that the symbols do not become
confused with each other, or with ones to follow.
[z,] may be written as [(,]. It must not have a dot in

order to keep it distinct from [i], A tail on the bottom
helps.
[v] may be written as [u]. It must not have a tail in

order to keep it distinct from [u],
[a] may be written as [CL]. It should not be written as

[cl] to keep it distinct from another vowel we will have later.
[ee] can be written with a single stroke if you follow

this patternt CN Q"> go
In this lesson we do not add any categories of vowel ar-

ticulation, but fill in some of the sounds in front unrounded
position ,to correspond with those already drilled in back
rounded position.
Some Front Vowels 233
RE 16.1 Demonstration* Table 16.1
Listen to the demonstration of the vowel chart repeated-

ly, studying Table 16.1 as you do so. When you are familiar
with it, read off the chart simultaneously with the tape. It
is especially valuable to work with your "buddy" on vowel ar-
ticulations as it is difficult sometimes to hear where your
mimicry is off. The practicing in slurring from one vowel po-
sition to another distant one on the chart is to help you re-
alize that vowels make up an unbroken continuum with an enor-
mous variety of possible modification in tongue configurations.
RE 16.2 Discrimination* SAME or DIFFERENT
Continue tuning up your ears to these new vowel quali-

ties by responding SAME or DIFFERENT to the following pairs.
Concentrate on the differences to help you become familiar
with them. Don't peek.
l a . [ khrz,!^ l ^ r i k " ] D lb. [pz,n pen] D
2a. | \^r^ khrik* 1 ] D 2b. [pt-n pvn) S
3 a . [ ybrvls*1 k h rz.k h ] S 3b. [pen pen] S
Ua. khrik 11 khrj-k*1] D kb. [pen pen] S

11 11
5 a . I khrik k^rik ] S 5b. [pen ptn] D
6a. 'khriklvow ' I c ^ k r ow] D 6b. [«pensi.r 'pt-nst-r ] D
7a. "«khr&klvow » k h r 6 k l ' ow] S 7b. ['p^nsz-l"'pensj,l v ] D
8a. j k k r i k T o w 'kî-ikl" ow] s 8b. ['pz-nsz,lv «penst,l v ] D
9a. ;'k h rz.kl v cw ' k h r i k r ow] D 9b. ['pensz/l" •pz-nsi.r' ] D
lc. .'2ef zef] S Id. [de dA] D
2c. ;&>f zef] D 2 d . [dA dA] S
3 c ;2ef zef] D 3 d . [de de] S
Uc. [Sef & f ] D Ud. [de dA] D
5c [8ef Kef] S 5d. [de dA] D
6c. [>2ef.tsob «2ef.tsob] S 6 d . ['SAnde 'sAndA] D

23U Lesson 16
7c 'gef.tsob 'zef.tsob] S 7d. ['sAndA »sAndA] S
8c. •Sef.tsob «2ef.tsob] D 8d. ['SAndA 'sAnde] D
9c 'zef.tsob 'Sef.tsob] D 9d. ['sAnde 'sAnde] S
le. xenM xaaiM] D If. [lAeeT T a T ] S
2e. XenM xsenM] D 2f. [rael A lAsO.A] S

3e. xasnM xaaiM] S 3f. [l A al A TSBT~\ D
Ue. xsenM xenM] D Uf. [l A al A T a r ] S
5e. XenM xenM] S Sf. [ l A a T YaOr] D
6e. pl'XffimM pl'xenM] D 6f. [nuTsel- n u T e s T ] S
7e. pl'xenM pl'xsnM] D 7f. [ftu'raT nuTaT] S
8e. pl'xenM pl'xenM] S 8f. [na'l A ffiT n u T e e l ' ] S
9e. pl'xenM pl'xsenM] D 9f. [ n u T a s T n u « r a l A ] D
Production of [ i v e aej
The new vowel sounds of t h i s l e s s o n may seem deceptively

easy t o the English speaker who i d e n t i f i e s them with sounds i n
h i s own speech. There a r e p i t f a l l s i n them, however. One
danger i s t h a t the English speaking person w i l l put an [H]
o f f - g l i d e on [v] and [ae], t h a t he w i l l put a very s l i g h t [y]
o f f - g l i d e on [ i ] , and a strong [y] o f f - g l i d e on [ e ] , A second
d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t many w i l l not make t h e vowels t r u l y f r o n t ,
but s l i g h t l y c e n t r a l i z e d , and not make t h e [ i ] high enough.
I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e normal h a b i t s of many speakers of English,
i n other words, t h e [ i ] q u a l i t y which we w i l l be s t r i v i n g f o r
w i l l be very high, very f r o n t , and unglided. The [L] and [e]
q u a l i t i e s w i l l be front and unglided. The [se] w i l l be un-
glided and w i l l be higher than some speakers of English want
t o make i t .
If you look a t Sammy 1 5 . 1 you w i l l n o t i c e t h a t i t i s not

a c t u a l l y t h e t i p of t h e tongue which i s high f o r front vowels.
The t i p of t h e tongue i s generally behind t h e lower t e e t h .
"Front" r e f e r s t o the blade and areas j u s t behind i t , as op-
posed t o t h e c e n t r a l and back p a r t s of t h e tongue.
Sammy 16.1* [i] Sammy 16.2i [s]
RE 16.3. Demonstration! Producing Unglided [ l i . e s ]
Throughout the remainder of this course unglided vowels

must be practiced until control is mastered. Many of the sug-
gestions below apply to vowels introduced in Lesson lk, and
should be practiced with them as well. A mirror is extremely
valuable when practicing pure vowels or vowel glides. Your
buddy should watch as well. It is often possible to see
movements which produce glides you are not yet able to hear.
a. Practice each of the vowels in the sequence ['e* 9 e

•>e 'e * e ] , [*i* *i *i *i »i], etc. Maintain this rhythm,
controlling the tendency to glide.
b. Follow this same exercise with other frames such as

[sv sv sv sz, st-], [tz-»m tz-m tz-m tz,m tz-m], etc.
c. Practice eliminating the glide by devoicing the vowel

at the end, thus in effect replacing the glide by [h]» [983«h
[*e»h »z..h »i»h].
d. Then practice unglided vowels in alternation with
those followed by [h]» ['e'h 'e« 'e'h *e»], etc.
RE 16.k Differential! GLIDED or NO

Listen for the [E] off-glide on [v ee], and the [y]
236 Lesson 16
off-glide on [i e]. Respond with GLIDED or NO. 1
1. [hz,t h ] NO 8. [eym] G 15. [ t i ] NO
2. [hz,Hth] G 9. [em] NO 16. [ t i » y ] G
3 . [hffiHth] G 10. [em] NO 17. [teeH] G
k. [heeth] NO 1 1 . [i»ym] G 18. [tee] NO
5. [het h ] NO 12. [z-Hm] G 19. [te] NO
6. [hith] NO 13. [eHm] G 20. [tey] G
7. [hi>yt h ] G Hi. [im] NO 21. [ t t ] NO
RE 1 6 . g . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! [y w r H]
Distinguish the kind of o f f - g l i d e you h e a r . Call out

the name of the symbol used t o r e p r e s e n t i t . Don't peek.
When you can do the exercise o r a l l y , p r a c t i c e t r a n s c r i b i n g
the i t e m s .
1. [zz-y] y 7. [l A ewn] w 1 3 . [tsiwx] w
2. [zz,r] r 8. [l A ewn] w l i u [cz-rm] r
3 . [zz-H] H 9. [niHf] H 1 5 . [xffirnM] r
k. [zz-w] w 10. [ijsHp] H 16. [tSeHv] H
5. [kêr] r 1 1 . [zeyd] y 17. [d2eyfe] y
6 . [geH] H 12. [za?yd] 7 18. [tfeLHS] H
RE 1 6 . 6 . Negative P r a c t i c e ! Removing [y] Off-glides

A l l of t h e following words contain a [y] o f f - g l i d e i n
some d i a l e c t s of English. Column a t r a n s c r i b e s t h e pronunci-
a t i o n . 2 I n Column b they a r e t r a n s c r i b e d without g l i d e s , but
I n t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n of t h i s e x e r c i s e [>] r e p r e s e n t s a
pronunciation which i s not a r t i c u l a t e d a t the norm indicated
by t h e symbol, but s l i g h t l y back from i t . Thus, [i>J i s
s l i g h t l y back from [ i ] , e t c . If t h e [ i ] i s pronounced i n
t r u l y high front p o s i t i o n a [y] o f f - g l i d e i s v i r t u a l l y impos-
s i b l e . [i>y] i s a more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c English pronunciation.
I n the t r a n s c r i p t i o n of t h i s e x e r c i s e [ v ] r e p r e s e n t s a
with the nearest pure vowel on our vowel chart. Read across
as you mimic the tape.
la. | «'evyb|] lb. [»»ebl] able
2a. [' e v y t h ] 2b. [*eth] eight
3a. [l e v y t h ] 3b. [leth] late
Ua. | s p e ' y d ] Ub. [ s p e d ] spade
5 a . [ we w y] 5 b . [we] way
6a. PLevy] 6b. [pLe] play

h
7a. 'be*yth] 7b. [ b e t ] bait
8a. | mevyd] 8 b . [med] made
9a. way] 9 b . [wa] why
10a. 'day] 10b. [da] die
11a. tâyp11] lib. [thaph] type
12a. /'Ays] 1 2 b . ['AS] ice
13a. [rAyth] 13b. [rAth] right
lUa. [k h wAyt h ] lUb. [ k V t h ] quite
lSa. [faydl] 15b. [«*adl] idle
16a. >ayz] 1 6 b . [*az] eyes
RE 16.. 7 . MimLcryi [ i v e ae]
Follow the transcription as you mimic. Strive for the

articulation described for the new vowels. Have your buddy
listen to make sure your mimicry is accurate, and watch your
pronunciation which is not articulated at the norm indicated

by the symbol, but slightly down from it. Thus [e»] is
slightly down from [e]. Remember that there are almost infin-
ite numbers of vowel positions, and this provides a way of
transcribing subtle differences without an infinite number of
symbols. (See the previous footnote on p. 236, and note the
analogy also to [lv].)
238 Lesson 16
mouth i n a mirror. P r a c t i c e down and a c r o s s . Use t h i s exer-

c i s e f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n a l s o , when you have learned t o mimic
well.
la. [dif] l b . [dif] l c . [def] Id. [def]

11
2a. [nip ] 2b. [n^p*1] 2c. [nep h ] 2d. [nsep11]
3a. [lAis] 3 b . [lAz-S] 3c [re§] 3d. [l»rf]
Ua. [ t i i s ] Ub. [tfcts] Uc [ties] Ud. [tiffls]
5a. foil*] 5b. fotl"] 5c. foel*] 5d. [neel*]

6 a . [Nnidz] 6b. [Nni,dz] 6 c . [Nnedz] 6d. [Nneedz]
7a. [pLip] 7b. [pl*p] 7c [pLep] 7d. [pLsp]
8a. [kig] 8b. [kvi] 8c. [ke2] 8d. [ksez]
9a. [ l i v ] 9b. [3AV] 9c [lev] 9d. [W]

10a. [gi] 10b. [«*] 10c. [ge] lOd. [gee]
RE 1 6 . 8 . Neigative Practice* "Thi s i s the House t h a t Jack B u i l t "
Refer t o the t e x t of RE lluH, p . 205, i f you need t o .

The sounds t o be s u b s t i t u t e d a r e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e columns be-
low. The tape w i l l s t a r t you off for each one
a b c d
House [his] [hz,s] [hes] [hees]
Malt [mirt] [mz-l*t] [mert] [raTt]

Rat [lit] [»t] [ret] [a*]
Cat [At] [At] [At] [Art]
Dog [dig] tdfcg] [deg] [daeg]

Cow [Aw] [Aw] [Aw] [Aw]
Maiden [•midn] [»mtdn] [•medn] [•msedn]
Man [irdn] [mz,n] [men] [men]
Priest [phrist] [p h rz,st] 1 [purest] [Finest]

a b c d
Cock [kîk] [k\k] [lêk] [kêk]
Farmer [«firmr] ['ft-rmr] [•fermr] [•fsermr]

RE 1 6 . 9 . Mimicry! Vowels With and Without Off-•glides
Mimic t h e tape and watch the t r a n s c r i p t i o n . When you

have learned t o mimic t h e m a t e r i a l , use i t f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n
p r a c t i c e as w e l l .
l a , [zi] l c . [ziw] I d . [ziH] l e . [zir]
2a. [nib] 2 c . [niwb] 2d. [SiHb] l e . [iiirb]
3 a , [zv] 3 b . [zty] 3 c , [zz-w] 3d. [zz-H] 3 e . [zt-r]
Ua. [ru,b] Ub. [ru-yb] Uc. [nz,wb] Ud. [8&Hb] Ue. [Sz-rb]
5a. [ze] 5b, [zey] 5c [zew] 5d. [zeH] 5e, [ z e r ]
6 a , [neb] 6 b . [neyb] 6 c . [newb] 6d. [iieHb] 6 e . [iierb]
7a. [ZBS] 7b. [zssy] 7c [zeew] 7d. [zseH] 7e. [zeer]
8a, [neb] 8b. [neyb] 8c. [nawb] 8d, [&eHb] 8e. [naerb]
Review of Vowels and Vowel Off-glides
Tune up on the vowel qualities of previous lessons, as

well as of this lesson by listening to RE 16,1 again. Prac-
tice some of the vowels with off-glides as well.
RE 16,10. Negative Practice* "Old MacDonald Had a Farm"
The tape will demonstrate how this exercise goes, and

then you can continue practicing with your buddy. It is a
device for getting rather intensive practice of vowel quali-
ties and associated glides.
The various vowels and combinations listed below are the

"sounds" in Old MacDonald's farmyard. After the first start
it will not be necessary to repeat the verse.
Old MacDonald had a farm.
/'z-yay 'z-yoy *ow/

And on t h a t farm he had some sounds
2U0 Lesson 16
/'j-yay '&yay 'ow/

a. With a [mi mi] here and a [mi mi] t h e r e
Here a [mi], t h e r e a [mi], everywhere a [mi mi]
b. [mz. mz,] here...
c. [me]
d. On around the whole vowel chart with pure vowels.
e. [miw]
f. [mz-w]
g. On around w i t h [w] o f f - g l i d e s ,
h. The same with [y] o f f - g l i d e s ,
j . The same with [H] o f f - g l i d e s ,
k. The same with [ r ] o f f - g l i d e s .
Review of On-glides
On-glides [y w r ] occur with a l l vowels t o d a t e , except
f o r t h e combinations [yi] and [wu] when t h e vowel q u a l i t i e s
are t r u l y high front and high back r e s p e c t i v e l y .
RE 1 6 . 1 1 . Mimicryt [y w r ] On-glides
Follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic t h e t a p e . Make

sure you have good o n - g l i d e s , but no o f f - g l i d e s . When you
have learned t o mimic f l u e n t l y , t r y t r a n s c r i b i n g the e x e r c i s e .
l a . [Se] lb. [eye] lc. [ewe] Id. [5re]
2a. [ppee] 2b. [ppyas] 2c. [ppwas] 2d. [ppres]
3a. [ti] 3b. [tyi] 3c [twi] 3d. [tri]
Ua. [SA] Ub. [3yA] Uc. [SWA] lid. [SrA]

•
5a. [tOz-m] 5c. [tewt-m] 5d. [terz-m]
5b. [•fceynn]
6a. [nsj] 6c. [nw 6 j] 6d. fare J]
6b. [nyej]
7a. [Nhodz] 7c. [Ifawodz] 7d. [Nhrodz]
7b. [Nnyodz]
8a. [goatM] 8c. [gwaniM] 8d. [gramM]
8b. [gycuiM]
Some Front Vowels 2Ul
9a. [nubfe] 9b. [nyubte] 9c. [nwubb] 9d. [nrubb]
10a. [l'on] 10b. [T yon] 10c. [Iwon] lOd. [T ron]
11a. [zVt£] lib. [2yvt6] lie. [zwvt£] lid. [2rvt£]
RE 16.12. Negative Practicet "The Walrus and the Carpenter"
In the following exercise, read the stansa from "The

Walrus and the Carpenter," changing the last syllable of each
line to insert an on-glide if there is not one, or to replace
it if there is. The three columns give the resulting pronun-
ciation in one dialect. The tape "will start you off. As with
all negative practice, this is something you can do in spare
moments without the recording, once you see how it goes.
"The time has come,

the Walrus said l a . [syed] l b . [swed] lc. [sred]
"To talk of
many things 2a. [eyz-nz] 2b. [ewujz] 2c. [ernjz]
Of shoes—and ships—
and sealing w a x — 3 a . [yaks] 3 b . [waaks] 3c. [raks]
Of cabbages—
and kings Ua. [kkyz-nz] kb, [kWnz] Uc. [ k ^ i r n z ]
And why the sea

is boiling h o t — 5a. [hyat h ] 5b. [hwabh] 5c. [hrath]
And whether pigs

have wings. 6 a . [yz-nz] 6b. [wt,nz] 6 c . [rc-nz]
"A l o a f of b r e a d , "
t h e Walrus s a i d 7a. [syed] 7b. [swed] 7c. [sred]
"Is what we
chiefly needt a.. [nyi>yd] 8b. [nwi>yd] 8c. [nri>yd]
Pepper and v i n e g a r
besides 9a. [syaydz] 9b. [swaydz] 9c. [sraydz]
Are very good

indeed— 10a. [dyi»yd] 10b. [dwi>yd] 10c. [dri>yd]
Now i f y o u ' r e ready,

Oysters d e a r , 11a. [dyi»r] l i b . [dwi>r] lie. [dri>r]
2U2 Lesson 16
We can begin
t o feed." 12a. [fyi»yd] 12b. [fwi>yd] 12c. [fri»yd]
RE 1 6 . 1 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l * I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Vowels
I n t h i s exercise respond t o t h e tape by giving the name

of the symbol with which t h e vowel sound i s t r a n s c r i b e d . That
i s , when you hear [ i ] , say / a y / or w r i t e i . TOien you h e a r
[ o ] , say "backwards c" or w r i t e £ . The t a p e gives the c o r r e c t
o r a l response. Don't peek, but I f you are responding by w r i t -
ing t h e symbol, check your responses a f t e r you f i n i s h t h e
exercise.
1. [*o] 0 10. [l*Ld] IOTA
2. [•«•] IOTA 1 1 . [l A vd] UPSILON
3. [•A] CARET 12. [ r e d ] e
k. [»•] DIGRAPH 13. [xitfc] 1
5. [•i] i Ik. [xAti] CARET
6. [•o] BACKWARDS c 15. [xotB] SCRIPT a
7. [l~ud] u 16. [xsetfe] DIGRAPH

8. [l A od] SCRIPT a 17. [xvti] UPSILON
A
9. [l ed] EPSILON 18. [ x o t i ] 0
RE 16.lU. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! FRONT UNROUNDED, CENTRAL UNROUNDED, o r

BACK ROUNDED
Respond o r a l l y to t h e t a p e . Don't peek. Use t h i s exer-

c i s e for t r a n s c r i p t i o n a f t e r you a r e able t o do i t o r a l l y w i t h -
out h e s i t a t i o n .
1. [ni] F U 7. [iup*1] BR 1 3 . [tlaenk] FU
2 . [5A] CU 8. [ltp 1 1 ] F U lU. [ t l i n k ] FU
3 . [ne] F U 9. [ W 1 ] F U 1 5 . [tlftnk] CU
U. [na] CU 10. [lap 11 ] CU 16. [tlwnk] BR
5 . [no ] BR 1 1 . [lip 11 ] F U 17. [tlonk] BR

11
6 . [iiv] B R ' 12. [iep ] F U 18. [ t l l n k ] FU
!
Some Front Vowels 2U3
RE 16.1$, Differential! Tongue Height
Respond w i t h one of t h e f o l l o w i n g t HIGH, LOWER-HIGH, MID,

LOWER-MID, LOW, LOWER-LOW.
1 . [SA] L 7 . [ljQiv] H 1 3 . [ksab] L-H
2. [ & ] L-M 8 . [tyjov] M lit. [kxub] H
3 . [fo] L 9 . [Ifouv] H 15. [kxob] L
U. [*p] L-H 1 0 . [Ifeav] L-L 16. [kxAb] L
5 . [£&] L-H 1 1 . [gnev] M 17. [kxab] L-L
6 . [See] L 12. [Ijnsv] L-M 18. [kxeb] M
RE l o . l 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l * F u l l Labels
S e l e c t one term from each column t o make up your response.

Don't peekJ
HIGH FRONT ROUNDED
MID BACK
LOWER-MID
LOW
LOWER-LOW
1. [»e] M F U 9 . [swamp] L-L C U 17. [ k r 6 t | ] L-M F U
2 . [*u] HB R 1 0 . [swomp] MBR 1 8 . [krvtS] L-H B R
3 . ['£-] L-H F U XL, [swtmp] L-H F U 19. [kri/tf] L-H F U
h. [°0] LBR 1 2 . [swssmp] L F U 2 0 . [krwfcS] LFU
5. [ * A ] L C U 1 3 . [swump] HB R 2 1 . [kritS] HFU
6. [»o] M BR l U . [swAmp] L CU 22. [kret|] MFU
7. [*i] HF U IB, [swpmp] L-H B R 23. [krotg] MBR
8. [»«] LFU 1 6 . [swimp] HF U 2U. [krAtsI L C U

2UU Lesson 16
RE 16.17. Khnni*.1 Mimicryt [i v e P]
Mimic the tape as you follow the transcription. Pay par-

ticular attention to the vowels. You may hear fine differences
in the pronunciation of the vowels transcribed with the same
phonemic symbols. Mimic the fine differences. Remember that
such differences may be due to free fluctuation, or to comple-
mentary distribution. The double vowels symbolize phonemic
length.
la. /liiw/ l b . /lz-tw/ l c . /leew/ Id. flvvl/

•measure 1try' 'already* 'slide'
of width'
2a. / H i t / 2b. /lz-z-t/ 2c. A e e p / 2d. / l v u p /

•level o f f •hide' 'packet' 'hold back
part1
3 b . /le-z-rj/ 3c. /leerj/ 3d. flvvri/

'wander' ' d r y season' 'coffin'
Ua. /hiip/ Ub. /hut/ He. /heet/

•to ladle' •cause 'call to'
disaster'
5a. /piik/ 5b. /pz-t-p/ 5c. /peet/ 5d. / p » v p /

•dark 'push •seven' ' c a l l of
(liquid)' through' deer'
6b. /p tvt/ 6 c . /pê&k/ 6d. / p ^ v u t /

•dress up' •pine t r e e ' •too much1
7a. / s i i t / 7b. /svz,t/ 7c. / s e e t /

•rub' ' l e f t over' 'apart'
8a. / m i i t / 8b. /mz,j-p/ 8 c . /meet/ 8d. /mvvt/

'knife' 'crawl 'fish trap' 'decayed'
under'
9a. / t i i r j / 9c /teerj/ 9d. / t v u n /

• f a l l over' 'do' •jump down*
10a. / t h i i p / 10b. /t h z.£.t/ 10c. / t ^ e e n / lOd. / t h o u t /

•born i n •preach' 'shelf' •steal,
succession' lie'
11a. / ' i i k / lib. / ' ^ m / lie. /'eek/ l i d . /">vvp/

•more, •kin term' 'yoke' 'gather i n '
again'
-'-Recording by Naay Muun and Naay Ngaa of Luang Prabang, Laos.
Some Front Vowels 2U5
12a. / k i i p / 12c. A e e p / 12d. / k v v t /
'board' 'grasp with '10 m i l l i o n '
tongs'
RE 16.18. T r a n s c r i p t i o n
For t h i s exercise use the s p e c i a l t r a n s c r i p t i o n form for

RE 16.18 (pp. kl~kQ i n the Workbook Supplement). Listen t o
the tape and f i l l i n the blanks i n the Supplement. If nothing
goes i n a p a r t i c u l a r blank, draw a v e r t i c a l l i n e through i t
l i k e t h i s s A m / n o . When you have completed the e x e r c i s e ,
check your answers with the t e x t below. You are given addi-
t i o n a l columns i n the workbook to take the t r a n s c r i p t i o n four
times, i f necessary. If you find t h i s easy, take a regular
t r a n s c r i p t i o n form and t r a n s c r i b e the whole utterance for each
item. If you find i t d i f f i c u l t , use RE 1 6 . 2 , 16.1-t, 1 6 . 5 , 16.7,
16.9, 1 6 . 1 1 , 16.13, I6.1I4, 16.15, and 16.16 i n s t e a d .
Here are the answers. Don't peek!

h
1. [nA't ee] 8. [Si'goH] 15. [' tfeevwa]
2. [«tsonu] 9. [guy'dwz,] 16. [cÂp'keS]
h
3. [vye'ge] 10. [teu"i;] 17. [p i;'9ix]
km [Nnu'tccn] 1 1 . [•dyojur] 18. fpeewLTak11]
11
5. [' ku9z-w] 12. [ t S e H ' t o H r ] 19. [Seg'bep ]
•• * v h
6. [bu'swoy] 13. ['Mmonzs'] 20. [«zol t iHnM]
7. [Jer'JJnAt h ] lU. [•fwaysz,] 21. [dlim's'nEewk'1]
Reading
Use RE 16.18 as a reading e x e r c i s e . Practice each word

t o yourself f i r s t , and then l i s t e n t o the tape recording of
t h a t word t o check yourself. Work with your buddy.
Suggested Readings
Eugene A. Nida, Learning a Foreign Language, pp. 101-105

(108-118, 132-13U).
H. A. Gleason, An Introduction t o Descriptive L i n g u i s t i c s ,

PP. 201-20U, (ih-26rTFWT 187-193).
Charles F. Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics,
pp. 77-83 (15-7U). ~"
2U6
LESSON SEVENTEEN
Flaps and Trills
Tip-
Tip- Tip- alveopalatal
Bilabial dental alveolar (retroflexed) Uvular
Flaps
Nasal (*) n (?)
Lateral (D 1
Stop (D
Flat tongue
Voiced (4) <J
Voiceless (?) « (?)
Cupped tongue
V
Voiced (?) r (!)
V
Voiceless (f) R
(?)
Trills
Voiced (b) (?) r (?) r
Voiceless (p) (?) R R
Table 17.lt Some Flap and Trill Articulations
Study the above table to make sure that you understand

the significance of the symbols. Note the use of capital R
for voiceless articulation, by analogy with capitals for nasals
and laterals. The diacritics here, however, are used with a
different significance from the ways in which you have met
them before. Be careful that it does not become a source of
confusion. [v] was used earlier as a sign of alveopalatal ar-
ticulation on fricatives and affricates [3 i 8 ] , etc. It is
used on other consonant symbols (and most frequently on r] to
represent flap articulation. [~] was used earlier as ajsign
of alveopalatal articulation on nasals and laterals [n 1 ] ,
etc. It is used with these new symbols to represent trill ar-
ticulation. [ ] was used earlier to represent retroflexed ar-
ticulation [$ S 2], etc. It is used with the trills to repre-
sent uvular articulation. (Note that there is an analogy here.
This represents backing in both cases.) [r] was used earlier
to represent a vowel glide. It is used now (with [v] or ["])
Flaps and Trills 2U7
to represent these new kinds of consonant articulation which
have some acoustic similarity to the [r] glide.
There is not much point in presenting Sammies of these new

sounds except for the uvular trills below, because the points
of articulation and articulators are familiar. It is the man-
ner of articulation which differs.
Flaps
Flap a r t i c u l a t i o n d i f f e r s only s l i g h t l y from t h e c o r r e s -

ponding n a s a l , l a t e r a l or stop a r t i c u l a t i o n . Points and man-
ner of a r t i c u l a t i o n may be the same except for the a d d i t i o n a l
flap characteristic.
RE 1 7 . 1 Demonstration* Flap A r t i c u l a t i o n
Mimic t h e t a p e and follow along i n t h e Manual.
a. Listen t o the tape on the pronunciation of the follow-

ing words, and n o t i c e the pronunciation of t h e medial consonant.
P r a c t i c e making the same kind of a r t i c u l a t i o n y o u r s e l f , whether
you consider t h i s standard pronunciation for English or not,
and whether you find i t n a t u r a l t o your d i a l e c t or n o t .
l a . [«mz,ni>y] Minnie l b . [»fAni»y] funny
2a. [«md.i>y] Millie 2b. [»sAli>y] sully
3 a . t'mz-di>y] middy 3 b . ['mAck.>y] muddy
Ua. [ « k \ r i > y ] kitty Ub. ['jÂfi^y] putty
b . Now follow t h e t a p e , pronouncing each of t h e s e words

i n the same way, and a b s t r a c t i n g the medial consonant, placing
i t between [ a . . . a ] . Maintain t h e f l a p a r t i c u l a t i o n . This
should be a s h o r t , r a p i d f l i c k of t h e tongue a g a i n s t t h e p o i n t
of a r t i c u l a t i o n . The a r t i c u l a t o r , i n s t e a d of d e l i b e r a t e l y going
up and touching t h e point of a r t i c u l a t i o n , f l i c k s up a g a i n s t i t
or f l i c k s i t as i t passes r a p i d l y by. Figure 1 7 . 1 diagrams
t h e s e kinds of movement.
K
Tongue tip flicking Tongue tip flicking Tongue tip flicking
up against point of point of articula- point of articula-
articulation and tion as it passes tion as it passes
away from front to back from back to front
Fig. 17.1
2U8 Lesson 17
c. In order t o make [J*], give a l i t t l e [ r ] q u a l i t y t o an

English [ d ] . I m i t a t e t h e t a p e . You may find t h a t you are work-
ing too hard a t producing a f l a p . Relax, Be sure you are not
wagging your c h i n . Hold your chin steady with your hand.
l a . t'mAck'y] l b . [»mArl>y] l c . f'mArA] I d . [»ATA]
2a. [«roz,(k>y] 2b. [«mz,fi>y] 2c. [«mz.rV] 2d. ['&*&]
d. For another e x e r c i s e i n producing [ f ] , i m i t a t e the

rapid r e p e t i t i o n of these English words$ c i t y , p i t y , d i t t y .
Also* got a l o t l ^ g a r t ' l a t ]
e . Try water and b u t t e r ['warr] and [«bArr].

RE 1 7 . 2 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! [i if]
Begin tuning up your ears t o f l a p s by d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g two

kinds. Respond with d or r . The tape w i l l demonstrate. When
you find t h a t you can answer o r a l l y , t r a n s c r i b e t h e exercise
i n order t o be sure you l e a r n t h e use of t h e flap d i a c r i t i c .
1. [ada] d 5. [oft] r 9. [ a ' r e s o ] r
2. [oak] d 6 . [ido] d 10. [u'dinu] d
3 . [ere] r 7. [ATV] r 1 1 . [e'focJi] d
U. [uru] r 8. [tite] r 12. [V'SOO'A] d
RE 1 7 . 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! [I f ]
Respond o r a l l y with t or r , and then t r a n s c r i b e . Be sure

you t r a n s c r i b e the f l a p d T a c r i l i c c o r r e c t l y .
1. [a?a] r 5>. [o£i] t 9. [a«reso] r
2. [oto] t 6. [ito] t 10. [ u ' f t n u ] r
3 . [s*c] r 7. [Afu] r 11. [e'foti] t
k. [utu] t 8. [the] t 12. [p'cotA] t
RE 17.U. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! [£ I ?]
Respond o r a l l y with d, t , or r , and then t r a n s c r i b e .
1. [vft] r 3 . [AdV] d 5 . [are] r
2. [oto] t h. [eetee] t 6 , [udo] d

Flaps and T r i l l s 2h9
7. [aerv] r 9. [o'dik^x] d 1 1 . [A'ruxi] r
8. [AIJ,] t 10. [ i ' z o f e ] r 12. [t'neelu] t
HE 1 7 . g . D i f f e r e n t i a l * [ft 1 & I fl
Respond with n, 1, d, t , or r u n t i l you can do t h e exer-

c i s e w e l l , and then t r a n s c r i b e .
1. [ifla] n 7. [er-A] r 13. [z,»£ate] t
2. [u-Ee] t 8. [o&] t Hi. [e'geelo] 1
3 . [v*o] r 9. [e<3a] d 1*. [e'zredu] d
h, [wdffi] d 10. [ofte] n 36. [v'fewzA] r
5. [sit] r 11. [ire] r 17. [z-'xyofu] r
6. [AIO] 1 12. [ulA] 1 18. [v'fbviH] r
RE 1 7 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! FLAP or GLIDE
[ r ] and [f] a r e very d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r a r t i c u l a t i o n .

Respond o r a l l y with FLAP or GLIDE, and then t r a n s c r i b e the
exercise.
1. [cro] G 5. [iro] F 9. [t^ffi'porey] G
2 . [z,ra] F 6. [SBTA] G 10. [bi'seHro] G
3 . [Are] F 7. [afe] F 1 1 . [gAw'yuft] F
h. [seri] G 8. [vrv] G 12. [kê'maro] G
RE 1 7 . 7 . MimLcryt [*]
Mimic t h e t a p e , paying p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o c l e a r f l a p
a r t i c u l a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s i t i o n . Follow
along i n t h e Manual.
1. [ i f i ] 6 . [»*z.ra] 11. [mu'rirl
2. [si<e] 7 . [«rvro] 12. [no'ror']
3 . [oro] 8 . ['rArey] 13. [qeiXvt]
U. [ATA] 9 . [«fare] lU. [nA'rse*]
g. [site] 10. [«#sfl.] 15. [re'ruf]

2f>0 Lesson 17
RE 1 7 . 8 . Mimicry! [ft]
To produce [ft] simply t u r n off t h e v o i c i n g . P r a c t i c e by

mimicry of t h e following e x e r c i s e . Follow along i n t h e Manual.
1. [aft] 5 . [ruft] 9. [RATI]
2. [oft] 6 . [foft] 10. [ftefA]
3. [ift] 7 . [raft] 1 1 . [ftofVe]
k. [uft] 8. [fc,ft] 12. [ftofu]
RE 1 7 . 9 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VOICED or VOICELESS
L i s t e n t o t h e f l a p s , and respond with VOICED or VOICELESS.

When you can do the e x e r c i s e o r a l l y , go back and t r a n s c r i b e
the u t t e r a n c e s u n t i l you a r e sure of them. Don't peek.
1. [so?] VD 5 . ['Rino] VL 9 . ['ziite] VD
2 . [t h uft] VL 6 . [fte'Jjna] VL 10. [«ftepyz-] VL
3 . [mof] VD 7 . [fte'tsz,] VL 1 1 . ['fyseftu] VL
U. [ l e f ] VD 8 . [fo'tfcv] VD 1 2 . ['fetÂ] VD
Trills
Most people have made tongue-tip trills all of their lives

in play. Others can learn to do so. There is one important
tip to remember, however. The trill is not created by volun-
tarily moving the tongue through use of your muscles. The
tongue is moved by the air stream. One analogy is that of a
tarpaulin on the back of a truck. As the truck moves along,
the tarpaulin flaps repeatedly and rhythmically. This is not
a movement made on its own part, but is made by the rushing of
the air acting on the tarpaulin. Correspondingly, the muscles
serve to hold the tongue in the right position and with the
right degree of tension, so that when the air does rush out,
the tongue flaps repeatedly, creating a rapid trill.
RE 17.10. Demonstration* [ff R]
Listen to the tape, mimic, and follow in your Manual.
a. Most people can make a voiced alveolar trill, having

done so from childhood when they played cars or airplanes, or
machine guns. Just make sure your trill is with the tongue
tip in the alveolar regiont [?•].
Flaps and Trills 251
b. If you have no trouble with a voiced tip-alveolar trill,
try doing the same thing without voicing! [£•]•
c. If the voiced trill is difficult for you, try saying the

following two phrases rapidly and repeatedly* put it on and
butter up. For many speakers, when this is done naturally and
in a relaxed manner it will give [p^vr*ran] and [bAr'rAp],
Work on these in odd moments, but frequently, over a period of
several days, and you will probably find that very suddenly the
tongue tip trill works.
d. Some people who have difficulty with [r] find it easier

to make after [p], so you could try practicing [pr»].
e. All of these same devices can be used to get the voice-

less trill as well if you whisper the items as you practice
them.
RE 17.11. Mimicry* [r R]
Mimic and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n .

l a . [ara] lb. [faro?] l c . [aRa] I d . [RaRaRj
2a. [ere] 2b. [ r e r e r ] 2c. [eRe] 2d. [ReReR]
3a. [iri] 3b. [ririr] 3c. [iSi] 3d. [ R i & R ]
Ua. [uru] Ub. [rurur] Uc. [uRu] Ud. [RuRuR]
5a. [oro] 5b. [rorof] 5c [oRo] 5d. [RoRoR]
6a. [aerae] 6b. [nerssr] 6 c . [site] 6d. [ReeReeR]
RE 1 7 . 1 2 . Demonstration! |if |]
Mimic and follow along in your Manual.
a. Many people have made uvular trills from childhood.

Sometimes children who do not make tip-alveolar trills substi-
tute uvular trills for them. If you can already do so, imitate
the tape and produce a trill with your uvula vibrating against
the back of your tongue* [?•].
b. If you can make a voiced uvular trill, turn off the

voicing and make a voiceless onei [R»]
c. If the uvular trill does not come easily, articulate

your mouth for an [o], inhale deeply, and then exhale suddenly
and sharply through this articulation. You may get an [r]. Try
2# Lesson 17
Sammy 17.It Articulation of [r], Showing the Uvula

Articulating on the Back of the Tongue
this repeatedly at various times. Keep relaxed as you do it,

playing around with various combinations until you get one that
works.
d. Some people who find a uvular trill difficult, make it

most easily in the sequence [a'ro], forcing the air out of the
lungs forcefully on the [Jo],
e. Try snoring, as you hold your nostrils shut with your

fingers. Get the feel of your velic and uvula vibrating in the
back of your mouth. Snore in, and then, without moving your
tongue, breathe out through your mouth (nostrils held shut with
your fingers). Sometimes this produces [?•].
f. Some people find the sequence [gr»] most useful for

producing a uvular trill.
g. Some people^have a tendency to make [x g] so far back

that they produce [R f ] . Try approaching the uvular trill from
the velar fricative!
h. Some people find it helpful to get the uvula into posi-

tion in relation to the tongue by sitting in a chair and leaning
their heads bac.k to look up at the ceiling, and then forcing the
air out of the lungs. Others lie on a bed with their head hang-
ing off to create this same effect.
Flaps and Trills 253
i. Whatever way works best with you, when you have begun
to produce a voiced or voiceless uvular trill, then articulate
it between vowels, before vowels, after them, etc.* Fara ra
ar oro], etc.
EE 17.13. Mimicryt [f f]
When you can produce a uvular trill in isolation, work on
mimicry of this exercise. Follow along in your Manual,
la. [ara] lb. [jajaj] lc. [aRa] Id. [RaRaR]
2a. [ere] 2b. [refer] 2c. [efe] 2d. [ReReR]
3a. [iri] 3b. [ririr] 3c [i|i] 3d. [RiRiR]
k&, [uru] Ub. [rurur] He. [ufu] kd. [RuRuR]
5a. [ofo] 5b. [roror] 5c. [oRo] 5d. [RoftoR]
6 a . [aeja] 6 b . [raerser] 6 c . [aajtee] 6d. [RasiRfflR]
RE 17.1U. D i f f e r e n t i a l t FLAP or TRILL

Respond o r a l l y with FLAP or TRILL. When you have done
t h e e x e r c i s e o r a l l y , t r a n s c r i b e the u t t e r a n c e s and check your
t r a n s c r i p t i o n a g a i n s t t h e t e x t below. Don't peek.
1. ['pine] F 6 . [«Ra.tso] T 1 1 . [Mme'nAfoz] F
2 . [«sofA] T 7. [•Rus'z,] T 12. [kNroineru^] T
3 . [«gerv] T 8. [«RVt£a] F 1 3 . [fc'xaerup] F
k. f'furo] T 9 . [«Rol A i] T lit. [nA»dzeR»t h ] T

• • •
5. [»w 6 ri] F 10. ['ReLs] T 1 5 . [ga'beoRon] T
RE 17.15. D i f f e r e n t i a l t VOICED or VOICELESS
1. [»Ra.tso] VL 5. ['pifte] VD 9 . [ga«bboRon] VL
2 . ['ruSt.] VD 6 . ['gerv] VD 10. [nA'dzeRvth] VL
3. [«Rori] VL 7. [«SORA] VL 11. [Jt'xsrup] VD
U. ['fetEa] VD 8 . [»fuRo] VL 3 2 . [kîqefui] VD

25U Lesson 17
RE 17.15. D i f f e r e n t i a l * ALVEOLAR or UVULAR
1. [«pira] A 5 . [«Ru3z,] U 9. [ k V i ' n e r u c ] U

•
2 . [«so?A] A 6 . ['Retia] A 10. Qj-'ssrup] A
3 . [»furo] U 7. [«Reiae] A 11. [ga'bboRor] A
U. [»w e fi] A 8. [ « R o r i ] U 12. [Mme«nA#oz] A

•
RE 17.17. Negative P r a c t i c e ! Flaps and T r i l l s
P r a c t i c e saying these English words and phrases with the
i n d i c a t e d s u b s t i t u t i o n s of flaps and t r i l l s . Follow t h e t r a n s -
c r i p t i o n as you mimic t h e t a p e .
a. c a r b. rat c . near d. park
la. [Atr] l b . [rsrt b ] l c . [ni'yf] I d . [pîrk 11 ]
2a. [kôR] 2b. [Rarth] 2c. [ni»yR] 2d. [phaRkh]
3 a . [khar] 3b. [rat^] 3 c [ni>yf] 3 d . [phofkk]
Ua. [khoR] Ub. [Rst h ] Uc. [ni>y£] Ud. [phaRk*1]
5a. [kô?] 5b. [r®t£] 5 c [ni>yr] 5d. [iârk 11 ]

• • • •
6 a . [khaR] 6 b . [R»t h ] 6 c . [ni>yR] 6d. [pâRlf*1]
e. prowl f. roaring g. Rosa r a r e l y ran
l e . [prowl ] I f . [«roHri.n] l g . ['fcwzA «?eH?l v i>y 'rseHn]
2 e . [pRawl ] 2f. [»RoHFL-n] 2g. ['RowzA ' R e H R r i - y «R«Hn]
3 e . [pfawl ] 3 f . [»foHfz,n] 3 g . ['fowzA «feHfl v i*y «fteHn]
Ue. [pRawl ] Itf. [»RoHRz.n] Ug. [«RowzA »ReHRl'i>y 'RseHn]
5e. [pfawl ] 5f. [»foH?M]] 5g. ['fowzA «rEHfl'i>y »reaHn]
6 e . [pRawl ] 6f. [•RoHfc.n] 6g. ['ROWZA «ReHRlvi»y "ReeHn]
RE 1 7 . 1 8 I Khmu''.1 Mimicry* [ r ]
Mimic t h e t a p e , and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
The recording i s not t h a t of a n a t i v e speaker.

Flaps and T r i l l s 255
la. /rao/ lb. /boory l c . /hraag/ [Rra»i]]
'pour over' •two' •tooth'
2a. /faay/ 2b. /waaf/ 2c. /hrnaa/ [Rr'na*]
•fierce' •hot' ' i r r i g a t e d ricefield'
3a. /ink/ 3b. /mar/ 3 c /hrlap/ [Rr'lAp]
•love' 'snake' 'fold up' '
l*a. /rap/ Ub. /sar/ Uc. / h r i i n / [Rri»n]
•grasp' 'wild cat' ' t o lead'
5a. /riit/ 5b. /wiir/ 5c. / h r n i i p / [R^«'ni«p]

1
'custom' stare» •spoon'
6a. /reen/ 6b. /wer/ 6c. / h f e ' / [§»•]
•abandoned •turn over' 'swidden'
ricefield'
7a. /fees/ 7b. / h e r / 7c. /hfoh/ [Rrvh]

'strong• •intelligent' •to ripen'
8a. /feew/ 8b. /nee?/ 8c. /hrok/ [Rrvk]
•noose trap* •tiny' •six'
9a. /roon/ 9b. Aloof/ 9 c /hrloV [S^»lo»]

•line' •road' 'word'
10a. /ruup/ 10b. /buar/ 10c. /hfuuy/ [Rru»y]

1
'picture' evening' •spirit'
RE 17.19* Reviewt Nasals, L a t e r a l s , Stops
i n t h i s e x e r c i s e we w i l l emphasize t h r e e kinds of a r t i c u -
l a t i o n ! b i l a b i a l , t i p - a l v e o l a r , and b l a d e - a l v e o p a l a t a l . Mimic
the tape and follow along i n your Manual. Make sure t h a t your
v o i c i n g , or v o i c e l e s s n e s s , or a s p i r a t i o n i s c l e a r , as well as
your a r t i c u l a t i o n .
l a . [mamem] l b . [nanen] lc. [nanen]

2a. [Mmo.MmAnW] 2b. [Nno.NnAnN] 2c. [Nno.NnAnN]
3b. [rel-TLb] 3c. [lelul]
Ub. [l v ol v 6Bl v ]
5b. [Llva.LlvilvL]
6b. [dlu.dlj.dl]
256 Lesson 17
7b. [ t £ o . t £ e t £ ]
8b. [t& h ae.t£ h ati I ]
9a. [bebAb] 9b. [dedAd]
10a. [pupep] 10b. [ t u t e t ]
Ha. [phaphpph] lib. [thathptb]
Mimic t h e tape on t h e following e x e r c i s e . The f i r s t one
w i l l be b u i l t up, and t h e remainder w i l l c o n s i s t of s u b s t i t u -
t i o n s made i n t h e f i r s t one. P r a c t i c e f o r fluency. Work on
p i t c h , timing, s t r e s s , j u n c t u r e , e t c . , as w e l l as consonants
and vowels.
1. [NnBSwi'niH.po.nAr d*f.fe«l*iwt h ]
i i i /
2. [ ^v ia.xeg
ccxsn ]
3. [ RofJSil v ]
I
1
U. [ SAr.pfAtfc ]
Transcription
Use RE 1 7 . 2 , 1 7 . 9 , 17.13~17.17 as t r a n s c r i p t i o n e x e r c i s e s .
Transcribe r e p e a t e d l y those which give you t r o u b l e . Do your
t r a n s c r i p t i o n on a t r a n s c r i p t i o n form, and keep t r a c k of your
e r r o r s . Watch your progress on sounds which give you d i f f i -
c u l t y , and d r i l l with those sounds and symbols which tend t o
confuse you, going back t o t h e lesson where the sound was i n -
troduced, i f necessary.
Reading
Use 17.3ii~17.l6 as reading e x e r c i s e s , c a l l i n g off t h e

u t t e r a n c e before t h e machine gives i t , and checking yourself
against t h e production on t h e t a p e .
257
LESSON SEVENTEEN R
Review
Consonants
Here is the inventory of the symbols representing sounds

drilled so far. You are responsible for production of all
sounds to date except the flaps and trills, which may take a
little more time for some people. You are not responsible for
hearing the difference between dental and alveolar stops,
nasals and laterals. You should hear this difference in fric-
atives and affricates.
a j» >• > < o

a P (B P
to B) o P Q d-
d- P OOI 4 d"
H P p d- 1 4 P
4 d- 1
d-
4 £
o P
4 H H, H
H H
v—'
VI. unasp. P t t k
A
•
VI. asp. P* tf th t* kh
Voiced b d d
VI. flap
Vd. flap
FRICATIVES
Lip articulation
Voiceless P f
Voiced b V
Tongue articulation
Grooved
Voiceless s
Voiced
p-palatal articulation i s also used for retroflexed

sounds.
258 Lesson 17 R
o > > > <J

p CD H VH H "*?" P <!
CD
H
H> 3" 0> CD CD H CD P
P P O P O c+ P q •i
H H H ft 1 l-J C+ 1
p o P
4
Flat
Voiceless 0 X
Voiced g
Lateral
Voiceless
Voiced 1
AFFRICATES1
Grooved
VI. unasp. ts ts c ts
A *
••
VI. a s p . ts 11 ts 11 fih tsh
A A
••
Voiced dz dz 5 d2
••
Flat
VI. unasp. pj te kx
A
VI. a s p . pj te11 kxh

A
Voiced b\ del gg
Lateral
VI. unasp. t£
VI. a s p . t£h
Voiced dl
NASALS
Voiceless M N
N N
N N,
Voiced m n n fii
f n n
Vd. flap n
"There are,' of course, many affricates with different

points of articulation for stop and fricative. Some are shown
on p. 138.
Review 259
tr" t) !» > > < <5

P: a. $ p,j a &a £ |
& p, a £<? £&<? * S3
JS p. &£
LATERALS1
Voiceless L
Vd. high tongue 1* 1" 1

Vd. low tongue lv lv
Vd. f l a p 1
TRILLS
Voiceless R R
Voiced f f
FIAPS (cupped tongue) 2

Voiceless R
Voiced r
Table 17R.1» Consonants to Date
TE 17R.1. Matching Symbols

Since the number of consonant symbols is now becoming
rather large, the problem of remembering symbols themselves,
aside from the problem of hearing sound differences, needs
some attention and practice. After you have reviewed the
above chart, paying particular attention to the diacritic
marks and the distinctions they represent, try TE 17R.1 in the
Workbook Supplement (pp. it?-^).
Vowels
Table 16.1, p. 232, charts the vowel qualities to date.
Review the vowel symbols and the qualities they represent from
that lesson. Review also the on-glides [w y r] and the off-
glides [w y r H] in Lesson 12, p. 175ff., and subsequent
lateral fricatives and affricates are shown above under

fricatives and affricates, respectively.
^Nasal flaps are shown under nasals, lateral flaps under
laterals, and flat tongue flaps under stops.
260 Lesson 1? R
even-numbered l e s s o n s . Work on production, r e c o g n i t i o n , and
t r a n s c r i p t i on.
S y l l a b l e s and Their C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Review Lesson 10 ( p . l ^ O f f . ) .
Pitch
If you have very much trouble with pitch, review Lesson 8,

p. Il8ff. If you do not, review exercises like RE 17.20,
p. 256, and llt.20, p. 2l£f.
Transcription
a* For any sounds which you have difficulty recognizing,

use the differential drills in the lessons where they were in-
troduced as transcription drills, and check your answer with
the Manual.
b. Transcribe drills containing longer sequences.
In all your transcription, study your mistakes in com-

parison with the correct form, and see the reasons for your
errors if you can. Keep track of your errors on the Trans-
cription Tally Form in your Workbook Supplement.
Reading
Practice reading items from exercises in the Manual, and

checking your production against the tape. Work with your
buddy so that a second person can hear your production.
261
LESSON EIGHTEEN
Lower-low Vowelsj Length
Front' Central Back

U. R. U. R. U. R.
High i u
Lower-high V V
Mid e 0
Lower-mid E
Low 83 A 0
Lowei—low a a
Table 18.1* Vowels t o Date

LlJ
The names f o r t h e new symbols on the c h a r t a r e [a] " p r i n -
t e d a" or "typewriter a" or "Boston a," and [D] "upside-down
a«" ~ I n c o n t r a s t , fa] "is c a l l e d " w r i t t e n a" or " s c r i p t _a,"
The e a s i e s t way t o w r i t e [z>] by hand i s t o s t a r t i n t h e upper
left-hand c o r n e n "j*^
RE 1 8 . 1 . Demonstration* Table 18.1
L i s t e n t o t h e demonstration of t h e vowel chart r e p e a t e d l y ,

studying Table 1 8 . 1 as you do s o . When you a r e f a m i l i a r with
i t , read off t h e chart simultaneously with t h e t a p e . Work
with your buddy.
RE 1 8 . 2 . Discrimination/ SAME or DIFFERENT
Continue tuning up your ears t o these new vowel q u a l i t i e s

by responding SAME or DIFFERENT t o t h e following p a i r s . Con-
c e n t r a t e on t h e differences t o help you become f a m i l i a r with
them. Don't peek.
l a . [raeT raT] D Ua. [rar r®r] D

2a. [reaT l'seT] S 5a. [raaT l'alA] D
A
3a. [l aT TaT] S 6 a . [tso«l A sel A tso«l A 83l A ] S
262 Lesson 18
7a. tsoTseT tso'l'ar] D 9a. [ t s o ' l ' a T tso«lAaT] s
A A A A A A A
8a. tso»l gO. tso«l al ] D 10a. [tso«l al tso«rael ] D
lb. vae vaG] D l c . [gotfc gati] D

2b. vae vaG] D 2c. [gatfc gotfc] D
3b. vaG vae] D 3 c. [gct£ grotfc] S
Ub. va8 va6] D Uc. [gati, gat£] s
5b. vae vae] S 5 c . [grotfc grotfc] s
6b. pkr'vae phr'vaG] S 6 c . [^)i«grotB tfci'grotfc] S
7b. phr'vae pbr'vae] D 7c. [ifti'gatfc ggitgrotfc] D
8b. pbr'vae jfcr'vae] S 8c. [Iftit grotfc IJoitgatB] D
9b. ph^««vae phytvae] D 9 c . [gqi»gabi IJr)i»gat£] S
10b. pb-r'vaO pb-r'va©] D 10c. [ijiji'gatfc goi« grotfc] D
Id. roR roR] S l e . [lal A IAT] D

2d. roR roR] D 2e. [IAT IAT ] S
3d. roR roR] S 3 e . [ial* lar ] D
lid. PDR rroR] S Ue. [1A1 A 1A1A] S
5d. ,r»R roR] D 5e. [ l a r IaT] S
6d. ne'rtiR fie'roR] S 6e. [foilaT *o»lal A ] S
7d. iie'roR ne'roR] D 7e. [fo'lAT *O»1A1 A ] S
8d. ne'roR ns'roR] D 8e. [ i b ' l a r *O»1A1 A ] D
9d. ne'roR ne'mR] D 9e. [fo'laT *o«lAl A ] D
lOd. n^roR ne«roR] S lOe. [*o«lAlA i<o«ial A ] D
If. toth hxO}] D 3f. [teAth toth] D

2f. W1 W1] D Itf. [fcoth feAth] D
Lower-low Vowelsj Length 263
5f. [feAth bAt h ] S 8f. [ « s u t o t h »sub»th] S
6f. [«sutewth "subAt11] D 9f. ['SuteDth »sufeT>th] S
7f. [«SufeAth «subDt h ] D lOf. [»sufeAth «suBAth] S
Production of [ee a a p o]
A l l of these low and lower-low vowel q u a l i t i e s occur i n

one or another of t h e d i a l e c t s of English, b u t they do not
u s u a l l y occur a l l i n t h e same d i a l e c t , a t l e a s t not with
phonemic d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s . Speakers of English, furthermore,
d i f f e r i n t h e degree of tongue h e i g h t , f r o n t i n g , and backing,
with which they pronounce t h e s e vowels, as any o t h e r s . For
example, many speakers of English do not normally have [ae] or
[ a ] , but a vowel somewhere betweent [aev] or [ a A ] , Others have
[ee] but not [ a ] , others [a] but not [ee]. Some have both. In
s i m i l a r fashion, some English speakers have [a] and [ o ] , others
[o] and [ o ] , and s t i l l others have only [ a > ] , without e i t h e r
[x>] or [ o ] . The learning problems i n t h i s area are t h e r e f o r e
d i f f e r e n t for d i f f e r e n t English-speaking people.
[a] i s famous i n t h e United S t a t e s as one of t h e i n g r e -

d i e n t s of t h e "Harvard a c c e n t , " speech of the Boston a r e a , and
of President Kennedy, I t occurs, however, i n other areas as
w e l l , notably t h e South. Some Americans i n areas where i t i s
not normal have i t s p o r a d i c a l l y i n c e r t a i n words because of
d i a l e c t i n f l u e n c e . Some a r e a s , l i k e Western New England have
a v a r i e t y not q u i t e so f a r front as the Boston v a r i e t y . Some
New York City d i a l e c t s have a v a r i e t y not q u i t e so low as the
Boston v a r i e t y . We w i l l s t r i v e i n t h i s course f o r a r e a l l y
lower-low front a r t i c u l a t i o n . The sound occurs as the only
lower-low vowel i n many languages, including some d i a l e c t s of
French and Spanish, and along with [a] i n o t h e r s , including
some d i a l e c t s of French.
[D] occurs commonly i n some B r i t i s h d i a l e c t s of English,

including some used i n Canada. I t occurs i n t h e speech of
many Americans as w e l l .
RE 1 8 . 3 , Demonstration! Producing [ae a a n o]

a. One of the b e s t ways t o develop a f e e l for t h e lower-
low front a r t i c u l a t i o n represented i n [a] or t h e lower-low
back a r t i c u l a t i o n represented i n [t>], i s t o p r a c t i c e t a l k i n g
or reading English i n a fronted a r t i c u l a t i o n s t y l e , and i n one
which uses a lowered tongue-back p o s i t i o n . Listen t o the t a p e
as i t demonstrates both of t h e s e . I t w i l l read t h i s paragraph
f i r s t i n fronted a r t i c u l a t i o n s t y l e , and then i n backed,
lowered a r t i c u l a t i o n s t y l e . P r a c t i c e reading i n t h i s same way
26U Lesson 18
Sammy 18.It [a]. Note that Sammy 18.21 [*>]• Note that
the whole tongue is low and the whole tongue is low and
flat, but that the highest flat, but that the highest
point is in the front. point is in the back.
yourself. Watch your tongue closely in the mirror on the

fronted style. Make sure it does not slip back, but stays
firmly bunched in the front of your mouth.
b. One way to achieve a clear distinction between [ae]

and [a] is to go down the "front unrounded" column of the
chart, opening the mouth slightly with each sound, and making
sure the tongue does not slip back to [a]. Mimic the tape,
and watch in the mirror. If necessary at first, protrude
your lower jaw on [a] to make sure it stays front.
c. The same approach can be taken for [o] and [x>]. Go

down the "back rounded" column with progressively more open
mouth. Notice also that the amount of rounding decreases.
When you go from [o] to [v] there is no more rounding. Be
careful not to jump to [a]. Mimic the tape.
c. Work on the sequence [e a a v o ] . Watch your tongue

in the mirror as you do so. There should be a clear movement
of the hump of the tongue backwards on the sequence [a a o ] .
Listen to the tape and mimic.
d. Among some American ministers [n] is sometimes used

as a special pronunciation restricted to formal prayer or
other occasions when t h e y need t o sound sanctimonious. [,awr
•fcdr] our F a t h e r , f o r example, i s f r e q u e n t l y heard i n the
prayers of some preachers who would say [ t awr •faelr] under
other circumstances. I t i s sometimes used f a c e t i o u s l y by
Americans who do not otherwise use i t , as i n [wB'hropnd] what
happened? Some people say ['wnfl] waffle or ['x>fl] awful^
The t a p e demonstrates. Mimic t h e speech of someone i n whom
you d e t e c t t h i s pronunciation.
e. For [a] mimic the speech of a Bostonian whom you know

i n such words as car, f a t h e r . Or mimic the speech of a south-
erner who says [a*J or LaHJ for I , [faHn] f i n e , [maHn] mine.
RE 18.U. Negative P r a c t i c e i [ae a a p o]

Mimic the t a p e , s u b s t i t u t i n g the various vowel q u a l i t i e s
i n t h e English sentences. I n t h e second sentence t h e s u b s t i -
t u t i o n s w i l l be made only i n t h e underlined words. Follow i n
your Manual. When you have learned t o do t h i s i n mimicry of
t h e t a p e , use i t as an exercise t o p r a c t i c e i n your spare
minutes.
1 . Park your car i n Harvard l a r d ,
l a . ['pâek yi'kês z,n'ha2vid 'yed]
l b . [«phak y i ' k n a z,n«havid »yad]

!
lc« ['phcdc yi'k^Vi tn'hccvid yad]
I d . ["p^nk yi'khn z-n'hcvid »y©d]
l e . ['phok y i ' k n o t n ' h o v i d »yod]
2. I t made me laugh t o see a calf go down t h e path t o take a

bath.
2a. [luef] [lAef] [pfcae] [bee]

2b. [laf] [khaf] [phae] [bae]
2c. [laf] [khof] [pôe] [ba9]
2d. [Inf] O^xf] [pê] [toe]

2e. [lof] [khof] [phoe] [boe]
RE 1 8 . 5 . Mimicry! [a a a t> o]
Follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic. Work with a buddy
266 Lesson 18
so t h a t you can check each o t h e r -when you wander from c l o s e
mimicry of the t a p e .
l a . [daf] l b . [daf] l o . [daf] 3d. [dPf] le. [dof]

2a. [nespb] 2b. [napb] 2c. [napb] 2d. [nrrph] 2e. [nopb]
3a. [ l ' a s ] 3b. [ r a g ] 3c [roS] 3d. [ r - n s ] 3e. [To&]
Ua. [tisBs] Ub. [t£as] Uc. [ t £ a s ] Ud. [tiros] Ue. [t£os]
5a. [nasi*] 5b. [naT ] 5 c foal* ] 5d. [nxxL*] 5e. [gol A ]

6 a . [Nnad] 6 b . [Nnad] 6 c . [Nnad] 6d. [Nnixi] 6 e . [Nnod]
7a. [pLsep] 7b. [pLap] 7c [pLap] 7d. [plrop] 7 e . [pLop]
8a. [ka2] 8b. [ka2] 8c. [ka2] 8d. [kr>S] 8 e . [koS]
9a. [3ar] 9b. [ i a r ] 9c. [lor] 9d. [ l n r ] 9e. [lor]
10a. [Ream] 10b. [Ram] 1 0 c [Ram] lOd. [Rom] lOe. [Rom]
RE 1 8 . 6 . Mimicryt Vowels With and Without On-glides
Mimic t h e tape and natch t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
l a . [feo] 3b. [byo] lc [fewo] I d . [bro]
2a. [bonk11] 2b. [byogk*1] 2 c . [bwoqk11] 2d. [bronk*1]
3 a . [ro] 3 b . [fy*>] 3c [fm>] 3d. [fro]
Ua. [ronk*1] Ub. [rybnk11] U c [rwonk11] Ud. [rronk^]
5a. [dftx] 5b. [d2ya] 5 c . [dSvra] 5d. [dfcra]
6a. [d&xnk11] 6 b . [dgyaqk11] 6 c . [d&rank11] 6d. [d&rank11]
7a. [fca] 7b. [iiya] 7c [Bra] 7d. [ t r a ]
8a. [Bank*1] 8b. [iyank 11 ] 8c. [Swank*1] 8d. [Lrank*1]
9 a . [xa] 9b. [xyse] 9 c . [xwa] 9d. [xro]
10a. [xank*1] 10b. [xyank11] 1 0 c [xirank11] lOd. [xnsenk*1]
RE 1 8 . 7 . Negative P r a c t i c e t "Old MacDonald Had a Farm"
P r a c t i c e i n t h e manner of RE 16.10, p . 239. The t a p e

will demonstrate the beginning, and you can practice at odd
moments.
a. With a [TO vse] here...
b. With a [vwse vwse] here...
c. Continue with other glides and other vowels.
RE 18.8. Differential! Vowel Symbols
Respond to the tape by giving the name of the symbol with

which the vowel sound is transcribed, as you did in RE 16.13,
p. 2U2. You may do this orally or in writing. Don't peek, but
if you write your responses check them with the transcription
below after you finish the exercise. When you can respond
with the correct symbol in every case, transcribe the full
utterance.
1. [na] SCRIPT a 13. [NMBf^] DIGRAPH
2. [ree] DIGRAPH Ik. [Nnif:r] i
3. [ne] EPSILON I S . [Nnaf^.v] SCRIPT a
U. [no] BACKWARDS c 15. [squfl] u

5. [no] o 17. [Snefl] EPSILON
6. [nnf] UPSIDE-DOWN a 18. [grjaq.] PRINTED a
7. [naf] PRINTED a 19. [Snofl] BACKWARDS £
8. [&f] IOTA 20. [Sqifl] i
9 . [nuf] u 21. [SnoR]
10. [iasef] DIGRAPH 22. [^nz-R] IOTA

1 1 . [Nih>q.v] UPSILON 23. [SnxsR] UPSIDE-DOWN a
12. [Nnefl v ] e 2U. [^nvR] UPSILON
RE 1 8 . 9 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! FRONT or CENTRAL UNROUNDED, BACK

ROUNDED or UNROUNDED
Respond o r a l l y t o t h e t a p e . Use the e x e r c i s e for t r a n s -

c r i p t i o n when you can handle i t as a d i f f e r e n t i a l d r i l l .
1 . [dda] C U 2 . [dde] FU 3 . [date] FU

268 Lesson 18
U. [deho] BU 8. [pfolA] B R 12. [skyonth] CU
5 . [dda] FU 9 . [pftol A ] BU 13. [skyaent*1] F U
6. [prVl A ] B R 10. [prAl A ] CU lb. [skymth] BU
7 . [pfol A ] BR 1 1 . [skyant h ] FU 15. [skyonth] B R
RE 18.10. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Tongue Height
Respond i r i t h HIGH, LOWER-HIGH, MID, LOWER-MID, LOW, o r

LOWER-LOW. Then t r a n s c r i b e .
1. [tS h a] L-L 8. [srAn] L 15. [KL'oyk 11 ] L
2 . [tfhn] L-L 9. [srtfi] L-L 1 6 . lil"r>y)&] L-L
3 . [tfhffi] L 10. [sron] L 17. [Srsyk* 1 ] L

U. [tfhe] L-tt 1 1 . [sroii] M 1 8 . [21'ayk 1 1 ] L-L
5 . [tS h a] L-L 12. [ s r r a ] L-H 1 9 . [CTayk* 1 ] L-L
6. [ t | h i ] H 1 3 . [sr&n] L-H 2 0 . [Sl'uyk11] H
7. [tS h u] H lU. [sfvfi] L-H 2 1 . [arz-yk 1 1 ] L-H
RE 1 8 . 1 1 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! F u l l Labels
Select one term from each column t o make up your response.

Don't peek.
HIGH FRONT ROUNDED
MID BACK
LOWER-MID
LOW
LOWER-LOW
1 . [ya] L-L F U U. [ye] L-iJ F U 7. [ya] L-L F U
2 . [yo] MB R 5. [yse] L F U 8. [yA] L CU
3. [yo] L B R ' 6. [yz.] L-HF u 9. [iyxxi] L-L B U

Lower-low Vowelsf Length 269
10. [Zyad] L-L C U 17. [pSard] L-L F U
1 1 . [3yAd] L C U 18. [p2Ard] L C U
•
12. [fyad] L-L F U 19. [p2erd] H F U
•
13. [2yvd] L-H B R 20. [p2vrd] L-H B R
•
Ik. [2yod] L BR 2 1 . [pford] O R
•
15. [JSysed] LFU 22. [pgord] L BR
•
IS. [2yod] L-L B U 23. [pBard] L-L C U
Length of Vowel and Consonant
Almost all speech sounds may vary perceptibly in length,

duration of time in which the articulation is held. Some
kinds of sounds like vowels, fricatives, nasals, and laterals
may be held artificially until the speaker runs out of breath,
in others, like voiced stops, the duration for which they can
be held is short. When the stopped-off air chambers fill up
with air, voicing is no longer possible, and the voiced stop
can no longer be held as a voiced stop. A voiceless stop, on
the other hand, may be held until the person gasps for breath.
Such a stop, however, is completely noiseless. A voiceless
stop cannot be heard during its closure.
Unlike most other sounds, flaps cannot be articulated

with perceptibly different lengths. When you hold a flap it
automatically becomes something else, [r] becomes [t], [n]
becomes [n], etc.
It should be clear from this discussion that when we talk

of long vowels or consonants, and short vowels or consonants,
we are not referring to the same phenomenon as when some people
say that beat contains a long vowel and bit a short vowel in
English. From a phonetic point of view the difference between
these two words is in vowel quality and glide, rather than in
length. There may be a difference in length as well, but it
is easy to confuse the glide in beat with length.
In the speech of many of us, however, there is a differ-

ence of length in bat and bad, bit and bid, lock and log. The
shorter vowel comes before a voiceless consonant and the longer
vowel before a voiced consonant. This demonstrates what is a
non-phonemic difference in length for many of us.
All languages show perceptible differences of length on

270 Lesson 18
some of t h e i r sounds. I n some languages, differences i n
length c r e a t e phonemic d i s t i n c t i o n s . In Khuni?, c o n t r a s t s b e -
tween long and s h o r t vowels of t h e same q u a l i t y can be seen
i n p a i r s l i k e [lo»n] ' c o f f i n ' and [loq] ' b r a n c h , ' [de»k]
' f l u s h a t the end' and [dek] ' s m a l l , l i t t l e . ' (The [•] sym-
b o l i z e s t h e prolonged a r t i c u l a t i o n , and i s c a l l e d a " r a i s e d
dot.")
Differences i n consonant length are a l s o f u n c t i o n a l p a r t s

of some language systems. In English a long consonant i s some-
times heard when a word ending with a c e r t a i n consonant imme-
d i a t e l y precedes another beginning with t h e same consonant,
with d e l i b e r a t e pronunciation but no break. Examples are
[•wdl»ayt n ] ' w a l l l i g h t , ' or team meeting as a g a i n s t team e a t -
ing or t e a meeting.
Long consonants are a l s o heard i n English as a s t y l i s t i c

device i n some speakers, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n public a d d r e s s . He
was t h e r e a l»ong t i m e ! N«ever have I seen such a sightJ
Some other languages use difference of length on conso-

nants t o d i s t i n g u i s h words. In Finnish t h e r e i s [mit»ee]
•measurement' and [mite] ' w h a t . ' Other examples of the use of
long consonants i n Finnish include [ak»a] ' o l d l a d y , ' [ k r i s ' a ]
' c a t , ' [mom»a] 'mother,' [p"uk»o] ' k n i f e . '
RE 18.12. Mimicry* Sequences of Long and Short Vowels and

_ Fricatives
Mimic t h e tape and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n . The tape

w i l l build up t o t h e long sequences. Mimic the timing, rhythm,
and l e n g t h . Be very careful not t o have d i f f e r e n t vowel qual-
i t y on t h e s h o r t vowels from what you have on t h e l o n g . Try
t o keep the s t r e s s even.
1. [sa»sasa asa«sa sa»sa sa»sa sa»sasasa]
2. [sas»as» s«asas»a asas«a as<>as»asa]
3 . [sa»s»asasas«a a»sas»as*a» s»asasa»sa]
RE 18.13. Demonstration* Long Stops
a. To make a long v o i c e l e s s s t o p , simply keep the a r t i c u -

l a t i o n closed f o r the length of time you want to hold t h e s t o p .
There i s no sound during the s t o p . Mimic t h e tapei [ep»e]
[et»e] [ek»e]
b . To make a long voiced s t o p , keep the a r t i c u l a t i o n

closed as with a v o i c e l e s s s t o p , but keep t h e rumble of the
Lower-low Vowels* Length 271
voicing going. You w i l l not be able t o do t h i s long as your
a i r c a v i t i e s w i l l f i l l up with a i r . Mimic the tape* [eb*e]
[ed*e] [eg*e].
c . Mimic t h e following sequencesi
1. [ba*baba aba*ba ba*ba ba*ba ba*bababa]
2. [bab*aba b*abab*a abab*a ab*ab*aba]
3 . [ba*b*abab*a a*bab*ab*a* b»ababa*ba]
RE 18,lU. Negative Practicet "The Hat With the Bird"
Practice reading the following sentences with their ar-

tificially controlled length. When you have control over them
turn on the tape recorder and read them before the tape does.
Compare your reading with that on the tape.
1. [dA ,hast widi 'brd an vt]

i
2. [dA ,hee*t w i d i 'br*d an z/t]

t
3 . [dA* ,h£et widi 'brd a n i » t ]
U, [dA ,heBft wi*di 'brd a*n vt]
5. [dA ,h«eet widi 'brd an* z,t]
6 . [d*A ,haet widi 'b*rd an vt]
7. [d*A* ,hfflt widi 'brd* a*n* vt]
8. [dA theet* widi* ' b r d an vt]
RE 1 8 . 1 5 . D i f f e r e n t i a l * VOWEL or CONSONANT
Listen f o r 'whether t h e consonant or the vowel i s long,
and respond accordingly. Don't peek.
1. [na*] V 5 . [g*s] C 9. [«*a] C
2. [s*e] C 6 . [d*o] C 10. [*v] V
3 . [2i*] V 7. [f*ffi] C 1 1 . [no*] V
h. [ f A] C 8 . [ru*] V 12. [l"*v] C

272 Lesson 18
RE 18.16. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VOWEL, CONSONANT, NEITHER, or BOTH
Listen for the second s y l l a b l e of each item, and decide
what i s long, i f anything.
1. [pz,»s»z,] C 7. [2v'l*o»] V 13. [ta«n»z-fe] C
2. [ t h e ' x « 6 ] C 8. [p h £e'5»i] C Ik. [bz,'lu«Nna] V
3 . [dA»BA«] V 9. [di'nu*] V 1 5 . [ge«g»ozu] C
h. [fa'za*] V 10. [§o»e«e] C 16. [ t A ' I - e . t £ o ] C
5. [Su'mu*] V 1 1 . [kn«l v i»] V 17. [vse'n-vfi] C
6. [bo'g-o] G 12. [pi«Ro«] V 18. [ ^ • d e ^ . t s v ] V
RE 18.17. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! LONG or GLIDED

Listen for the f i r s t s y l l a b l e of each item, and decide
whether the vowel i s long or glided. If i t i s both long and
glided, answer long.
1. [sa^'say] L 6 . [so»'soy] L 1 1 . [se»*si.y] L
2. [sasH'sawr] G 7. [scw'so] G 12. [siH«sz,H] G
3 . [sow'so] G 8. [sa««say] L 1 3 . [siw'suH] G
h. [so»'soy] L 9 . [sey'sz,w] G lk. [SA.'SAW] L
5. [soH'soH] G 10. [seH«sz,H] G 15. [suy'suH] G
RE I 8 . I 8 1 F i n n i s h . Mimicryt Long Vowels and Consonants
Follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic t h e t a p e . Each

item w i l l be given once, and then t h e whole l i s t repeated.
l a . [ku«l*a] l b . [-euTa] 2
•bullet' 'melted'
"Tinnish materials i n t h i s book are taken from recordings

f o r t h e Special Rionetics of the Wycliffe Language Course
(England), and used by permission. The speaker i s Mr. E l i a s
P e n t t i of the Finnish Mission i n Angola.
o
The i n i t i a l consonant i s not one you have had. Mimic
i t as best you can.
Lower-low- Vowelsj Length 273
2a. [ k u » r » a ] 2b, feul*o«]

'to hear' ' ( i t ) melts'
3a. [kuol'a] 3b. [cu»ra]
•drivel' «a kind of b i r d '
Ua. [kuol* «a] 1+b, [-eu*l*a*]
•to d i e ' ' a kind of b i r d ( p a r t i t i v e ) '
5a, [muta] 5b. [eu*l A *a]
'mud' 'with t h e mouth'
6a, [mut*a] 6b, [cull^'a]
•but' 'with the mouths'
7a, [muita] 7b. [-euol**a]
'others* 'on the swamp'
8a, [muit*a] 8b, [-euol*a]
'•without t h e o t h e r s ' 'salt'
9 b , [-euol*a»]
' ( h e , she) s a l t s '
l c , [taka*] 5c, [ta*k*a]

•from behind' 'burden (nom. c a s e ) '
2c, [taka*'] 6c, [ta*k*a*]
'(impera,) go surety' 'burden (partitive)'
3c, [tak*a] 7c, [taika]
•fireplace (nom, case)' •witchcraft'
Uc. [tak*a*] 8c, [ t a i k a * ]
'fireplace (partitive •witchcraft (partitive)'
(case'
9c [taik*a]
'or'
RE 18.19* Finnish. Mimicry* Longer Sequences
This drill contains two pairs of Finnish sentences, dif-

ferent by long vowels and consonants. Within each pair the
sentences are repeated several times, in mixed order. Follow
the transcription as you mimic the tape. Concentrate on the
combination of pitch and length.
27U Lesson 1 8
la. ['tee'-ea «tuJlA e» 'l»ijka.«] 'Here comes dirt."
A
l b . ['tg'lca «tu<l e» 'l*V*ka«] 'Here i t blows too much.'
2a. [ kiil* amel'vitjl" a,''toi]seme<ta4'pa*m*s ]•*-
•We s h a l l meet each other l a t e r on.'
2b. [ kul A ame; i vijl'a|'to^S6m6?ta^pam»6] 1

•We s h a l l k i l l each other l a t e r on.•
Transcription and Reading
Use RE 1 8 . 2 , 1 8 . 5 , 18.16, 1 8 . 8 - 1 8 . 1 1 , 18.35-18.18.
T?he f i r s t vowel i s one you have not had, but mimic i t as

best you can.
SURE I CAM HEAR THE "DIFFERENCE"

e e T W E E M ' a " A N D ' K - A N D U J H A Y S WORE
I CAN SEE THE EMPERORS MEVSJ GJ-OTHES!
275
LESSON NINETEEN
Alveopalatal Stops
Alveopalatal
Labial Alveolar Alveopalatal (retroflexed) Velar
Stops
TTai f*(*l (aqc;
V v l \J v7i-CO O
Unaspirated P t c t k
Aspirated ph th ch •
th kh
•
Voiced b d J d g
•
Affricates
Voiceless
Unaspirated PP ts e (<or t S ) tS kx
••
Aspirated pph tsh 6h (or t s h ) tsh kx h
••
Voiced bfe dz J ( o r dg) dg gg
Vd. n a s a l s m n n n n
«
Vd. l a t e r a l s 1 1
Table 19.lt Alveopalatal Stops in Relation to Some Other
Consonants
The three new consonants boxed in the chart above fill in
a blank space in the consonant chart as it has been developing
(see Table 17R.1, P« 257). This means that we do not have any
new point or manner of articulation, but simply a new combina-
tion of these. Note the resemblance in the symbolization of
these stops to that of the affricates [6fihJ] (which may also
be represented [tS t§ n dg]). This difference in symbolization
represents the difference between stop and affricate, as indi-
cated on the chart| it usually represents, however, a differ-
ence of articulator as well. Whereas the English affricates
are usually pronounced with tongue tip articulation for the
[t], dropping the tip for the [S], the alveopalatal stops of
many languages are pronounced with blade articulator, the
tongue tip being kept down at the lower teeth. (See Sammy 13.1,
p. l$?lj, for the articulation. The velic, of course, is closed
for [c j ] , and voicing is absent for [c] and present for [j].)
276 Lesson 19
RE 1 9 . 1 . Demonstrations Alveopalatal Stops
Listen and mimic as you follow i n your Manual.

a. I f you make your normal [§] with b l a d e - a l v e o p a l a t a l
a r t i c u l a t i o n (tongue t i p down behind your lower t e e t h ) , t r y
the following sequencet [aScx aSa aSa aca aca aca aSa aca cu§a
aca a£a a c a ] . The tongue movement up t o t h e a l v e o p a l a t a l r e -
gion should be t h e same i n both c a s e s , [S] r e s u l t i n g i n a
f r i c a t i v e and [c] i n a s t o p , i f t h e tongue t i p i s kept l i g h t l y
touching t h e back of t h e lower t e e t h .
b . Try t h e same sequence using ffi] and [ j ] t [ana ana afia

aja a j a aja ana a j a ana a j a ana a j a ] ,
c« Try a r t i c u l a t i n g t h e English words cheap and j e e p ,

church and judge with a l v e o p a l a t a l stops by keeping t h e tongue
t i p behind the lower t e e t h and then making your tongue move-
ment otherwise as n a t u r a l l y as p o s s i b l e . Try eliminating most
of the a f f r i c a t i o n a s w e l l t [ c ^ i ' y p " ji'yp* 1 ] [c^rc*1 j A j ] ,
d. The a l v e o p a l a t a l stops are u s u a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d with a

s l i g h t [y] on-glide t o t h e following vowel, as are alveopala-
t a l nasals and l a t e r a l s . Work f o r t h i s same degree of g l i d e
on t h e s e stops with t h i s e x e r c i s e t [ana aca ana a j a ] , e t c .
e . Work f o r a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n between a s p i r a t e d and un-

a s p i r a t e d a l v e o p a l a t a l stopsi [aca a c ^ a ] ,
f. Work for a c l e a r l y voiced a l v e o p a l a t a l stopt [aja a j a ] ,
RE 1 9 . 2 . Discriminationt SAME or DIFFERENT
Respond t o each item w i t h SAME or DIFFERENT. Don't peek.

When you can do t h e exercise w e l l , t r a n s c r i b e the i t e m s .
l a . [«edi 'eci] D 6a, ['feSo »nsco] D
2a. [ t e c i 'eci] S 7a. ['feco 'fiasco] S
3a. [«e&L 'e2i] S 8a. ['feeco •neec'o] D
Ua. [ t e c i 'eSi] S 9a. ['ifeco »nee£o] D
5a. [ ' e c i 'e6i] D 10a. ['neeco 'fiasco] S
l b . [«ujo 'ujo] S 3 b . [»uJo «ujb] S
2b. [«ujo 'ujo] D Ub. ['ujo 'ujo] D

5b. [«ujo ' ujfo] D 8b. ['SAJV "SAju] S
6b. [tgAJiP •SAJU] D 9b. ['SAJI; «§Aju] S
7b. [«SAJU •gAju] S 10b. [•SAjp 'SAJU] D
lc. [«e6ho '6Ch0] D 6c. [«fla6ht, 'flaiShj,] S
2c. ['ecno » & 6ho] D 7c [•flachj. iflacht] S
3c [•eeô •echo] S 8c. [«fla6hz, tfiaoht] D
Uc. ['ecô 'echo] s 9c [•flachz, iflacht] D
5c ['echo •echo] D 10c. ['flachj, 'flaghj,] D
RE 19.3. Differential* STOP or AFFRICATE
Distinguish between the alveopalatal stops and alveopala-

tal affricates by responding STOP or AFFRICATE in this exer-
cise. Don't peek. When you can respond orally use this as a
transcription exercise as well.
1. [ece] S 6. [jigA] S 11. [ s a i l o r ] A

2. [ece] A 7. [o h igA] S 12. [sacol A ] S
3 . [sje] S 8. [&higA] A 13. [ s a c h o r ] S
h. [ e c A ] S 9. [fiigA] A lU. [ s a j c - r ] S
5. [r>jv] A 10. [Ji-gA] A 15. [ s a g o r ] A
RE 19.U. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ASPIRATED or UNASPIRATED

1. [v'cffl] U 5. C'cAngr] U 9. [ I e n t c h i z ] A
2. [ e ' c h i ] A 6 . ['cangr] U 10. [iun»cAz] U

h
3 . [o»c A] A 7. [ ' A t n g r ] A 1 1 . [Iz,n»coz] U
h
U. [ o ' c h e ] A 8. ['congr] U 12. [lnn»c ez] A
RE 1 9 . 5 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VOICED or VOICELESS
1. [jeHl v ] TO 3 . [JAH1V] TO 5 . ['NnAjokh] TO
2. [c h uHl v ] VL U. [c6eHlv] VL 6 . ['Nnecj-k11] VL

278 Lesson 19
7. [»Nnac h vk h ] VL 9. [ro'cetL] VL 11. [fb'citi] VL
8. ['Nnajik 11 ] VD 10. [rv»c h z,t£] VL 1 2 . [ra';ja)t£] VD
HE 1 9 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l / ALVEOLAR or ALVEOPAIATAL
I n t h i s exercise we w i l l c o n t r a s t [ c c 1 1 j ] with [ t y t " y

d y ] . Since the a l v e o p a l a t a l stops are characterized by a
s l i g h t [y] on-glide t o the following vowel, you should l i s t e n
t o the difference between t h a t and a [y] on-glide from an a l -
veolar s t o p . Respond with ALVEOLAR or ALVEOPALATAL. Don't
peek. Use t h i s e x e r c i s e f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n as w e l l .
1. [ i ' c a ] AP 7. [ j s ' r o S ] AP 1 3 . [da'dyuntj] AL
2. [a'dyae] AL 8. [ c h o ' r a £ ] AP l l u [da'tyonNj AL
3 . [u'tyz,] AL 9. [ t ^ ' r a R ] AL 1 5 . [da'cenNj AP
k. [ o ' c h o ] AP 10. [tyas'faS] AL 16. [da'tysajlj] AL
5. [ e ' t h y v ] AL 1 1 . [dye 'faft] AL 1 7 . [da'frnNj AP
6. [A'ja] AP 12. [cA'faft] AP 18. [da'cvnNj AP
RE 1 9 . 7 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ALVEOPAIATAL or VELAR
Depending somewhat on where i t i s a r t i c u l a t e d , t h e alveo-
p a l a t a l stops a r e sometimes confused with v e l a r s t o p s . Re-
spond with ALVEOPALATAL or VELAR. Don't peek. This exercise
may be used for t r a n s c r i p t i o n as w e l l .
1. f o c i ] AP 5 . [gya'yebm] V 9. [ r u r ' k y o l ] V
•
2. fekyo] V 6 . [jo'yebm] AP 10. [ f u l / ' c a l ] AP
•
3 . [«tje] AP 7. [kya'yebm] V 1 1 . [fur'ckui] AP
t
•
U. f v c h v ] AP 8. [l^yA'yebm] V 12. [rur«gyz.l] V
•
RE 1 9 . 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Name the Symbol
This time your response i s t o be the name of the symbol

used, which you may c a l l out or w r i t e . Don't peek. The
choice w i l l be between [c c*1 j & c*1 J t y t ^ y dy ky k^y g y ] .
When you can do t h i s , t r a n s c r i b e t h e u t t e r a n c e s .
1 . [Soar] c 3 . [gyow] gy 5. [c h ^w] ch
2. [Jew] J k. [tyow] ty 6 . [jaw] j

h
7. [ t y r o ] ty 16. [sz.«k yi.n] 1^7
8. [CAW] c 1 7 . [daê'cêeS] 5h
9. [Sfc»Jtfi] 3 18. [date'kV^] k*y
10. [sVdyon] dy 19. [ d a t e ' c ^ z ] ch
1 1 . [Sz-'gyAii] g7 20. [dat9«jo&] j

12. [Sz-'can] c 2 1 . [date«dyo2] dy
13. [Sz,»c h en] ch 22. [daê'kyaz] ky
lit. [St'tVn] thy 23. [ d a t e ' c a z ] c
15. [Si.«6enj 6 2k. [date'fcz] J

RE 1 9 . 9 . Negative Practice* Alveopalatal Stops
P r a c t i c e t h e following s e n t e n c e s , making t h e i n d i c a t e d
s u b s t i t u t i o n s . Mimic t h e tape and watch t h e d i r e c t i o n s below.
1. Chuck chucked the champ a cheap chunk.
l a . S u b s t i t u t e [c*1] f o r the a l v e o p a l a t a l a f f r i c a t e s . Bo
not get too much a f f r i c a t i o n . Be careful of your tongue
position.
l b . S u b s t i t u t e [c] f o r t h e a l v e o p a l a t a l a f f r i c a t e s . Get
a s l i g h t [y] o f f - g l i d e . Not t o o much a f f r i c a t i o n .
l c . Substitute [ j ] . Be sure t o get good v o i c i n g , and a

s l i g h t [y] o f f - g l i d e .
2 . Joe Jones gently jockeyed t h e jeepful of junk.
2a. S u b s t i t u t e [ j ] ,
2b. S u b s t i t u t e [ c ] .
2c. Substitute
RE 19.10. Mimicryt [c c h j ]
Follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic t h e t a p e . Note
t h a t the a l v e o p a l a t a l stops i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n a r e included,
and l i s t e n f o r the s l i g h t [y] o f f - g l i d e from the vowel which
helps t o s i g n a l them.
280 Lesson 19
l a . [ca»] lb. [l"o«ca»] lc. [Ta»c]
2a. [c h a»] 2b. [l-o'câ*] 2c. [ r a«c h ]
3 a . [ja»] 3b. [l*o»ja»] 3c. [l'a-j]
Ua. [ce»m] Ub. [nu'ce»m] Uc. [ne»c]
5 a . [c"e«m] 5b. [nu ! cê»m] 5c. [fie»c h ]
6 a . [Je»m] 6b. [nu'je'm] 6c. [ne»j]
7a. [cu»R] 7b. [za»cu»R] 7c [Ru»c]

• • •
8a. [ c V | ] 8b. [za'cAi'R]
8c. [Ru»c h ]
? a . [ju»R] 9b. [za'ju«R]
9c [Ra.j]
RE 19.11* Kuy. 1 Mimicryt [c]
Mimic c a r e f u l l y . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e [c] on which you are

e s p e c i a l l y working, note t h e vowel q u a l i t i e s which are s i m i l a r
t o , but u s u a l l y not i d e n t i c a l with t h o s e we have been p r a c -
t i c i n g . Mimic as e x a c t l y as you can.
1 . ['A'CD*] •dog' 7. [ c i - ] 'go'
2. [cew»m] 'bird' 8. [ca»] 'to eat'
3. [ c i ^ ] •don't' 9. [ n ' c e v » ] •human l i c e '
h. [cam] ' t o wait' 10. [n'cwt] •ten'
5. [cat] 'to pierce' 11. [ n ' c i v » n ] •ring'

t
6. [caw] 'come'
RE l ? . 1 2 t Kuy. Mimicryi [gc*1]
1. [fi'c h at] ' t o put out f i r e ' km [in'e^'c] 'itching'
2 . [n'c h e-»n] 'lard, oil, fat' 5. [n'chn»,>] 'straw'
3. [n'ô"'] ' r o t t e n smell'

i
Kuy is a minority language spoken in Eastern Thailand,

with some speakers in Cambodia and Southern Laos as well. The
informant recorded in these exercises is Leng of Samrongthab,
Surin Province, Thailand. The recording was made by Rev. and
Mrs. Richard Johnston of the Christian and Missionary Alliance.
RE 19.13* Maninka. 1 Mimicryt [j]
I n t h i s exercise p r a c t i c e the tone as w e l l as [ j ] , and

t h e vowels.
1. [ ' j a n a ] ' t o be l o n g ' 5. [ j a p ^ ] (interjection)
2. [ ' j A ' n i ] ' t o burn' 6 . [«jk»] 'fish'
3 . [jajmtt] ' a crowd' 7 . [je^TFfr ] 'son'
U. [ j a ' j r l ] 'lion' 8. [ ' ^ r T T ' ] 'how much?'
RE 1 9 . l k . Reviewi Flaps and T r i l l s
Mimic the t a p e and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .

la, [fa] lb. [Raf] l c . [ra'Rar]
2a. [ru] 2b. [Rur] 2c. [ru'Rur]
3 a . [Rz.] 3 b . [TtR] 3c [rz,'Rz,R]
Ua. [Ro] Ub. [Ton] he [Ro'roft]
5a. [fe] 5b. [Re*] 5c [fe'Refi]
6 a . [fA] 6 b . [ftA*] 6 c . [rA'RA*]
7a. [Ri] 7b. [*ifi] 7c [Ri'riR]
8a. [Ru] 8b. [rvR] 8c. [ftv'fuS]
9a. [rse] 9b. [Reef] 9 c . [fte'Reer]

• • • • •
10a. [fe] 10b. [Rer] 1 0 c [re*Rer]
TJaninka i s spoken i n Guinea, West Africa. The inform-

ant recorded i s Mamoudou Kaba, of Kankan. The m a t e r i a l was
c o l l e c t e d and recorded with t h e help of Mrs. John Emary and
other missionaries of t h e C h r i s t i a n and Missionary Alliance
i n Kankan, Guinea.
282 Lesson 19
11a. [8a] lib. [faS] lie. [Ra'raR]
• ••
12a. [Ro] 12b. [roS] 12c. [Jb'roR]
• • •
RE 19.15* F o e . 1 Reviewi [ r f ]
6. [«tifA] •having spoken'
1 . [«aru] 'tongue'
7. ['fore] 'big'
2 . [»oro] 'bamboo'
8. ['fefA] •a hole'
3. ['ifA] 'tree'
9. ['afefA] 'palm-leaf bag'
U. ['herA] 'tomorrow'
10. [ i ? ' l a p o ] 'sun'
5. ['sere] 'day'
RE 19.361 Erakor.2 Reviewt [? R]

•to s l e e p '
1. [maR] 'to breathe' 6. [mathpR]
7. [a'mufz-n] •I want i t '
2. ['ndfam] 'your blood'
8. [«fAt h faR] 'coral (for
3. ['ndfon] '(to) hear' lime'
U. f'ndRiR] ' t o f l y '
t 9. [«ndri;RndrvR] ' t o shake'
5. [naifok11] 'my hand'
10. [ndreR'ndfeR] ' t o shine
1
brilliantly'
Mimic t h e t a p e , and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n . The b u i l d -

up of t h e f i r s t utterance w i l l be from t h e end of t h e u t t e r -
ance. P r a c t i c e t h e s e s u b s t i t u t i o n s t o gain r e a l fluency.
1 f\ \
1 . rro«d t xis.nMm^n fxas'Ro. • l o v j l ]
< i \ \ - s
"Toe is a Papuan language. The recording is simulated

from data in lesson plans used at the Summer Institute of
Linguistics, Norman, Oklahoma, 1956.
p
Erakor is spoken in the New Hebrides Islands. The re-
cording is simulated from data in lesson plans used at the Sum-
mer Institute of'Linguistics, Norman, Oklahoma, 1956.
2. rfo'ij'xis.iA^mz-n 'Ban.ru ' l o v j a

• i
3. [ We
k. [ ksay'cuK
5. [ 'gufii
6. [ ze 'Mma^
7. [ jt'dlo
8. [ •vz-.t£i
To transcribe t h i s exercise use the special transcription
form for RE 19.18 (pp. 55~56 i n the Workbook Supplement).
Listen to the tape and f i l l in the blanks in the Supplement.
Follow the same directions as for RE 16.18 (p.2U!TJ. If you
find t h i s easy, take a transcription form and transcribe the
whole utterance for each item. If you find i t too difficult,
use the following exercises as transcription exercises instead*
RE 19.3-19.8.
1. ['so».dza] 8. Oz,w»ree-f] 15. [yAnNtiuH]
2. [»spin.5i»] 9. [n»ob'Mmete] 16. [di?p'zwTD«]
3. [kxo»cenIj] 10. [»waH.syvt h ] 17. ['kxwoy.xi»fi]
km ['lAmr.dza] 1 1 . [«nul=e«g] 18. [«cheftAm]
5. [g»o»ts h oy] 12. [rapf«ko»y] 19. [1'z.g'tweer]
6. [riR'dza-k 1 1 ] 13. [syoi]k h , ged] 20. [brats«Jedd]
7. [s-fcea!khv£] lk. [»Rer.goar]Ij] 2 1 . [»je»dAw]
Reading
Use RE 19.18 as a reading exercise, checking your reading
28U Lesson 1?
with the tape after you have practiced i t . If this i s too
d i f f i c u l t , t r y the same process with RE 19.2-19.8 f i r s t .
lT WAS A M R * ' SA>N H » S W>* 0 '°S ™<TCH /

285
LESSON TWENTY
Some Central Vowelsj Vowel Clusters
Front Central Back

U. R. U. R. IT. R.
High i u
Lower-high V 4 V
Mid e o
Lower-mid 6 9
Low ee A
Lower-low a a
Table 2 0 . l t Vowels t o Date
ji i s c a l l e d "barred i " and _9 i s c a l l e d "shwa" /swaH/ or

/s'i'w'oH/. The e a s i e s t way t o wrTte £ by hand i s t o s t a r t i n
t h e upper left-hand c o r n e n Q
RE 2 0 . 1 . Demonstrations Table 2 0 . 1
L i s t e n r e p e a t e d l y , and study the vowel chart as you do

s o . When you are f a m i l i a r with t h e m a t e r i a l , read off t h e
vowel chart with t h e t a p e . Work with your buddy.
RE 2 0 . 2 . Discriminationt SAME or DIFFERENT
Respond t o the p a i r s of u t t e r a n c e s with SAME or DIFFERENT.

Concentrate on t h e differences t o help you become f a m i l i a r
with them. Don't peek!
l a . [roT felv] D l b . [5Aa Jed] D
2a. [r©r relv] S 2b. [JAd jAd] S
3 a . [rol v falv] S 3 b . [5©d 5e>d] s

Ua. [ f a r f9lv] D Ub. [fed JAd] D
5a. [ r e l v falv] D 5b. [jAd Jod] D
6a. [ c o ' f e r cotrer] S 6b. [Si'jAd Bi'Jed] D

286
7a. [ c o ' f e r co'foT] D 7b. [fei«59^ «i'5Ad] D

v
8a. [ c o ' r o T c o ' f 9 l ] D 8b. [Si • 594 gi'Jeet] S
9a. [co'raX c o ' r a l " ] S 9b. [&.'5©d &«jAd] D
10a. [ c o ' f e r co«fal v ] D 10b. [2i'j v Ad 2i'jfed] D
l c . [xirj x i q ] S I d . [chefi cbeft] S

2 c , [xin xAq] D 2d. [ch9ft chifi] D
3c. [xirj XAn] D 3d. [cbift ch±ft] S
Uc. [xAn xAq] S Ud. [chsft chgft] S
5c. [xirj x i q ] S 5d. [nu'cb-ifi nu'c h efi] D
6 c . [ULa'xiq i l a ' x i n ] S 6d. [nu'chift nu'chiS] S
7c. [ila'XAn Bla'xiin] S 7d. [fiu'cheft nu'chift] D
8c. [fcla'xiq KLa'xAn] D 8d. [nu'c h i& nu'cbeft] D
9c. [fcla'xiq fila'xin] S 9d. [nu'chifi nu'c h 9fi] D

10c. [fela'xin HLa'xAn] D lOd. [nu'chgfi nu'cheft] S
le. [dith dith] D If. [pz-n p i n ] D

h h
2e. [ d i t dit ] S 2f. [pin pz,n] D
3 e . [dit 1 1 d i t n ] D 3f. [pin ptn] D
Ue. [ d i t h d i t h ] S Uf. [pin p&n] D
5e. [ g e ' d i t h getdith] D St. [las'pin l a ' p i n ] S
6e. [ g e ' d i t ge'dith] s 6f. [Is'pt-n Iffi'pin] D
7e. [ g e ' d i t h ge'dit 1 1 ] S 7f. [3ffl'pi.n ite'pin] D
8e. [ g e ' d i t h g e ' d i t h ] D 8f. [lEe'pz-n lae'ptn] S
9e. [ g e ' d i t h g e ' d i t h ] D 9f. [Iffi'pin iss'pin] s
lOe. [ g e ' d i t h g e ' d i t h ] D lOf. [ 1 B ' p i n l e ' p i n ] s
Some Central Vowelsj Vowel Clusters 287
Production of [a A 8 i]
All of these central vowels occur in some dialects of

American English, but the last three usually in restricted
environments, and with a great deal of dialect and idiosyn-
cratic difference between speakers.
In addition to problems of dialect variation, and of

fluctuation within dialects, we now face an additional prob-
lem in that two of the vowels which are being presented here,
and the glides related to them, are often considered substand-
ard in English. For example, [bsyd] bird, [weyd] word, and
[Geyd] third are considered 'Brooklynese' and the butt of many
a joke all over the country, although this glide is used by
millions of people in the New York City, Long Island, West-
chester, and Northern New Jersey area, and is spreading.
(Outsiders who try to mimic it in fun usually produce [oy] or
[oy] instead, however.) Some Southern dialects have [QH] or
[a»] in but, cup, etc., and this makes it seem provincial to
some people.
[i] with or without glides occurs in the speech of almost

all English-speaking people, but recognition is complicated by
several factors. In some speakers it may not be phonemically
separate from /v/ or from /v/ (depending on the speaker). That
is, there is no contrast between [v] and [±], or between [v]
and [i]. They may be in complementary distribution, for exam-
ple, or there may be complete fluctuation between [iw] and
[CTT]. In other speakers they may be in contrast in some words,
but the contrasts are very rare. They are almost in comple-
mentary distribution. The speaker is therefore not very aware
of their contrastive function. Then, when the sound occurs,
whether it is a full phoneme or not in a particular speaker,
it more commonly occurs in unstressed syllables, which get
less prominence, and are slurred over in English. This gives
rise to the feeling that the sound represents sloppy speech.
Elocution teachers try to teach people not to use it, although
the elocution teachers are using it as they correct their
pupils.
If you can get an objective sense of what actually occurs

in your speech (and that of your classmates) it will be easier
to isolate these sounds and reproduce them for other languages.
RE 20.3. Demonstration! Producing [a A 8 ±]
a. One of the best ways to get a sense of the articula-

tion of central vowels is to begin with [a] and experiment
with raising the center of the tongue. Be sure you start
with [a] and not [a] or [TO] or anything between. You can work
288 Lesson 20
Sammy 20.1i [©] Sammy 20.2i [4]
by s l u r r i n g up and down, or by moving i n short s t e p s . Listen

t o t h e demonstration on t h e t a p e .
b . Mimic the tape on the following English sentences.

These c o n t r a s t s are n a t u r a l t o my speech. They may or may
not be t o yours. Get them by mimicry i f you do not normally
make them. Note how the s t r e s s p a t t e r n s a r e n e a r l y constant.
1. [Jr-st] Give me t h e ' g i s t [of the conversation] ,now.
2. [jest] He's s t a r t i n g t o ' j e s t ^now.
3 . [jAst] H e ' l l be very ' j u s t t now.
1;. [ J i s t ] I'm sure he l e f t ' j u s t 'now.
5. [jfcst] Give me the ' g i s t , ,Judge.
6. [Jest] Please l e t him ' j e s t , ,Judge.
7. [jAst] I t ' s g o t t a be ' j u s t , ,Judge.
8. [ J 4 s t ] I -wish you -would ' j u s t 'judge [and not do anything

else]. ' "" ' ~~
c. Mimic the.tape on the following English words. Get
the contrasts by mimicry if you do not have them in your own
speech. More of you w i l l find t h a t you do have them i n your

speech than t h i n k you do when you s t a r t .
l a . ['hz-lun] h i t him vs. l b . ['hz-iim] h i t them
2a. [»bayz,t] buy i t vs. 2b. [ ' r a y i t ] riot
3a. [ ' l a k r t ] lock i t vs. 3 b . [»lak£t] locket
l*a. [«f&yUd] fetid vs. Ijb. f o e t i d ] petted
5a. [»rowzAz] Rosa's vs. 5b. ['rowziz] roses
6a. ['ne'ymAs] name us vs. 6 b . ['fe v ymis] famous
7a. ['re v ysAs] race us vs. 7b. [ ' r e v y s i z ] races
d. I f you are able t o l o c a t e [ i ] and [ A ] , t r y t o h i t [e]

i n between.
e . Many speakers of English have [G] where I have [ A ] .

Mimic t h e following.
l a . [khftph] l b . [kh 9 «ph] cup
2a. [bAth] 2b. [be»th] but
3a. [lvAl<h] 3b. [lv9-kh] luck
l±a. [fAn] Ub. [fe»n] fun
5a. [dAn] 5b. [d8»n] done
RE 20.U. Negative P r a c t i c e
Mimic t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of d i f f e r e n t c e n t r a l vowels and
others i n the English words. Watch the t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
sister roses famous
la. ['sistr] l b . ['rcwziz] lc. ['fevymis]
2a. [«sfcstr] 2b. ['rowztz] 2c. ["fevymz-s]
3 a . [»sAstr] 3b. [TOWZAZ] 3C ['fevymAs]
Ua. f ' s e s t r ] kb. ['rowzsz] Uc. [«fe*ymes]

i
5a. [ ' s e s t r ] 5b. ['rowzez] 5 c . [«fe v ymes]
2?0 Lesson 20
6a. [ ' s a s t r ] 6b. ['rowzaz] 6c. ['fe'ymas]
7a. [ « s p s t r ] 7b. ['rowzvz] 7c. ['fe v ymi7s]
8a. ['sz-str] 8b. [•rowztz] 8c. ['fe v ymz.s]
9a. [ ' s a s t r ] 9b. ['rowzez] 9c ['fe^ymss]
10a. [isistr] 10b. ['rowziz] 10c. ['fe v ymis]
RE 2 0 . 5 . Mimicry» [i]
Mimic the tape and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Work with
your buddy on t h i s m a t e r i a l . Use t h i s exercise f o r t r a n s c r i p -
t i o n as w e l l .
l a . [#£•] l b . t*t-y] lc [sttnr] I d . [di«H]
2a. [mi*] 2b. [mfc»y] 2 c . [na-«'w] 2d. [mlr'H]
3a, [bi«] 3 b . [bi«y] 3c [bi«w] 3d. [bi*H]
Ua. [«&•] lib. [&«y] Uc [ » • » ] Ud. [»«H]
5a. [ l A i » ] 5b. [ r i « y ] 5c [lAinr] 5d. [ l ' i - H ]
6a. [ni^k*1] 6b. [M-ykh] 6 c . [rA*w\^] 6d. [rat'Hk11]
7a. [xi«v] 7b. [xi»yv] 7c [X4»WY] 7d. [xi«Hv]
8a. [gz£»m] 8b. [gzi«ym] 8c. [gzi'wm] 8d. [gzi»Hm]
9a. [ $ « • * ] 9b. [ • ^ • y S ] 9c [t64«wg] 9d. [tei«HS]
10a. [tii«nlj] 10b. [t*i»ynlj] 1 0 c [t£4»wng] lOd. [ti±«HnIj
RE 2 0 . 6 . Mimic:ry« [e]
Mimic the t a p e and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Work with
your buddy. Then use t h e exercise f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
l a . [d©»] l b . [<i8«y] l c . [d9«w] I d . [do»H]
2a. [me*] 2b. [n»»y] 2c. [n©»w] 2d. [me»H]
3a. [ba»] 3 b . [booy] 3 c . [be»w] 3d. [b8«H]
Ua. [ze»] Ub. [2e»y] U c [2a»w] Ud. [zs»H]
5a. [lAs.] 5b. [l A 9*y] 5c [lA9»w] 5d. [ r e » H ]

6 a . [fia^k11] 6 b . [rb-yk 11 ] 6 c . [ns-wk11] 6d. [ng^Hk11]
7a. [x8»v] 7b. [xs»yv] 7 c . [xe»wv] 7d. [x9»Hv]
8a. [gze»m] 8b. [gz9«ym] 8 c . [gz8*wm] 8d. [gz8«Hm]
9a. [tee»s] 9b. [t08»ys] 9c [tee»ws] 9d. [t©e«Hs]
IGa. [t£9»nlj] 10b. [t£e«ynNj 10c. [t£8»wnNj lOd. [tfc9»HnNj
HE 2 0 . 7 . Negative P r a c t i c e ! "Ten L i t t l e Indians"
P r a c t i c e t h e vowel c h a r t , including t h e new vowels, i n

t h e framework of t h e song demonstrated on t h e t a p e . Then con-
t i n u e with t h e other combinations l i s t e d below.
f i ] l i t t l e , [»fc] l i t t l e , [»e] l i t t l e Indiansi
O e ] l i t t l e , [»«] l i t t l e , f a ] l i t t l e I n d i a n s ,
f a ] l i t t l e , fro] l i t t l e , f o] l i t t l e Indians,
f o ] l i t t l e Indian boys.
f u ] l i t t l e , f t>] l i t t l e , f o] l i t t l e I n d i a n s ,
f o] l i t t l e , f B ] l i t t l e , ['a] l i t t l e I n d i a n s ,
['A] l i t t l e , f a ] l i t t l e , f i ] l i t t l e Indians,
[*4] l i t t l e Indian boys.
a. [wi] l i t t l e . . .
b . [yi] l i t t l e . . .
c. [ r i ] l i t t l e . . .
d. [pwi] l i t t l e . . .
e. The same with other consonants, and other o n - g l i d e s .
f. Off-glides.
RE 2 0 . 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Tongue Height
Respond with HIGH, LOWER-HIGH, MID, LOWER-MID, LOW or

LOWER-LOW. When you are able t o do t h i s w e l l , use the exer-
cise f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
292 L e s s o n 20
1. [MmA] L 8. [R9ft h ] L-M IS. [chor ] L-L
2 . [Mirib] L-H 9. [fefeftJi] L-H 16. [ c h a T ] L-L
3 . [Mma] IrL 10. [RAft h ] L 17. [ c h a * ] L

h. Dime] IrM 11. [Raft h ] L-L IB. [ c h a T ] L-L
5. Dime] L 12. [Riftf 1 ] L-H 19. [ c h a r ] L-M
6. fMnro] L-L 13. [RAfth] L 20. [<Aa. A ] L

7. [Mmo] L Ik. [R9ft h ] Lrtf 21. [ c h t r ] L-H
RE 2 0 , 9 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! FRONT or CENTRAL UNROUNDED, BACK ROUNDET

or 'UNROUNDED'
1 . [myA] cu 6 . [twos] BU 1 1 . [frag] FU
2 . [mya] cu 7. [twAz] CU 12. [ f r i g ] C U
3 . [my*] cu 8. [twiz] CU 13. [frAg] CU
U. [myro] BU 9. [twez] CU Ik. [frag] cu

5 . [mye] cu 10. [twoz] B R 15. [frsg] G U
RE 20.10. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! F u l l Labels
Select one term from each column t o make up your response.

Keep the exercise covered while you do t h i s .
HIGH FRONT ROUNDED
MID BACK
LOWER-MID
LOW
LOWER-LOW
1 . [co] MB R it. [ c 4 ] L-H C U 7. [CD] L-L B U
2. [CD] L-L B U 5 . [C9] L1ICD 8. [ca] L-L F U
3. [cee] L F U 6. [CA] L CU 9. [ce] L-iC F U

Some Central Vowelsf Vowel Clusters 293
10. [shêb] MF U 19. [jAtS] L C U

•«
1 1 . [skhofe] L BR
20. [ j e t s ] M F D
12. [sk^sb] H I CD
2 1 . [j9t§] H C D
13. [ a l ^ i * ] L-H C U
22. [ j v t § ] L-H B R
Hi. [ s ^ a b ] L-L f U
2 3 . [jz-ts] L-H F U
25. [skhab] L-L C 0
2U. [ j i t S ] L-H C U
16. [skÂfe] L C U
25. [j9tS] IrM C U
17. [skhite] L-H C U
26. [ j a t | ] L-L C U
18. [ s k ^ b ] HICU
27. [jAtS] L C U
RE 20.11. Differential! Vowel Symbols
Give the name of the symbol by which the vowel is trans-
cribed, or write the vowel. When you can respond with the
correct symbol in every case, transcribe the utterance.
1. [ba] SCRIPT a 1 1 . [MmbAtS] CARET

t
2. [bA] CARET 12. [Mmbocts] SCRIPT a
t
3. [ba] PRINTED a 13. [Mmbsts] SHWA

i
U. [bi] BARRED i Ik. [MmbotS] BACKWARDS o
•
5. [ b t ] IOTA 15. [Mmbeets] DIGRAPH
i
6. [mbpS] UPSILON 16. [Mmbatg] SCRIPT a
t
7. [mbeS] SHWA 17. [MmbitS ] BARRED i
8. [rnboS] BACKWARDS £ IB. [Mmbatg] PRINTED a

i —
9 . [mbr£] UPSIDE-DOWN a 19. [KmbetS] SHWA
i
10. [mbiS] BARRED 1 20. [MmbAts-] CARET
Vowel Clusters
Up t o t h i s time we have worked with s i n g l e vowels, vowels
separated by consonants, vowels with on-glides and o f f - g l i d e s ,
but never with c l u s t e r s of vowels.
2°U Lesson 20
RE 20.12. Demonstration! Glides and Vowel Clusters
L i s t e n , mimic the t a p e , and watch t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n . No-

t i c e both t h e differences and s i m i l a r i t i e s between the columns.
Be careful not t o get a g l i d e between the vowels of column b .
la. !nyA] l b . [ni.A] l c . [niH]

2a. ikV] 2b. [k*i.A] 2c. [1&.H]
3a. ÎBTA] 3 b . [nu.A] 3 c . [nuH]
Ua. ik^TA] Ub. [ A u A ] Ue. [k*Sffl]
5a. 'DTA] 5b. [nr.A] 5 c [ni-H]
6 a. [k*rA] 6b. [k^r.A] 6 c . [k n rH]
7a. ^nyu] 7b. [ n i . u ] 7c. [niw]
8a. [i^yu] 8b. [k*i.u] 8c. [k*fcr]

9a. .nwi] 9b. [ n u . i ] 9c [nay]
10a. [An] 10b. [ k V i ] 10c [khuy]
Note t h e differences of timing and s y l l a b i c i t y between

t h e middle column, and t h e other two. Remember t h a t a g l i d e
i s a non-syllabic movement, and note the r e l a t i o n s h i p between
t h e end points of t h e glides [y w H] and t h e vowels [ i u A]
r e s p e c t i v e l y . Note a l s o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between [ r ] (which
i s p h o n e t i c a l l y a vowel) and [r] (which i s p h o n e t i c a l l y a
g l i d e ) . I n making t h e s e comparisons we are not saying t h a t
every [y] glides t o or from [ i ] , every [w] t o or from [ u ] , e t c .
The g l i d e r e f e r s t o the d i r e c t i o n of t h e movement, not t o the
end point (see Lesson 12, p . 17Uff.).
RE 20.13. Demonstration* Vowel Clusters
I n vowel c l u s t e r s (such as i n column b , above), each of

t h e vowels has s y l l a b i c i t y , even though one may be more s t r e s -
sed than the o t h e r . Mimic t h e tape and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p -
t i o n , noting the s y l l a b i c i t y , s t r e s s , e t c .
la. [toti] l b . [o«i] lc [«o.i] I d . [ay]
2a. [«a«e] 2b. [ a ' e ] 2 c . [«a.e]
3 a . [»a»ae] 3 b . [a»ee] 3 c . ['a.®]

Some Central Vowels} Vowel Clusters 295
Ua. [«a»u] Ub. [ a ' u ] Uc. [ ' a . u ] Ud. [aw]
5a. [«a«o] 5b. [ a ' o ] 5 c [ta.o]
6a, [»a'o] 6b. [a«o] 6c. [«a.o]
7a. [«a«i] 7b. [a»i] 7 c [«a,4] 7d. [ofl]
8a. [ ' e t a ] 8b. [eta] 8c. f ' e . a ] 8d. [eH]
9a. [«o'a] 9b. [ota] 9c [«o.a] 9d. [oH]

10a. [«u«e] 10b. [ute] 10c. [«u.e] lOd. [we]
V i r t u a l l y any combination of two vowels becomes possible
i n a c l u s t e r , j u s t as v i r t u a l l y any combination of vowel and
g l i d e i s p o s s i b l e . Clusters of t h r e e vowels a l s o occur.
RE 20.lU. Demonstration! Clusters of Three Vowels
L i s t e n , mimic, and watch t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Avoid get-

t i n g glides between t h e vowels. The [*]'s i n the f i r s t column
are t o help you get pure vowels. After you have p r a c t i s e d i t
thoroughly, t r y your hand a t t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
la, ['o'e'A] lb, [o.e.A] lc. [o'e.A] I d . [o.e'A]
2a. [Offi'i'o] 2b. [ae.i.o] 2c. [ee'i.o] 2d. [se.i'o]
3a. [ ' i ' e ' a ] 3b, [i.e.a] 3c. [i'e.a] 3d, [4,e'a]
Ua, ['e'v'ffi] Ub, [e.v.ee] Uc. [e'v.ee] Ud, [e.v'se]
5a. [•t»A'»u] 5b, [&.A.u] 5c [t,«A.u] 5d, [ t . A ' u ]
I n a l l of t h e s e examples of vowel c l u s t e r s we have given

strong s y l l a b i c i t y t o each of t h e vowels, and t h a t i s t h e way
i n which we w i l l continue t o t r e a t them i n t h i s course. For
the sake of t h e record, however, i t should be pointed out t h a t
whereas vowel c l u s t e r s i n some languages c o n s t i t u t e two or
more s e p a r a t e s y l l a b l e s , i n other languages such c l u s t e r s may
c o n s t i t u t e only one s y l l a b l e . Sometimes t h e d i s t i n c t i v e s y l -
l a b l e b e a t , which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the a i r pressure r e -
i n i t i a t i n g i n the c h e s t , i s c l e a r l y audible with each vowel
sound. Sometimes i t i s not c l e a r l y audible and i t becomes
very d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y the shape of t h e phonetic s y l l a b l e s
i n terms of change of vowel q u a l i t y , b e a t , loudness, d u r a t i o n ,
etc.
296 Lesson 20
RE 20.15. Differential* GLIDE or VOWEL
Listen to the tape, and decide for each utterance whether

that which follows the main stressed vowel (second syllable) is
an off-glide or a second vowel with its own syllabicity.
X. [lo'ka»u] V 8. [S6»t6.i] V 15. [ba'lo.A] V
2 . [lo'kow] G 9. [se'tsH] G 16. [ba'lo.z,] V
3 . [lo'ka.i>] V 10. [se'te.ffi] V 17. [ba'low] G
u. [lo«kaoe] V 1 1 . [se'tey] G 18. [ba'loH] G
5. [lo'kay] G 12. [ s e ' t s . i ] V 19. [ba'lo.e] V
6. [lo'ka.o] V 13. [se'tew] G 20. [ba'loy] G
7. [lo'kaH] G Ik. [ s e ' t e . 4 ] V 2 1 . [batlo.i] V
RE 20.16. Differential* LONG or REARTICULATED
It is perfectly possible to have a sequence of two iden-

tical vowels, each with their own syllabicity. This may have
the duration of a long vowel, but differs from a long vowel in
having two syllable beats. Such a sequence is called a rear-
ticulated vowel. The quality is the same throughout, but the
presence of two syllable beats, or a change in stress within
the vowel creates the rearticulation. Rearticulation is sim-
ply a special case of vowel clusters.
In the following exercise listen to the tape and decide

whether the vowel is simply long, or whether it has two beats
and so is rearticulated. Respond with LONG or REARTICUIATED.
1. [sa«mu»] L 6. [tu'ko.o] R 11. [pa»pa»] L
2. [sa'mu.u] R 7. [tu'ko*] L 12. [pa'pA*] L
3. [sa«mu.u] R 8. [tu'ko*] L 13. [pa'pe.e] R
k» [sa»mu»] L 9. [tu'ko*] L XU. [pa'po.o] R
5. [sa«mu«] L 10. [tu'ko.o] R 15. [pa'pi»] L
RE 20.17. Mimlcryt Vowel Clusters
Use this exercise for transcription after you have learned

to mimic it. The items will be built up for you on the tape.
1. [tu.o'tu.o.a] 5. [lA.o«mv.A.o] 9. [tA.a.e»la.i]
2. [le.o'lo.o.A] 6. [sa.e»ta.A.i;] 10. [lo.v.se'mu.i]
3. [sa.a'mA.a.o] 7. [yu.o.a»tu.o] 11. [mv.A.i'ml.0]
km [mv.u'lo.tuu] 8. [so.o.A'le.e] 12. [le.u.v'sz-.ae]
RE 20.18. Reviewt Long Vowels and Consonants
Mimic the tape and follow the transcription. Practice

for fluency.
1. [»bowahi«] 6 . [«XA»do]
2. [«tig«te] 7. [»g«afi]
3 . [»ke»gAy] 8. ['kiwfwy]
U. [»gowp«9] 9 . [»««a»v9]
5. ['xid«aw] 10. [«9eevs«y]
Transcription
Use RE 20.U, RE 20.6, and RE 20.8-RE 20.18.
Reading
Use RE 20.15-RE 20.18.

2?8
LESSON TWENTY-ONE
Double Stops and Nasals
Alveo - Alveopalatal
Labial Alveolar palatal (retroflexed) Velar
Single
Voiceless
Unasp. P t c t k
Asp. P* th oh th kh
*
Voiced b d 5 d g
Double
VI. Unasp. kp ( k t) :
Voiced Sb (8d)
Nasals
Single
Voiceless M N N
Voiced m n a ID
n
Double, vd. m Pin)
Table 21.li Double Stops and Nasals in Relation to Some
Other Consonants
The new sounds of this lesson differ from previous stops

and nasals in that they have two simultaneous points of articu-
lation. There is a secondary back-velar closure along with the
primary bilabial closure. As may be seen in Table 21.1, the
primary articulation may also be tip-alveolar (or it may be tip-
dental, tip-alveopalatal, or even tip-palatal), but such com-
binations are more rare, and will not be included in the course.
If you meet them you w i U find that they work in analogous fash-
ion to the sounds presented here.
The two articulations of the double stops and nasals are

essentially simultaneous rather than sequential. In some
•^Sounds represented by symbols in parentheses are perfectly

possible, but will not be drilled in this course.
Double Stops and Nasals 299
languages either the beginning or the end of the sound may not
be simultaneous, but at least one or the other must be to pro-
duce a double stop or nasal. This is the reason for the symbol-
ization of the sounds by showing the primary articulation [p b m]
in regular position on the line, and the secondary articulation
[k 8 n ] in raised position. You will often find these same
sounds symbolized kp, gb, rjm in other sources.
Sammy 21.li [kp g b] Sammy 21.2t [nm]
In many languages there is another ingredient to the ar-

ticulation of [*p §b] besides the double stop closure. This is
a distinctive quality created by a tongue movement during the
double stop and simultaneously with its release. The double
stop creates a pocket of air in the mouth between the two
points of articulation (see Sammy 21.1). The distinctive qual-
ity is produced by moving the tongue forward or backward to
create air pressure or vacuum in the pocket of air. This dis-
tinctive quality is noticeable in double nasals as well, but
not to the same degree.
In some languages the movement of the tongue forward,

creating air pressure in the mouth just before the release of
the consonant, results in a slight puffing of the cheeks. This
is very noticeable in some dialects of Vietnamese, for example,
when [*p ^m] occur at the end of a phrase.1
"uouble stops and nasals are not classified with clicks

300 Lesson 21
Sammy 21«3i [ k p]» Movement Sammy 21.Ut [ T ? ] . Movement

of t h e tongue forward t o of the tongue backwards t o
c r e a t e a i r pressure i s c r e a t e vacuum i s shown by
shown by the dotted l i n e . t h e dotted l i n e .
RE 2 1 . 1 . Demonstration* Double Stops and Nasals

Listen and mimic as you follow i n your Manual. You w i l l
have t o l i s t e n very c l o s e l y for double stops and n a s a l s . The
recorder may not always produce them c l e a r l y , and t h e acoustic
difference often seems s l i g h t t o speakers of English under t h e
b e s t of c o n d i t i o n s .
a. Some Americans make [*p] when they are i m i t a t i n g a

chicken which has l a i d an eggi [,^>A |T?A ,*pA ,kpA ^ p i i k a ^ k i ] .
Don«t f o o l yourself by saying t h e following and thinking i t i s
the same t h i n g i [(pAk fpAk f pAk], e t c .
b . I f you can cackle by making ["p], i s o l a t e i t « [kpA kpa
k k
pe p o ] . Change t h e stopt [SbA 8ba Sbe Sbo].
c . Try the analogous n a s a l i [^mA ^ma ^me ^mo].
(Lesson 3 1 , p . 1*27 ) i n s p i t e of t h i s f e a t u r e (tongue movement

c r e a t i n g an a i r stream) because the primary a i r stream i s s t i l l
lung a i r . The movement of the tongue c r e a t e s a secondary a i r
stream.
d. For another approach, try the following sequences fast,
and see if they do not result in double articulation!
[ 'bAgA'bAgA'bAgA'bAgA'bAgA» g bAg» g bAg« g bAg ' g b A g ]
[•p&kA»pAkA'pAkA«pAkA'pAkA» k pAk' k pAk• k pAk'kpAk]
t ' mArjA' mAnA1 mAnA1 maqA' mAqA1 nmAn• n mAn' rm/vn * nmArj ]
e . Another way t o approach t h e double a r t i c u l a t i o n i s sim-

p l y t o make a [k] and a [p] a t t h e same time, and t o p r a c t i c e
u n t i l you can r e l e a s e them simultaneously. Try i t slowly and
d e l i b e r a t e l y * [a»^pa»] [a«Sba*] [a» n ma»],
f• Begin with some English sequences and follow a progres-

sion which may h e l p you achieve t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n . The tape w i l l
give each s t e p t h r e e t i m e s . You may have t o p r a c t i c e many t i m e s .
make p a s t e ( r e p e a t s e v e r a l times)
[me v yk'pe v yst] (without a s p i r a t i o n )
[me^yk*'pe^yst] (prolong [k] without r e l e a s i n g i t )
[me v »y»* c pe v yst] (change t h e onset of s t r e s s and lengthen

vowel)
[tkpevyst] (leave off t h e f i r s t syllable)

[ i k p e tkpa ikp^ «kpu]
go Try t h e same kind of sequence to produce [ g b ] ,
big boy
[btg'boy]
[bi,g«'boy]
[bz,» ,g boy]
[» g boy]
[tgbo » g ba » g bi » g bu]
h . Try t h e same kind of sequence t o produce [^m],
bring mine
[bruj'moyn]
302 Lesson 21
[bi"z,n»'mayn]
[brt,»«nmayn]
['^mayn]
[«nma «%o Mud. «nmu]
i . I n order to get t h e d i s t i n c t i v e q u a l i t y of [ k p &b] i n

some languages, you w i l l need t o move your tongue as shown i n
Sammy 21.3 and 21.U. Listen t o t h e following and mimic.
Without Tongue Movement With Tongue Movement
l a . [a»^pa»] l b . [a» k pa»]
2a. [fcpo.] 2b. [fcpo*]
3 a . [e«Sbe»] 3 b . [e»Sbe»]
Ua. [Sbe»] Ub. [6be»]
RE 2 1 . 2 . Discrimination D r i l l t SAME or DIFFERENT
Respond o r a l l y t o each p a i r with SAME or DIFFERENT. Don't

peek. When you can do t h e e x e r c i s e w e l l , t r a n s c r i b e the items.
la. [a,kpa a'pa] D l b . [a'ba a'Sba] D
2a. [e'pe e'kpe] D 2b. U'Sbz. t-'Sbj.] S

3 a . [u , k pu u'kpu] S 3 b . [o r g bo o'bo] D
Ua. [agtkpgg agipa] D Ub. [e'be e'be] S
k
5a. [ po po] D 5b. [be She] D
6a. [kpV kp V ] S 6b. [Sbu bu] D
7a. [Pi ^4] D 7b. [bA SbA] D
8a. [pA pA] S 8b. [8bt Bbi] S

k
9a. [ i p ikp] S 9b. [vSb vb] D
10a. [ep e k p] D 10b. [oSb oSb] S
n
lc [ae in n» se^ms] S 6 c . [mo mo] D
2 c . [eW3me e'me] D 7c. f°mj. mz,] D

n
3 c . [a'ma a'ma] S 8c. Pma ma] S
U c [e'^me g'^n©] S 9c [cflm om] D
5 c Pme ^me] S 10c. [vm tflm] D
RE 2 1 . 3 . Negative Practices Double Stops and Nasals

P r a c t i c e t h e following sentences with t h e i n d i c a t e d sub-
s t i t u t i o n s . Try t o get fluency with these a r t i c u l a t i o n s .
1* n make n ray ^monkey n mind Smother.

k
2 . ^ e t e r ^ i ^ p e r p i c k e d a ^peck of p i c k l e d ^pe^ppers.
3 . The %±g %ad ^ o y Sbent L i l l y ' s Sbike.
RE 21.U. Mimicrys Medial Double Stops and Nasals
l a . [an' r nBe] l b . [ag' g bee] lc [ak ,k pee]
2a. [enfflmfc] 2b. [eg' g bz,] 2 c. [ e k , k p t ]

3 a . [un^ma] 3b. [ug,gba] 3c [uk,kpa]
ka. [sen'^ms] Ub. [aeg ,g b9] Uc [ffik'kpe]
g
5a. [orj«me] 5b. [og« b 6 ] 5c [ o k ' k p e ]
6a. [vWmo] 6b. [ v ' g b o ] 6c. [ v ' ^ o ]
7a. [4» n ma] 7b. [i« g ba] 7 c [i» k pa]
8a. [A«rmo] 8b. [A'^bo] 8c. [A«kpo]
g
9a. [e'^mv] 9b. [ e ' b v ] 9c [e,kpo]
10a. [9« n mi] 10b. [9» g bi] 10c. [9« k pi]
RE 2 1 . 5 . Mimicryt I n i t i a l Double Stops and Nasals
l a . p3ma] l b . [Sba] lc [ k pa]
2a. Pme] 2b. [Sbe] 2c. [ k pe]

30U Lesson 21
3 a . pmu] 3b. [Sbu] 3c [ k pu]

Ua. [ n mef] Ub, [gbffif] Uc. [ k F«f]
h k h
5a. Pmot h ] 5b. [gbot J 5 c [ pot ]
6a. [ •$m»l'wee] 6b, [«8b»r»] 6 c . [«kpt>r<B]
7a. f'^misz.] 7b. [•Sbist] 7c [«kpist]
8a. [ ,n mAya] 8b. [«6bAya] 8c. [ ,k pAya]

h
9a. ['"met11©] 9b. [«Sb 6 t o] 9c [tkpeth0]
• •
10a. [ , n mspi] 10b. ['Sbepi] 1 0 c t , k p©pi]
RE 2 1 . 6 . Miraicryi F i n a l Double Stops and Nasals
la. pcflm] lb. [»aSb] lc [•cr^p]
2a. [»rf3m] 2b. [•e«b] 2c. [•e*p]
3a. [*u%] 3b. [*uSb] 3c I'**?!

Ua. ['a$m] Ub. [*s£b] Uc l*Jp]
5a. ['oOm] 5b. [»oSb] 5 c t'o1^]
k
6a. [ree^m] 6b. [r«i»»8b] 6 c . [Ts^>v p]
7a. [zî^m] 7b, [K,«»i8b] 7c [•t'U1^]
8a. [yu"A n m] 8b. [yat'ASb] 8c. [ya»*A k p]
h g
9a, [t^'e^m] 9b. [ t o « ' 6 b ] 9c [tho«'ekp]
10a. [ p i " 9 r m ] 10b. [pi»'9^b] 10c. [pi»'9kp]
RE 21.7, D i f f e r e n t i a l * VOICED or VOICELESS
Respond orally -with VOICED or VOICELESS as you listen to

the double stop. Don't peek. Use this exercise for transcrip-
tion when you can respond correctly to it.
1. [ a » , k p a ] VL U. [a*« k pa] VL 7. ['Sbonu] VD
2. [ 6 »«8be] VD 5 . t»kpz-nu] VL 8. ['Sbinu] VD
3 . [v»kpp] VL 6 . ['Sbsenu] VD 9 . [nj-'SbedsB] VD

10. [nj,»kpodee] VL 1 1 . [nt'Sbicte] VD 12. [nt,'kpAdee] VL
RE 2 1 . 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l s DOUBLE or SINGLE
Respond DOUBLE i f you hear a double stop or n a s a l [kp Sb

m] and SINGLE i f you hear an ordinary stop or n a s a l [p b m].
Don't peek.
1. [cf'Sba] D 6 . [tkpz/ve] D 11. [rb'berA] S
2. [e««be] S 7. ['roseve] S 12. [ro«pol A A] S
3. [v'pv] S 8. ['"move] D 1 3 . [rD«bil"A] S
k. [a^'â] D 9. [«bive] S Jh. [:fo'kpAlAA] D
$. [a^ros] D 10. [ « k p w e ] D 1 5 . [rb'Smz-l'A] D
RE 21.9. Differentialt SIMULTANEOUS or SEQUENTIAL
Respond SIMULTANEOUS if you hear a double stop or nasal

[kp 8b n m ] , or SEQUENTIAL if you hear a sequence of [k.p g.b
n.m]. Don't peek.
1. [a»'Sba] SI 6. [thik'pt] SE 11. [Sag'beno] SE
2. [ e ' g ' b e ] SE 7. [thi'âiBB] SI 12. [ g a ' ^ o r i o ] SI
3 . [o'k'pa] SE 8. [ t h i q ' m o ] SE 1 3 . [2a«Sbino] SI
h. [a»« k pa] SI 9. [ t h i g ' b i ] SE lU. [2ak«pAno] SE
5 . [e«n«mQ] SE 10. [ t ^ ^ p v ] SI 1 ? . [gan'mtno] SE

1
RE 21.10i Kaka. Mimicry! [ ^ p]
Follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic. On t h e tape you

w i l l h e a r the words read f i r s t down, and t h e n a c r o s s . Work
for a f l u e n t double s t o p a r t i c u l a t i o n .
1. [ k pongi«2aJ 2 'blackboard' 3 . [ k pa^ k pa] 'toothbrush'
2 . ['npog^.]2 'box' U. [ p e t e ] ' p i e c e of manioc'
Tfeka i s spoken i n Cameroun. Recordings were obtained

with the help of Dr. William D. Reyburn, Translations Consul-
t a n t of the American Bible S o c i e t y .
The mark under the vowel i n d i c a t e s n a s a l i z a t i o n .

306 Lesson 21
5. [kpasate] "true 1 8. [pa'na] 'island'
6 . [poku] 'difficulty' 9. [«pel]te] 'half'
7. [poto«] 'break' 10. [palpo*] '-wing'
RE 2 1 . l i t Kaka. Mimicryt [ g b]
1. [ôngo] 'valley' 3 . [ g bako*] 'branch'
2 . [ g biso3 'support' U. [ g be>kefe|'karX3 'curl'
RE 21.12« Maninka. Mimicryi [ g b]
1. [gbi>rt>Jma] 'shore' 5. [tp<l*p<gbt.>dp"i3] 'deaf'
2. [ d u * % g ^ ] ' o t h e r one'
r ____ 6 . [fbp^Tv 7 ] 'leather'
3 . [gbe»rc(eTh] ' t o be i n need'
h. igb*'$L?] 'stick' 7. [ g bp<<>r>] 'padlock'
RE 21.13t Vietnamese. Mimicryi F i n a l [nm ^ 3
Whether you can hear t h e f i n a l double closure or n o t ,

ndmic the t a p e , making t h e double a r t i c u l a t i o n where i t i s i n -
dicated i n the transcription.
1 . [rfts&m] 'grandfather' 6 . [dcar^p] 'read*
2 . [xaifam] 'no' 7. [dvwQm] 'be exact'
3 . [dftw^m] 'piastre' 8. [mw^p] 'ladle'
h. [toafim] «in» 9. [cww^p] 'group of t e n '
5 . [noarQm] ' t o be h o t '

RE 21.lU, Review* [j c h c]
Mimic t h e t a p e as you follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Remember

t o keep your tongue t i p down behind your lower t e e t h on these
b l a d e - a l v e o p a l a t a l s t o p s . Remember t h a t the a r t i c u l a t i o n i s
analogous t o [5 1 ] . Remember t o produce a s l i g h t [y] on-glide
t o the following vowel (or o f f - g l i d e from the preceding vowel
i f the stop i s i n s y l l a b l e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n ) .
la. [looiaja] l b . [lanac a] Ic. [lanoca]
2a, [lonojo] 2b. [ionoc h o] 2c. [lonoco]
3a. [leneje] 3 b . [leiiecê] 3c. [lefiece]
Ua. [lonojo] Ub. [Ionocho] Uc. [lonoco]
5a. [lunuj] 5b. [iunuc h ] 5c. [lunuc]
6 a . [lAnAj] 6b. [lAnAC*1] 6 c . [1/vnAc]
7a. [isneej] 7b. [iffin=BCh] 7c. [lsneec]
8a. [linij] 8b. [linic 1 1 ] 8c. [ l i n i c ]
9a. [jefiei] 9b. [ c h 6 n e i ] 9 c . [cefiel]
10a. [jvibl] 10b. [c h uni;i] 10c. [cvni?l]
RE 21.15. Review Buildups

Mimic the tape and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
tP
1 . [ pe'baba* 'o^bunjnd. minon]
2. ['iilu.Mmm.ki'sil^NnoînBBt 11 !©!]
3 . [cA»4£si8i a'W^feHcksH]
U. [raphi?«kA!ra "»cl!tfeiolA 'jsnijen]

*~^ ~ \~S i
RE 21.16. T r a n s c r i p t i o n
Use t h e s p e c i a l t r a n s c r i p t i o n form for RE 21.16 i n t h e
Workbook Supplement, pp. 57~58. Listen t o the tape and f i l l
308 Lesson 21
in the blanks in the Supplement. If you find this easy, use a

transcription form to transcribe the whole utterance. If you
find it difficult, try transcribing any of RE 21.2, 21.U-21.9
instead. After each try, check your answers against the text
below.
1. [o h A«raks.row] 1 1 . [sA.«d&>gbz,n]
• ••
2. [«fiert»z,b.cW3] 12. [nu«ppabel A ]
3 . ['maf'Apiw] 13. [t fflw'^miy^.ne]
h, [»sj,t»eef.8i«l A ] lU. [ «goevn.Mmiph]
5. [lee'kass'om] 15. [co'delA.t6a2]
6 . [ k psn'kvb»vn] 16. [ g ben , k pul»na]
7. [«l A tf»k 6 n.g«i] 17. [KLu«jon.khits]
8. [» g beb»anu«l A ] 18. [ts*W.Jiwirenth]
9 . [«bot«e»x.zoy] 19. tzi±»b9«'^mepp]
10. [yae'Salêwm] 20. [xpp.tShoH'g<xw]
RE 21.17. Reading
Practice the following words t o yourself, and read them
aloud i n the space provided before t h e tape recording. Have
your buddy help you by l i s t e n i n g t o how c l o s e l y you approximate
t h e t a p e . If you need i t , you can use RE 21.16 f o r the same
purpose.
1 . [»hop«8] k. [la.'the] 7. [tim< V . f ]
2. [»ho«p9] 5. O o ' p t z ] 8. [jitrAmp 1 1 ]
3. ['vitAin] 6. [fcpotfc,] 9. [dA«che:Qtj]

309
LESSON TWENTY-TWO
Front Rounded Vowelsj Glide Clusters
Front Central Back

U. R. U. R. U. R.
High i 1i u
Lower-high V i V
Mid e 0 o
Lower-mid s 9
Low a ce A
Lower-low a a
Table 2 2 . l t Vowels t o Date

The two dots over t h e u are called umlaut /'vmlosrt/ or
double d o t s , u i s t h e r e f o r e c a l l e d "u umlaut," or "double-
dotted u . " ^ i s c a l l e d "crossed o," and ae i s c a l l e d "o e"
or "o, dTgraph." When necessary, ""a digraph" can be used t o
name [ae] t o d i s t i n g u i s h i t from "o~digraph." To w r i t e oe
without l i f t i n g your pen, follow t h i s sequencet *•> Q J ^
RE 2 2 . 1 . Demonstration! Table 22.1

Listen repeatedly, and study t h e vowel chart as you do
so. When you a r e f a m i l i a r with t h e m a t e r i a l read off the
vowel chart with the t a p e . Get the new sounds as b e s t you can
by mimicry.
RE 2 2 . 2 . Discrimination! SAME or DIFFERENT
Respond o r a l l y with SAME or DIFFERENT. Don't peekj Use

t h i s e x e r c i s e f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n when you can handle i t o r a l l y .
l a . [RuT RilA ] D Ua. [ R i r RuT ] D
2a. [Mr feir] s 5a. [RuT RuT ] S
3 a . [RilA Ril A ] S 6a. [ci'RuT ci«Rul A ] S

310 Lesson 22
7a. [ci'Riil* ci'Rir ] D 9a. ci'Riil* ci'Riil*] S
8a. [ c i ' R i r ci'RuT] D 10a. ci'RiiT ci'Rir ] D
lb. ced cjbd] D lc. goenlj goenlj] S

2b. Cj6d c/6d] S 2c. gaentj g«3lj] D
3b. C)6d ced] D 3c goe n^ goe nlj] S
Ub. ce4 c)6d] D Uc. gseqy g«i]J}] D
5b. ced c0d] D 5c goeqJJ goenfl] S
6b. XA'ced xA'citSd] D 6c. dl»«gsa]JJ div'goei]^] D
7b. XA'ced XA'ced] S 7c. dip'goenlj dlp'goenty] S
8b. xA'cjSd xA'ciid] S 8c. dlu'goentj diD'gasglJ] D
9b. XA»c0d XA'ced] D 9c div'gcenlj diu'gaaqlj] D
10b. xA'cad XA'ced] S 10c. diu'gffiqlj dlv'gffiqg] S
Id. j(6f JOB r ] D le. nip 11 ruSph] D
2d. jeir jiir] D 2e. nripJ1 Sep11] D

3d. jiir jiif] S 3e. SejJ1 rtfp*1] D
Ud. joer j0r] D Ue. foph njip11] S
5d. j0r j)6r] S 5e. fwSp*1 nip 11 ] D
6d. k
p e ' jiir k
pe«jtfr] D 6e. gbi'hspJ 1 ebi'fijjp 11 ] D
7d. k
pe'joer kpe'joer] S 7e. Sbi'W1 Sbl'ns^1] D
k k
8d. pe'jcer pe'j0r] D 8e. Sbi'fijti^1 Sbi'S^p* 1 ] S
9d. kpe'jiztf k
pe'jur] D 9e. Sbi'nap 11 gbi'abp 1 1 ] D
lOd. k
pe'ji6f k
pe«jcer] D lOe. gbi'nep 11 Sbi'nsp 1 1 ] S
If. kces kiS] D 3f. kces" kceS] S
2f. Iras kCBS] D Uf. keel keg] D

Front Rounded Vowelsj Glide Clusters 311
$£. [tots' k±s"] S 8f. ['Wkoes' Vx'koeS] S
6f. Pma'kis Sma'kces'] D 9f. [nma'k3s' ' W k c e s ' ] D

n
7f. Pma'koes ma«keS] D lOf. [ V i l l a s ' "ma'kces] D
Production of [u i> ce ]
We come now to the production of front rounded vowels, i n

which the tongue p o s i t i o n i s the same as that of the unrounded
c o u n t e r p a r t s , and the l i p position i s the same as that of the
back rounded c o u n t e r p a r t s . Knowledge of these positions may
be of help t o you i n achieving the a r t i c u l a t i o n s , as may some
of the suggestions i n the following exercises, but as with a l l
sounds, i t i s by mimicry that you achieve good production. It
i s very easy t o f o o l yourself on t h e tongue and l i p p o s i t i o n s ,
and the s l i g h t e s t modification of t h e shapes of t h e c a v i t i e s
through which t h e a i r passes can bring strong acoustic dif-
ferences, making sounds which seem utterly different from the
ones intended. Work with a buddy on the production of a l l of
these sounds.
For some of you the new sounds w i l l not seem too strange
as you had sounds of t h i s kind i n French or German, but do not
r e l y on t h e h a b i t s you made there unless you are sure that
they are good ones. Sometimes some bad s u b s t i t u t i o n s go un-
corrected i n American students of these languages. There are,
of course, differences i n front rounded vowels from language
t o language, and the French ones are not i d e n t i c a l with cor-
responding German ones.
RE 2 2 . 3 . Demonstration! Producing [u]
a. Say [ i ] but round your l i p s as you do s o . The l i p

rounding should be t i g h t , and the tongue r e a l l y high f r o n t .
Watch yourself i n a mirror, experimenting with d i f f e r e n t de-
grees of l i p rounding and tongue position u n t i l you can mimic
the tape c l o s e l y i [mix mu mix mu mu].
b. In trying t o do t h i s some people get the front of the

tongue positioned w e l l , but have a cup i n the mid p a r t of the
tongue. This produces an [ r ] - l i k e resonance. To eliminate i t
your tongue should have a n a t u r a l , rounded contour from front
to back. The t a p e demonstrates with and without the [ r ] - l i k e
resonance.
c . P r a c t i c e saying He seems t o see me with t i g h t l y

rounded l i p s throughout.
d. P r a c t i c e t h e following sequence many t i m e s . The
312 Lesson 22
o
Sammy 22.1» [u] Degree of Lip Rounding for [ii]
phrases do not mean anything, but t h e f i r s t two are pronounced

i n English fashion. They help some people get the approximate
Lip and tongue combination, which can then be readjusted by
t r i a l and e r r o r . Eliminate the g l i d e .
1. f l e e c e t h e geese [ ' f l i ' y s di»gi>ys]
2. fluce t h e goose ['fliws d i ' g i w s ]
3 . fluce t h e guse ['fliis 4i»gus]
e. P r a c t i c e s l u r r i n g from [ i ] t o [u] and back by begin-

ning with [1] and rounding, then unrounding t h e l i p s , e t c .
Be careful not t o move the tongue. Then p r a c t i c e s l u r r i n g
from [u] t o [u] and back by moving t h e tongue forwards and
backwards.
RE 22.U. Demonstrateont Producing [t>]
a« Say [e] and round your l i p s s l i g h t l y l e s s than you

did for [ii]. Experiment as you did i n front of the mirror
f o r [ii]. Learn t o produce [mo nu6 mz5 ms( m«S], Watch out for
an [ r ] - l i k e resonance here a l s o .
b. P r a c t i c e saying I t ' s a gay May Day play with rounded

lips.
Sammy 22.2i [jrf] Degree of Lip Rounding f o r [fl]
c . P r a c t i c e t h e following sequence many times.
1. make t h e cake [»mevyk e&'kve-ykr]
2. moke t h e coke ['mowk di'lcôwk11]
3 . rorfke t h e cgike [«mi6k di'kNik 11 ]
d. P r a c t i c e s l u r r i n g from [e] t o [©] and back by begin-

ning with [e] and rounding, then unrounding t h e l i p s . Then
s l u r from [o] t o [0] and back by moving t h e tongue forwards
and backwards.
RE 22.5« Demonstration! Producing [oe]
a. Say [a] and round your l i p s s l i g h t l y . Experiment un-

t i l you can say [mcs moe race moe moe ] .
b . P r a c t i c e saying Mad Mac mashed t h e can with s l i g h t l y

rounded l i p s .
c . P r a c t i c e the following sequence many t i m e s ,
1, back t h e stack ['beak ai'steek* 1 ]

2, balk t h e s t a l k ['boHk di'stoHk* 1 ]
3 , bceck t h e stceck [»boek eB^stcek*1]
31k Lesson 22
O
Sammy 22.3» [03] Degree of Lip Rounding f o r [oe]
d. P r a c t i c e s l u r r i n g between [«e] and [ce ] and back by

changing l i p rounding. Then s l u r between [0] and [oe ] by
changing tongue p o s i t i o n .
RE 2 2 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ROUNDED or UNROUNDED
Respond o r a l l y t o t h e t a p e . Don't peek. Use t h i s exer-

c i s e f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n afterwards.
L. [bfi] R 5. [m«bum] R 9 . [m«bemst] U
2 . [bi] U 6 . [m'baan] U 10. [m'bimst] U
3 . [bee] R 7. [m«b9m] U 1 1 . [m'boemst] R
k. [b«S] R 8. [m'bdm] R 12. [m'bemst] U
RE 2 2 . 7 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ROUNDED, UNROUNDED or MIXED
I n t h i s e x e r c i s e you w i l l hear t h r e e vowels i n each u t -

t e r a n c e . Sometimes a l l of t h e vowels w i l l be unrounded, some-
times a l l w i l l be rounded, and sometimes t h e y will be mixed.
Respond accordingly. Don't peek. Use t h i s exercise f o r t r a n s -
c r i p t i o n afterwards.
1 . [»z,*£*A] U 2. ['o'd'ii] R 3. ['u'0'0] R

h. [*i*a?u] M 8. [ ' o ' o ' d ] R 12. [Wfv] M
5. ['o'ffl'u] M 9. [ ' a ' A ' i ] U 13. [ ' s ' i ' e ] U
6. f ' E ' i ' a ] U 10. ['U»o'w] R nil. [ ' c e ' u ' u ] R
7. ['o'ffl'i] M 11. ['oe'ii'e] M 15. [ 0 ii'o'j5] R
RE 2 2 . 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l s GLIDED or NO
Front rounded vowels may be glided or they may be l e v e l ,

unglided vowels. In the following exercise respond GLIDED i f
you hear any kind of o f f - g l i d e , and NO i f you do not.
1. [fLuHt h ] G 5. [fLoet h ] NO 9. [fLoeHt h ] G
2 . [fLut h ] NO 6. [fLut h ] NO 10. [fLut h ] NO
3 . [fL«fth] NO 7. [fLoeyt h ] G 1 1 . [fL6rt h ] Q
k. [fLoert h ] G 8. [fL0t h ] NO 1 2 . [fL«5wt h ] G
RE 22.9. Negative P r a c t i c e i "The Walrus and the Carpenter"
Follow t h e same procedure as RE 16.12, p . 2Ul, making the

s u b s t i t u t i o n s of [li /6 ce ] as i n d i c a t e d i n the t h r e e right-hand
columns r e s p e c t i v e l y . P r a c t i c e t h i s a t many odd moments. The
tape w i l l s t a r t you off.
"The time has come,

the Walrus said l a . [sud] l b . [stfd] l c . [saed]
"To t a l k of
many t h i n g s 2a. [©unz] 2b. [Qjftnz] 2c. [eoenz]
Of shoes—and ships—
and s e a l i n g wax— 3 a . [woiks] 3 b . [wtfks] 3 c . [weeks]
Of cabbages— , , .
and kings Ua. [kûnz] Ub. [k 0nz] Uc. [k osnz]
And why t h e sea
i s b o i l i n g hot— 5a. [hlit h ] 5b. [heit h ] 5c [hoet h ]
And whether pigs
have wings. 6a. [wiinz] 6b. [wtfnz] 6 c . [wcenz]
316 Lesson 22
"A loaf of bread,"
t h e Walrus said 7a. [slid] 7b. [s*sd] 7c. [seed]
"Is what we
chiefly needt 8a. [nuyd] 8b. [nj6yd] 8c. [noeyd]
Pepper and vinegar

besides 9a. [siiydz] 9b. [s<6ydz] 9c. [sceydz"
Are very good

indeed— 10a. [duyd] 10b. [d0yd] 10c. [dceyd]
Now i f you're ready,
Oysters dear, 11a. [dur] l i b . [d0r] lie. [deer]
We can begin
t o feed." 12a. [fiiyd] 12b. [f6yd] 12c. [fee yd]
RE 22.10. Mimicryt [ii t> ce]
Mimic t h e tape and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n . When you

can mimic w e l l , t r y t r a n s c r i b i n g the e x e r c i s e .
l a . [mii] l b . [mtf] 1c. [race ]
2a. [Qii] 2b. [OeS] 2c. [9ce ]
3 a . [pî] 3 b . [p^b] 3c [p h ce]
Ua. [prii] Ub. [p*5] Uc. [pas ]
5a. [ k pu] 5b. [kp«5] 5c [kpee]
6a. [ksiif] 6b. [kstif] 6c. [kscef]
7a. [kxiip11] 7b. [kxtfph] 7c. [kxoep11]
8a. [gguT] 8b. [gg*l» ] 8c. [ggoel*]
9a. [^miis] 9b. [^mos] 9c. pmces]
10a. [gbuft] 10b. [gbjz5&] 10c. [ g bce^]
RE 2 2 . 1 1 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Tongue Height
Respond with HIGH, LOWER-HIGH, MID, LOWER-MID, LOW, or

LOWER-LOW. When you can do t h i s w e l l , use the exercise for
t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Don't peek.
1. [cii] H 2. [coe] L 3 . [c/5] M
k. [oe] M 8 . [bogz] M 12. [Nftan] L
5. [cu] H 9 . [boegz] L 13. [Nita]] M
6 . [beegz] L 10. [bugz] H Ik, [Snug] H
7. [bigz] L-H 1 1 . [Nnsn] IrU 15. [Nniin] H
RE 22.12. D i f f e r e n t i a l FRONT, CENTRAL, or 3ACK
1. [ j i ] F 5 . [pSrfk11] F 9. [kper] F
2. [jii] F 6 . [pgsk11] C 10. [ k pof] B
3. [Ji] C 7. [p§Akh] C 1 1 . [kptff] F
U. [ju] B 8. [pScek11] F 1 2 . [kpuf] F
RE 2 2 , 3 3 , D i f f e r e n t i a l * ROUNDED or UNROUNDED
1. [lu] R 5. [RTCBX] R 9 . [Sbut h ] R
2. [ I d ] R 6. [Rfax] u 10. [Sbiit 11 ] R
3 . [1A] U 7. [Rrfc] R 1 1 . [Sb*5t h ] R
U, [ l e ] U 8. [Rrex] U 12. [SbAt h ] U
RE 22.1U. Differential* Full Labels

Keep the exercise covered below,,
HIGH FRONT ROUNDED
MID BACK
LOWER-MID
LOW
LOWER-LOW
1. [gge] MF U U. [ggu] H B R 7. [gg/6] FR

h
2. [ggoe ] L F R 5. [ggv] L-H B R 8. [gsmt
3 . [ggu] HF R 6 . [ggu] HF R 9. [gcemt h ] LFR

318 Lesson 22
10. [-g9mth] L-M C U 16. [kwifrj] MF R
1 1 . [gerat h ] MF U 1 7 . [kwan] L-ii C U
12. [gz-mth] L-H F U 1 8 . [kwvn] L-H B R
13. [gwnt h ] L-H B R 19. [kwt.n] L-H F D
lit. [gfetJ 1 ] MF R 20. [kwoen] LFR
15. [kwiin] HF R 2 1 . [kwjJn] MFR

RE 2 2 . 1 5 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Vowel Symbols
Give t h e name of t h e symbol by which t h e vowel i s t r a n s -
cribed, or w r i t e t h e vowel. When you can respond with t h e
correct answer i n every c a s e , t r a n s c r i b e t h e u t t e r a n c e .
1. [pfi] u UMLAUT 8. [mpets] EPSILON

2. [pe] SHWA 9. [mpdts] CROSSED o
3 . [**>] CROSSEDo 10. fmputs] u
U. [pee] o DIGRAPH H. [tmpcets] o DIGRAPH
5. [PA] CARET 12. [tmpets] SHWA
6. [mputs] u 13. [tmpits] BARRED i
7. [mpits] i lit. [tmpiits] u UMIAUT
RE 22.16. 1Negative P r a c t i c e i "Ten L i t t l e Indians"

P r a c t i c e t h e f r o n t rounded and front unrounded columns
of the vowel chart as demonstrated on t h e t a p e .
a. [»i] l i t t l e , [»\i] l i t t l e , [*v] l i t t l e indiansi
[*e] l i t t l e , [**J] l i t t l e , ['e] l i t t l e Indiansi
[*ffl] l i t t l e , ['03 ] l i t t l e , [»a] l i t t l e Indians;
[*i] l i t t l e Indian boys.
b . Use t h e sequence [u 0 as], [ i e se], [v c a ] , [ii] i n

t h e l i n e s above.
Front Rounded Vowels} Glide Clusters 319
Glide Clusters
J u s t as i t i s p o s s i b l e t o have a sequence of vowels
( p . 293 f f . ) i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o have a sequence of off-
g l i d e s . This simply means t h a t the non-syllabic tongue move-
ment may go i n more than one d i r e c t i o n . This i s often done
p a r t l y simultaneously, and p a r t l y i n rapid sequence.
Notice t h e difference i n the / r / ' s between English wreck

and c a r , as spoken by people with r e t r o f l e x e d g l i d e s . Wreck
begins with an [ r ] g l i d e and simultaneous [w] g l i d e . Car ends
i n an [ r ] g l i d e without t h e [w] g l i d e . Many speakers of - Eng-
l i s h make a simple [ r ] g l i d e i n merry and a [Hr] g l i d e c l u s t e r
i n Mary(/'msray/ and / ' m e H r t y / ) .
RE 22.17. Negative P r a c t i c e t Off-glide Clusters
Mimic the following English words i n t h e manner t r a n s -

cribed below and recorded on t a p e , whether you normally p r o -
nounce them t h i s way or n o t . Notice t h e sequence of g l i d e s ,
and how t h e s e d i f f e r from sequences of vowel-glide-vowel.
1. f i r e l a . [«fayr] l b . [»foyr]
2. tower 2a. [«t h oarr] 2b. [«t h awr]
3 . care 3a. [ • k V y r ] 3b. [ • k V y r ]
U. f i r e Ua. ['fayH] Ub. [•fays]

b
5. tower 5a. [«thawH] 5b. ['t aw 9 ]
6. buy you 6 a . [»boyw] 6b. ['bayv**]
7. fooey 7a. [«fv<wy] 7b. [»fp<wi>y]
RE 2 2 . 1 8 . Mimicry< Qn-glide and Off-glide Clusters
Mimic and follow t h e t r a n s 1c r i p t i o n .
l a . [rwak11] lb. [lcâwr] le. [ryak 11 ] I d . [lâyr]

2a. [rwcep11] 2b. [pôewr] 2c. [ryoep11] 2d. [p oeyr
3 a . [rwz,s] 3b. [sz-wr] 3 c . [ryz.s] 3d. [svjr]
Ua. [rwon] Ub. [nowr] Uc. [ryon] Ud. [noyr]
5a. [ r w i t s ] 5b. [stiwr] 5c. [ryits] 5d. [st4yr]

320 Lessoi
RE 22.19. Mimicry Review* Vowel Clusters
Mimic and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
la. [te'miu] l b . [ sa't^ceo] l c . [ku'pAtf]
2a. [te'maeS] 2b. [ s a ' t cee] 2e. [ku'pid]
3 a . [te'mou] 3b. ( sa't"osv] 3c [ku'piio]
Ua. [te'mau] Ub. [sa't^ceo] Uc. [ku'pod]
5a. [te'mcu] 5b. i sa't-ôaa] 5c. [ku'pa/b]
6 a . [te'mou] 6b. [sa'tôea] 6 c . [ku'p/tf]
7a. [te'msii] 7b. |'sa't h cez<] 7c [ku'pvitf]
8a. [te'mou] 8b. |" s a ' t h c e i ] 8c. [ku'peetf]
RE 22.20. Mimicry Reviews Ijong and R e a r t i c u l a t e d Vowels

la. [fu»t h ] lb. [fuuth]
2a. [fi»m] 2b, [fiim]
3 a . [vu»m] 3b.. [viium]
Ua. [vwe»n] Ub., [vwssn]
5a. [sye»l A ] 5b.. [syeel A ]
6 a . [s)6»lA] 6b . [sfl61A]
7a. [ree«kf] 7b.. [Daekf]
8a. [lce»kf] 8b , [lceoekf]
9a. [ru*p] 9b., [rmip]

10a. [za»x] 10b , [gaax]
RE 22.21i German. 1 Mimicry [u & oe]
l i s t e n and mimic as you follow along i n your Manual. I n

a d d i t i o n t o t h e f r o n t rounded vowels d r i l l e d h e r e , German has
"This d r i l l was prepared by Miss Renate Wiesmann of Zurich,

Switzerland. Her voice i s recorded.
Front Rounded Vowels/ Glide Clusters 321
a fourth in lower-high front rounded position, but that is
not included here.
la. | •gUÂ?]1 lb. [•grf«the>]1 l c . [ • goatÂ?]

• goodsJ 'Goethe' •gods'*
estate'
2 a . | •mu^le*] 2 b . ['ra«S»ne>n] 2 c . ( 'moene]

•mill' •hum' 'monk'
3 a . [ •fu»re>r] 3 b . ['f/6*?6>] 3c [ •foermt-e]

'leader' 'Scotch pine' 'formed'
Ha. 1'hu'ne"] Ub. [ , h o » n e > n ] Uc »hoel"6>]

'Hun' •jeer' 'hell'
5a. [ •su*re>n] 5b. [ « s > n ] 5c '•gcerth6>]

•stir' •beautiful' ' I was s c o l d -
ing ( s u b j . ) '
6a. i'rii'Se*] 6 b . [«rtf»zlayn] 6c. [•foeslayn]

*• r u c h e ' * l i t t l e rose" • l i t t l e horse'
7a. "*gru»S6>n] 7b. ['g?0*se>f] 7c ;«k-oesthl**e]

•io g r e e t ' 'Digger' •precious'
8a. ;i'u»bA?] 8 b . [*<5«1A] 8c.

•over' 'oil' 'eastern'
°a. '»bu»ne>] 9b. [•b«S»me>] 9c ]«boerze>]

•stage' •Bohemian 1 •exchange'
10a. [«nni»e>] 1 0 b . [«hj6»e>] 10c. [•hoskÂr]

'trouble' 'height' •hump'
Trans s r i p t i o n and Reading
Use RE 22.2, 22.6-22.l5, 22.17~22.21, following the direc-

tions of earlier lessons.
[£] is a very light uvular flap, [ A e>] sound slightly

rounded*.
"[•c] is an alveopalatal flat fricative.

322
LESSON TWENTY-THREE
Fronted and Backed Velar Consonants
Fronted Velar
(or Palatal) Mid Velar Backed Velar
Stops
Voiceless
Unaspirated k k k
A •
Aspirated kh k* kh
A
•
Voiced g g
A
§
Fricatives
Voiceless 3 X X
•
Voiced g g g
•
Affricates
Voiceless
Unaspirated kx kx kx
••
Aspirated & h kxh kx h
••
Voiced gg gg
?? ••
Nasals
Voiceless 8 N »
Voiced Q Q q
Table 23.lt Fronted and Backed Velars
An examination of Table 23.1 will show that no new symbols;
are involved. Two diacritics are used in a way which may seem
different from their previous use at first glance, but which
may be thought of as essentially the same. [ ] , for example,
marked the "dental" series when used with the*"alveolar" con-
sonant symbols on p. 161;. The dental series, however, is
"fronted" in relation to the alveolar series, and it is in
that meaning that the diacritic is used again here. [.], like-
wise, was used for "retroflexed" sounds on p. 161;, but these
retroflexed sounds are "backed" from the corresponding alveo-
lars or alveopalatals, and it is backing which is intended when
the diacritic is used with velar consonants. It was used for
Fronted and Backed Velar Consonants 323
"uvular" trill on p. 2H6, but this trill is again "backed"
from other trills.
To summarize* [A] indicates fronting of tongue position.

This gives dental position when it is an alveolar articulation
which is fronted, and palatal position when it is a velar which
is fronted. [.] indicates backing. The backing is simply a
difference of position when used with the velars or the trills,
but also involves retroflex quality when used with the alveo-
lars or alveopalatals - not that backing cannot occur for them
without retroflex quality, but we are using it to represent
retroflex quality when it is associated with the alveolars and
alve opalatals.
Notice also the difference between a back-velar consonant

(i.e., one made with the back of the tongue against the velum,
and a backed velar consonant (i.e., a velar consonant articu-
lated in a backed position, farther from the front of the
mouth).
You can easily gain a feeling for the difference between

fronted (palatal) and mid velar articulations with the follow-
ing English words. Say them slowly and deliberately, sensing
the difference in point of articulation on the velar consonant.
Prolong the velar consonant to help you feel it. As you hold
the articulation of the consonant, put a pencil or pen in
your mouth, and you will notice how much farther back it reaches
with the second column than with the first. (See Sammies 23.1
and 23.2).
Fronted velar articulation Backed velar articulation
keel [k^'yl"] call. [khoHlv]
skeet [ski>yt] Scotch [skach]
gain [ge*yn] gone [goHn]
sing [s&n] song [soHq]
In English the degrees of fronting or backing of velar

consonants are not significant, being automatically conditioned
by the surrounding sounds, particularly vowels. There are lan-
guages, however, where there may be a two-way phonemic contrast,
or a three-way one. That is, there may be a phonemic distinc-
tion between fronted and backed velar consonants (or mid and
backed, or mid and fronted), or there may be a phonemic dis-
tinction between fronted, mid and backed.
From now on in this course, whenever you hear fronting or

32k Lesson 23
Sammy 23.lt Fronted velar Sammy 23.21 Mid velar articu-

(palatal) articulation, lation, with a pencil i n
with a pencil i n Sammy's Sammy's mouth to show the
mouth to show the r e l a t i v e - longer distance i t enters,
ly short distance i t
enters.
backing of velars, be sure to note i t . In transcription, if
you cannot distinguish fronting or backing, write the velar
consonant but leave i t without a d i a c r i t i c mark.
RE 23.1. Demonstration! Fronted and Backed Velars
Follow the text as you mimic the tape.
a. If you can whistle with the back of your tongue, t r y
"London Bridge i s Falling Down." The last three syllables of
the verse ( " . . . f a i r lady.") give three points of articulation
approximately like those on which we are working here. As I
whistle the tune, however, the relationship between a r t i c u l a -
t o r and point of articulation on the f i n a l syllable i s not ex-
actly the same as that for the articulation of a backed velar
consonant in Languages where I have heard i t . In the whistling
the tongue bunches backward to reach the backed point of a r t i c -
ulation. In languages where I have heard i t , the tongue l i e s
f l a t , and the part of i t directly under the backed point of
articulation rises to serve as articulator.
b . Use the two l i s t s of English words above, getting the

Sammy 23.3* Backed Velar Articulation. Note that

the tongue is relatively flat and natural in the
mouth, and that the articulator is the part of the
tongue naturally under the point of articulation.
feel of the points of articulation for the velars, and then

reversing them, using the raid velar articulation in the first
column, and the fronted articulation in the second.
c. Use the fronted articulation of several consonants,

such as [k*1 g x n] before and after each of the vowels on
Table 18.1, p."26l.
d. Use the mid articulation before and after each of

these vowels.
e. To help toward articulation in backed velar position,

whisper an imitation of a donkey's hee haw repeatedly, and
notice the articulation. Push the arbiculati on of the second
syllable back as far as you can, and this gives you [xi« xo»],
f. If you can make a good [x>], articulate [k*1 g] with it.

This should come very naturally. * *
g. Practice backed articulation with the vowels in

Table 18.1, beginning with the lower-low back position and
gradually moving to the front position, but keeping a backed
point of articulation as nearly at the edge of the velum as
you can.
326 Lesson 23
h . A l t e r n a t e fronted, mid, and backed a r t i c u l a t i o n s with

the same vowels.
RE 23.2. Discrimination* SAME or DIFFERENT
Respond o r a l l y t o each p a i r . An attempt i s made t o keep

the vowel q u a l i t i e s of each p a i r a l i k e on t h e t a p e , but t h i s
has not always been s u c c e s s f u l . Use t h i s exercise for t r a n s -
c r i p t i o n a l s o . Don't peek.
1. [okâ okâ] D 9 . [gov gav] S 17. [mz-x muc] S
2 . [ugu ugu] S 10. [kcee kce©] D 18. [nvkx11 nvkx*1] D
3 . [ixi ixi] D U . [gud god] S 19. [nog noq] S

• A A A A
U. [ogo ogo] D 12. [xos xos] D 20. [lite lux] S
5 . [eke eke] S 1 3 . [kxez kxez] D 2 1 . [reek 11 Peek11] D
6. [o.kxo o.kxo] D i l l . [ggeS ggeS] S 22. [l v egg l v e g g ] S
7. [Ajrf <Jn0] S 1 5 . [rjee2 n©2] S 23. [rig rig] D

* A A A A
1
8. [A.g§A A.ggA] S 1 5 . [ k ^ p k* ^] D 2U. [fag fag] S
RE 2 3 . 3 . Negative P r a c t i c e t Various Velar Consonants
Mimic t h e t a p e , and p r a c t i c e t h e production of each of

t h e following English phrases with the s u b s t i t u t i o n s i n d i c a t e d .
1 . Come k i t t y . l a . [k*1] l b . [kh] l c . [k11]

•
2 . Can Kathy cough? 2a. [k] 2b. ft] 2c. [k]
•
3 . Cut capers 3 a. Ex] 3 b . [x] 3 c [x]
•
C Candy cane Ua. [Jot] kb. tft] kc. [kx]
••
5 . Ghastly ghosts 5a. [g] 5b. [g] 5 c [g]
A
•
6 . Gay gondolas 6a. [g] 6 b . [g] 6 c [g]
A
•
7. Get g i f t s 7a. [gg] 7b. [gg] 7 c [gg]
••
8. Nasty noises 8a. fo] 8b. fo] 8c. [n]
A
•
9 . Nine nuts 9a. [N] 9b. DJ] 9 c [Nj
RE 23.U, Differential FRONTED or BACKED

Respond orally to the tape, and use the exercise for
transcription. Don't peek,
1. [okV] B 6 . [lô] F 1 1 . [ak*1] B

•
2 . [okN)] F 7. [lê] B 12. [tfk*1] B
•
3. telê] F 8. [lfii] F 13. Uk 11 ] B
h. [ffiêe] B 9. [lÂ] B 1U. [ik*] F

• •
5. [vkN] B 10. [lô] F 1$. [ek11] B
• •
RE 23.$. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! MID or BACKED
1. [>vxi>] M 6. [XAS ] B 11. [ • « ] M

•
2. pases] B 7. [xe*] B 12. [pix] M
• •
3 , ['exe] B 8. [x0r] M 13. [buc] B
k. [*oxo] M 9. [xoR] M lU. [bine] B
5. [ • coca] M 10. [xcey] B 15. [dax] B

• •
RE 2 3 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l t MID or FRONTED
1. ['ago] F 6. [ g i t s ] M 11. [MmjzSg] M
2. [•&€&] M 7. [gu5] M 12. [Nneg] F
3 . ['ogo] F 8. [geS] F 13. [NnAg] F

A A
U. ['aga] F 9. [gadz] M Ik* [neg] M
5 . ['cegce] F 10. [gvj] M 15. [raeg] F
RE 2 3 . 7 . D i f f e r e n t i a l t DOT, CARET, or UNMARKED
I n t h i s e x e r c i s e l i s t e n to t h e tape and respond o r a l l y

or w r i t e your response as [ . ] , [ , J , or no mark. I f t h i s i s
too easy, t r a n s c r i b e t h e whole item. Don't peek.
1. [ « i k i ] DOT h. ['asks] UNM 7. [gipf] CARET

2. [»oko] CARET 5. [«oko] DOT 8. [gvt9] DOT
3 . [»AkA] UNM 6 . [ge£] DOT 9. [geps] UNM
328 Lesson 23
10. [§ub2] CARET 12. [jukx] UW lU. [jakx] DOT
1 1 . [ctkx] XHM 3 3 . [c h oekx] DOT 15. [cokx] CARET
RE 2 3 . 8 . Miroicryt Fronted, Mid, and Backed Velars
Mimic t h e tape as you follow i n your Manual. Work con-

sciously f o r the a r t i c u l a t i o n you want i n each case. Work with
your buddy.
l a . [kNi] lb. [A] l c . [k%]

•
2a. [uk\] 2b. [ukî] 2c. [ u k M
3a. [kl] 3b. [ki] 3c [*L]

Ua. [ i k i ] Ub. t i k i ] Uc. [i-V-]
5a. [go] 5b. [go] 5 c [go]

6a. [ogo] 6b. [ogo] 6 c . [ogo]
7a. [xee] 7b. [xee] 7c [?ffi]

•
8a. [axee] 8b. [aexag]
• 8c. [eaxffi]
9a. [ g i ] 9b. [ § i ] 9 c [gi]

A
10a. [ i g i ] 10b. t i g i ] 1 0 c [igi]

A
*
11a. [kxa] l i b . [kxa] lie [kxa]
••
12a. [a.kxa] 12b. [ a . kxa] 12c. [a.kxa]
••
13a. [kxê] 13b. [ k ^ e ] 13c [kxke] J
"* A A
h
••
lUa. [e.kx e] 3i+b. [e.kxhe] l U c [e 0 kx"e
" A A
••
15a. [ggo] 35b. [ § i ° ] 1 5 c [ggo]
A A
36a. [o.ggo] 36b. [o.ggo] 36c. [o.g|o]
17a. foA] 17b. [$A] 1 7 c [HA]

A
18a. [AqA] 18b. [ApA] 18c. [AQA]

A
19a. [ifta] 19b. 1 9 c [&}a]

••
20a. [a.$na] 20b. [a.gga] 20c [clfaa]
RE 2 3 . 9 . Mimicryt Mixed Sequences

Mindc t h e tape and follow i n your Manual. Work with your
buddy. When you have learned t o produce these sequences, p r a c -
t i c e s u b s t i t u t i n g other v e l a r f r i c a t i v e s for t h e s e .
1. [ka'ka] 6 . [kA'ka] 1 1 . [ko'ki]

A A A
* • •
2. [ k a ' k s ] 7. [kg'ks] 12. [ki'ka]
3 . [ke'ku] 8. [te»kL] 1 3 . [ka'ku]
U. [ku'kift] 9. [ k i ' k v ] ih. [kti'ko]

A A A
o • •
5 . [k/tkA] i o . [kv'ko] 15. [ko'kce]

RE 23.10. Reviewt Double Stops and Nasals
Mimic t h e tape and follow i n your Manual.

l a . [a»'ka»] l b . [a^'pa*] lc. [a» | k pa«]
2a. [a»'ga»] 2b. [a.«ba«] 2c. [a»'Sba«]
3a. [a»'na»] 3 b . [a»'ina<>] 3 c . [a»,J3ma*]
Ua. [k«e»] Itb. [p»e»] Uc. [ k p»e»]
5a. [g*e«] 5b. [b»e»] 5c. [gb»e»]
6a. [rj»e«] 6b. [m»e»] 6 c . p)m«e«]
7a. [o«k] 7b. O p ] 7c. Okp]
8a. [o»g] 8b. [o«b] 8c. [o»gb]
9a. [o»n] 9b. [o«m] 9c [o«nm]
RE 23.11. Reviewt Alveopalatal Stops

Listen t o t h e t a p e demonstration of a l v e o p a l a t a l stops i n
"Old MacDonald Had a Farm" and continue, p r a c t i c i n g i n the same
manner, s u b s t i t u t i n g the vowels of Table 2 2 . 1 , p . 309.
RE 23.12t F i n n i s h . Review Buildups Long and Short Soundst. Vowel

Clusters"
Mimic t h e t a p e and follow along i n your Manual. Be careful

t o mimic a l l f e a t u r e s . Keep working on t h e exercise u n t i l you
can r e c i t e t h e f u l l sentence with p e r f e c t i n t o n a t i o n , and s o l i d
330 Lesson 23
control of the consonants and vowels and length. The sentence
means "That little boy sat quietly, without moving, just now
for a whole hour in the shadow of a bushy tree."
Note that when new words are introduced on the tape, they
are first introduced alone, or in combination with words already
introduced, before the full phrase is given. As the tape moves
from single words to longer phrases, notice how some of the
vowel clusters tend to become glides, and how the long conso-
nants tend to become shorter.
1. ['polka]
2. ['poika'istui]
3. ['poika'istui 'varyoeâ]1
Uo ['poika'istui 'li»k»umat»a'vafyoe»a]
5. ['poika'istui 'ayvan'li»k»umat»a 'varyoe»a]
6. ['poika'istui 'ayvan'li»k»umat»a »pu»n(9)'varyoe»a]
7. ['pieni'poika'istui 'ayvan'li»k»umat»a 'pu»n(8)'vafyo€»a]
8. ['pieni'poika'istui 'eesken 'ayvan'li»k»umat*a »pu«n(9)
»vafyo€»a]
9. ['pieni'poika'istui 'aesken 'tun»in 'ayvan»li»k»umat»a
»pu»n(9) 'varyoe»a]
10. ['pieni'poika'istui 'sesken 'koko'tun»in 'ayvan'li»k»umat»a
«pu»n(G)*varyoea]
11. ['pieni'poika'istui 'eesken 'koko'tumin 'ayvan'li»k«umat»a
•tuoc»a 'pu*n(9)'varyoc»a]
12. ['peeni'poika'istui 'asken 'koko'tun»in 'ayvan'li»k»umat*a
•tuoc»a 'tu»hean'pu»n(9)'varyoe»a]
-The last consonant is not one which has been formally

drilled. Mimic it as best you can.
13. [ ' t u o ^ i e n i ' p o i k a ' i s t u i 'ssken 'koko"tun»in 'ayvan'li'k'u-

,
mat»a *tuoe»a tu*hean l pu»n(9)'Taryoe»a]
RE 23.13. Review S u b s t i t u t i o n s * General
Mimic t h e tape t o d r i l l t h e s e sequences, and follow along

i n your Manual. Work on them u n t i l you get them f l u e n t l y .
There i s a buildup on the tape f o r t h e f i r s t item, but t h e f o l -
lowing are given without buildup except f o r t h e pronunciation
of t h e p a r t being s u b s t i t u t e d .
1. ['koJfclu mAn!«ko.!fclo»pf 'kset£,ir»Acep

l
9" m " • > •
2. [ U^vHl
3. [ jep«ni»'yv»i3
A ' A
U. [ xux^g'a'aSe
•—.—•
5. [ d4o!» gbe»mowrp
i < •
RE 23.lU. Transcription
Use the special transcription form for RE 23.lU in the

Workbook Supplement, pp. 59-60. Listen to the tape, and fill
in the blanks in the Supplement. If you find this easy, use a
transcription form to transcribe the whole utterance. If you
find it difficult, try transcribing any of RE 23.2, 23.U-23.10
for preliminary practice.
11
1. [dAm'denek ] 8. [Ao«chA«yog]
h
2. [ t V n i M - e y ] 9. [ts ua«dzuH2I]
3. [«z»&Mmv,ay] 10. [sya»m»uoye*l~]
U. [ n e a . t 3 0 » v « E r i ] 1 1 . [fclekr-eu'kpiH]
5. [» g begce«goe]
A A
12. [lowkyeo»Ytruaftm]
A
6. [ r i r w n - ' ^ m e o ] 1 3 . [ »§a»-^§ol .8»ass3u]
•
7. [pr>»nuyIjQ»A*] Ik. lbv9âmPs»E]
332 Lesson 23
15. [peu^'A^yJuo] 18. [«Oeothokis]
16. [kpa.'lAiH.loa] 19. [dvy»n»oepyi]
17. [MmyeStoey'swAych] 20. [»thuxoNnV>e]
RE 23.15. Reading
Practice the following words to yourself, and read them

aloud in the space provided before the recording. Have your
buddy help you by listening to how closely you approximate the
tape. If you need it you can use RE 23.lit for the same purpose.
1. [Sloe ifioH] U. [«GBB pu] 7. [ct-do]
2. [tp^Mbco] 5. ['bflw^mo] 8. [neei'lAn]
3. ['t\g6'] 6. [doe"pa] 9. [ E bay»pi]
... i
SAIO'HOW'S VOOR voioec Mov/EiwewT TOPAV?'
333
LESSON TWENTY-FOUR
Nasalized and Oral Vowels
Front Central Back

U. R. U. Re U. R.
High i V u
t
Lower-high V V
1 I
Mid e * 0
c I
Lower-mid e a
Low ae SP A 0
t t
Lower-low a a
i t
Table 2H.li Vowels to Date, Nasalized

The symbol for nasalization is called a "hook." Some
people remember it as representing the open velic hanging
down in the back of the mouth. Notice the use of the termin-
ology nasal (consonant) for sounds like [m M n N rj Nj, etc.,
(Lesson 13, p. 192) and nasalized for the phenomenon introduced
here. For a nasal consonant the mouth is closed off at the
point of articulation but the velic is open and the air stream
goes out the nose. For a nasalized sound the mouth is not
closed off. The velic is open, and the airstream goes out
both nose and mouth. The mouth remains the primary channel,
and articulations in the mouth modify the quality of the sound
in the same ways they do purely oral sounds. The nasal cavity
provides the secondary channel, and the degree of opening at
the velic determines the degree of nasalization. We can speak
of "heavy" or "strong" nasalization, referring to sounds made
with the velic wide open, or "weak, light" nasalization, re-
ferring to sounds made with the velic relatively (but not com-
pletely) closed.
This lesson has to do primarily with nasalized vowels,

but it should be clear from the above discussion that any con-
tinuant (a sound iihich is not a stop) which we have had so far 1
T?his would be true of sounds in which the air stream ori-

ginates in the lungs. For those where the airstream originates
in the pharynx or the mouth (see Lessons 27, 29, and 31) the
situation is more complicated.
33k Lesson 2k
can be nasalized if it is not already a nasal. The velic, for

example, can be opened for [ I s z X g r ] , etc. In the case of
the voiceless sounds the difference you hear is slight, but
with the voiced ones it is appreciable. Nasalized consonants
will not be drilled in this lesson. We are only pointing out
the possibility of finding them.
Sammy 2^.1* [n]. Note the Sanmy 2U.2» [51] heavily na-
tongue articulation and salized, with velic wide
open velic which produce open,
a nasal consonant.
Speakers of American English do not seem to find making

nasalized vowels particularly difficult, although some have
trouble controlling the quality of those vowels, just as they
do controlling the quality of other new sounds. For us, how-
ever, there is usually a great deal of difficulty in obtaining
pure, oral (nonnasalized)^- vowels in some contexts. Some of
^The use of the term oral for nonnasalized vowels is

convenient, although it may be sliîtly misleading. All vowels
are oral sounds. The oral cavity is the principal resonance
chamber through which nasalized vowels as well as nonnasalized
vowels pass. With this proviso kept in mind, there is no
reason why the term oral cannot be used in the way it is used
in this chapter.
Nasalized and Oral Vowels 335
Sammy 2k»3t [o,] lightly Sanmy 2U.U» [%] nasalized

nasalized with velic because velic is open.
slightly open.
us are inclined to nasalize slightly a good deal of the time,

and all of us have nasalized allophones of our vowels in the
vicinity of our nasal consonants. This means that the timing
on the opening and closing of the velic does not coincide with
other articulations.
Notice the following diagramsi
With Slight Nasalization Without Nasalization
[a r n] [a n]
Oral closure
Velic closure
In the first diagram the [a] starts oral, but the velic quickly
opens in anticipation of the nasal consonant, and remains open
through the rest of the sequence, giving a slight nasalized
quality to the latter part of the first vowel and all of the
second. In the second case the velic opening coincides with
the oral closure for the nasal consonant, leaving no trace of
nasalization on the vowels.
Because of this habit in speaking English, we need to

336 Lesson 2U
give particular attention to producing oral vowels wherever
they occur in other languages. In languages where there is a
phonemic contrast between nasalized and oral vowels, or in lan-
guages which have no such contrast, but where vowels are not
nasalized next to nasal consonants, anything less than careful
control over nasalization is unsatisfactory.
RE 2^.1. Demonstration* Table 2U.1
Listen repeatedly, and study the vowel chart as you do

so. When you are familiar with the material, practice with
the tape. You can tell whether or not you are nasalizing by
holding your thumb and forefinger at your nostrils, very light-
ly blocking them off. You will feel the nasalized vowels as
vibration in your nostrils. Feel the difference between [m»]
and [z«] to give yourself some idea of how the difference be-
tween [<j] and [a] should feel, although [m] will have more vi-
bration then [a.].
RE 2U.2. Demonstration* Producing Nasalized Vowels
a. As you practice nasalized vowels be careful not to

substitute a laryngealized "rasping" quality (Lesson 28) for
nasalization. Some speakers of English, since they already
nasalize vowels somewhat, add the laryngeal!zation to force a
contrast with what they already do. The tape demonstrates true
simple nasalization and the addition of laryngealization.
Avoid the latter.
b. To get a clear nasalized vowel, start with [n«] and

lower the tongue slowly to [a], trying not to make any other
changes in articulation. Chances are that you will naturally
produce a nasalized vowel in this position. Feel it with your
fingers at your nostrils. If you are doing so, and if it does
not sound particularly nasalized, this is probably because
nasalization is so natural to you after a nasal consonant.
Follow the same procedure with [n»^* n»ag» n»^»], etc., as dem-
onstrated on the tape. If an initial [n] is still too difficult
for you to do this effectively, you may get the same effect
with [n].
c. Isolate the nasalized vowels by beginning with the

above procedure and then saying them after [*]/ [n»a« 'a*
q»o« *9»], etc. Then [*<j» * £ • ] , etc. Keep the same quality
of0nasalization throughout. Check it with your fingers at
your nostrils. Be careful not to strain it with laryngeali-
zation.
d. Beginning in the same way, pronounce the nasalized

vowels following [b d]t [n»o>» b«o,« d»o-« n»£» b«^» £•£•], etc.
Be sure you keep t h e same degree of n a s a l i z a t i o n .

e . Using t h e same i n i t i a l consonant t o tune you up, p r o -
duce t h e nasalized vowels between nonnasal consonantst [n*o-«
ba»b da»d], e t c . Check c a r e f u l l y with your f i n g e r s a t your
nostrils.
RE 2U.3. Demonstration! Producing Oral Vowels
a. Get a c l e a r nonnasalized vowel i n a frame l i k e

[ p . . . p " ] . Follow the tape* [po^p*1 pe»p^ pu'p* 1 ], e t c . Check
yourself with your f i n g e r s a t your n o s t r i l s . There should be
not the s l i g h t e s t v i b r a t i o n .
b . Now do the same t h i n g i n a voiced frame. Make sure

the vowel remains nonnasalized* [ba»b be»b bu«b], then
[ba» be* bu»], e t c .
c . A l t e r n a t e [a»b] and [a*m], making sure t h e vowel i n

[a«b] i s an o r a l one, and t h a t the one i n [<x»m] i s j u s t l i k e
i t . Follow t h e tape and keep your f i n g e r s a t your n o s t r i l s *
[a»b a*m u»b u*m se*b ee»m], e t c .
d. A l t e r n a t e [ba«] and [ma«], making sure t h e vowel i n

[ba»] i s nonnasalized, and t h a t the one i n [ma»] i s j u s t l i k e
i t . Follow t h e t a p e , and keep your fingers a t your n o s t r i l s i
[ba« ma* bo» mo» be* me»], e t c .
e . FolloTr t h e same procedure f o r the frames [ b . . . b m . . . m ] ,
RE 2U.U. Demonstration* Table 2U.1 and Oral Counterparts
Listen r e p e a t e d l y , and study t h e vowel chart as you do

so. The n a s a l i z e d vowels of the chart w i l l be contrasted with
t h e i r o r a l c o u n t e r p a r t s . After you have l i s t e n e d s u f f i c i e n t l y ,
p r a c t i c e with t h e t a p e .
RE 2U.5. Discrimination* SAME or DIFFERENT

Respond o r a l l y with SAME or DIFFERENT. Don't peek! Use
t h i s e x e r c i s e for t r a n s c r i p t i o n a f t e r you can handle i t o r a l l y .
1. [bo« bo»] D 5. [le» l a » ] S
2. [mi mi] S 6 . [»ey *ey] D
3 . [ne r e ] D 7. ['Y' f ' r f ] S
k. [zu zu.] D 8. ['an ' a n ] D

338 Lesson 2U
9. ['^P*1 'JP* 1 ] S 15. [tV *V^ S
10. [ ' e l ' s i ] S 16. [ t i a ' k 1 1 tfc-'k 11 ] D

11
1 1 . [gjSp gifph] D 17. [CVT avf] D
12. [ftpg z£n] S 1 8 . [kpoyk: kpoyk] S
13. [Sew eew] S 19. [J^pf 5fpf] s

lU. [nu»2 nii»s] D 20. [ l i t s l | t s ] D
RE 2^.6. D i f f e r e n t i a l NASALIZED or ORAL
Respond o r a l l y t o t h e t a p e . Don't peek. Use t h i s exer-

1. [*a»] 0 8. [mu«] 0 15. [bf»m] N
2 . ['a»] N 9 . [m?»3 N 16. [bvm] 0
3 . ['e»] N 10. [mce»3 0 1 7 . [bvm] 0
h. ['o«3 N 1 1 . [me*3 0 1 8 . [bpm] N
5. ['*>•] 0 1 2 . [n*«] 0 15. [bijfm] N
6. ['u«3 N 1 3 . [mtj5»3 N 20. [bu»m] 0
7. [*e«] 0 lU. [m&»] 0 2 1 . [b£»m] N
RE 2U.7. Negative Practicet Nasalized and Oral Articulation
Practice reciting a nursery rhyme such as the following

one in a fully nasalized style, then in oral style, making sure
that there is no residual nasalization on any vowel, and final-
ly alternating the lines, with one nasalized and the next oral.
The tape demonstrates. Be careful of the vowels near nasal
consonants when you are practicing nonnasalized articulation.
Mary, Mary quite contrary,
How does your garden growl
With silver bells and cockle shells,
And pretty maids all in a row.

RE 2U.8. Mimicryt Oral and Nasalized Vowels

Mimic t h e t a p e as you follow along i n your Manual. Be
careful t o eliminate n a s a l i z a t i o n where i t i s not c a l l e d f o r i
l a . [bo] l b . [mo] l c . [bo] I d . [mo]
2a. [pe] 2b. [me] 2c. [pe] 2d. [mej
3a. [thv] 3 b . [nv] 3c [thy] 3d. [nv]
Ha. [ d i ] Ub. [ni] kc. [di] Ud. [ni]

It
5a. [gA] 5b. ft) A] 5c. [gA]

5d. [QA]
6 a . [baam] 6b. [nasm] 6c. [fafb]
6d. [meb]
7a. [piim] 7b. [miin] 7c [pifb]
7d. [mub]
8a. [tim] 8b. [nim] 8c. [t^.m]
8d. [n^m]
9a. [d5um] 9b. [num] 9c [dzum]
9d. [num]
•
10a. [k<5m] 10b. ft)0m] 10c. [krtm]
l d d . [n^m]
RE 2U.9. Mimicryt Mixed Oral and Nasalized Sequences
Some languages have vowel c l u s t e r s of which one vowel i s

o r a l and t h e other n a s a l i z e d . P r a c t i c e t h i s e x e r c i s e t o help
you l e a r n t o make t h e s e combinations.
la. [a* a.] lb. [aha.] lc. [aa] Id. [aa]
2a. [e'e] 2 b . [ehe] 2 c . [ee] 2 d . [ee]
3 a . [©'?] 3 b . [sh ? ] 3 c . [©?] 3 d . [ee]
Ua. [ce'ae] Ub. [oehoe] Uc [aece] kd. [oeoe]
5a. [&'£] 5 b . [thv] 5c 5d. [p.]

6a. [ a ? ? ] 6b. [ahe] 6 c . [ae] 6 d . [ae]
7a. [e*e] 7b. [ehe] 7 c [ee] 7 d . [68]
8a. [e'ce] 8 b . [shoe] 8 c . [see] 8 d . [?oe]
9 a . [ce'j,] 9 b . [ceht] 9c [oe^.] 9 d . [csz.]
10a. [*-*<?] 10b. ftha.] 10c UoO lOd. [â]

3hO Lesson 2it
RE 2U.10. Mimicryt Mixed Oral and Nasalized Sequences
l a . [•co»sas] lb. [»co»sae] l o . [ 'co»sae]
2a. [»swi»sas] 2b. [•swi»sae] 2c. [ f swi-sae]
1 1
3 a. [•nu«sae] 3b. ['ftu'sae] 3 c [ •nu'sae]
Ua. [«t h A»sae] Ub. [ « t h A . s a 6 ] Uc. rit h

• • *
A«sas]
i
5a. [«v(J»sae] 5b. [»vj6»sae] 5 c '•vj£»sae]

6a. [•Mmo'z'&o] 6b. [«Mmo«2z,o] 6c. Hfa^zz-o]
7a. [•piy»&-o] 7b. [•plii'zô] 7c. [ 'plu»2£.o]
8a. 8b. [tkhrs»Xzro] 8c. |'«k h ra»2i.o]
1, iJ
9a. 9b. ['t&oe»2z,ol 9 c I •t&os'Sj-o]

LOa. [»kxi»z'z,o]
L J
10b. [•kxi.Xj-o] 10c "'kxi'zYo]
1 1. t
RE 2U.11. D i f f e r e n t i a l t Tongue Height

LOWER-LOW. Don't peek. All of t h e vowels w i l l be n a s a l i z e d .
1. US] H 6 . [ete^cx] L 1 1 . [fcenlj] L-M
2. [J03] L 7. [dikx] L-H 12. [5AnNj L
3 . [J$] M 8. [d6kx] M 1 3 . [2onN] M
U. [je] M 9 . [etoekx] L Ik. [fenNj L-M
5. [ju] H 10. [dikx] H 15. [zoqN] L
RE 2U.12. D i f f e r e n t i a l t FRONT, CENTRAL, or BACK
1. [ k i ] F 5 . [ki6f] F 9 . [SbfR] F
2. [ku] F 6. [kaf] C 1 0 . [Sboft] B
3 . [ki] C 7. [kAf] C 1 1 . [Sbv&] B
U. [ku] B 8. [koef] F 12. [SbaR] F

At • *
RE 2U.13. Differentialt ROUNDED or UNROUNDED
1. [ELu] R 2 . [£lf6] R 3 . [iOA] U

Nasalized and Oral Vowels 3U1
h
h. [fcle] U 7. Pmon] R 10. [ c u T ] R
4 w
5. [^mcpn] R 8 . [^mgn] U 1 1 . [c h ol*] R

6. [Qrop] u 9. [c T I T ] R 12. [ c h | l A ] 0
RE 2h.lk. Differential! Full Labels

Keep the exercise covered below.
HIGH FRONT ROUNDED
MID BACK
LOWEMJID
LOW
LOWER-LOW
1. [k?f] MF U 10. [xents] M F U
2. [kx<p] L F R 1 1 . [x^nts] L-H F U
3. feu] H F R 12. [ x i n t s ] L-H C U
k. [kxu] H B R 13. [?ypD] L-L F U
5. [fef?] L-H B R Ik. feyfq] L-M F U
6. [&<$] M F R 15. [?y?q] L BR
7. [x^nts] W F U 16. [xyar] L-L C U
8. [xce n t s ] L F R 17. [w>] H F R
9. [xgnts] L-M C U 18. [W3] L-H F U
RE 2lt.l5. Differential! Vowel Symbols

As in the exercises above, all of the following vowels
will be nasalized. Give the name of the symbol by which the
vowel is transcribed, or write the vowel.
1. [dy] u UMLAUT WITH HOOK 3. [d$] CROSSED o WITH HOOK
2. [da] SHWA WITH HOOK U. [dee ] o DIGRAPH WITH HOOK

3U2 Lesson 2k
5 . [dA] CARET WITH HOOK
6 . [nkûts] u WITH HOOK
7. [ n k ^ t s ] i WITH HOOK
8. [ n k V t s ] EPSILON WITH HOOK

l
i
9. [nkôts] BACKWARDS c WITH HOOK
10. [sndi.n] IOTA WITH HOOK
1 1 . [sndin] BARRED i WITH HOOK
12. [sndan] PRINTED a WITH HOOK

RE 2U.I63 Kaka. Mimicryt Nasalized Vowels
1. [da] 'rigid' 5 . [r|*wo] 'fear'
C , 4 .
2 . [ka] 'pride' 6. [Lan'sa] 'win'
3 . [ko] 'spear' 7. [lu] ' t o spear'
U. [kwa] 'leave' 8. [luku'sa.] 'glory'
RE 2l|.17» Mano. Mimicry* Oral and Nasalized Vowels
1. [di»] /d£/ 8. p j 7 > ] /ill/ 15. [div] /dl/
'spear' 'raffia' 'wait'
2 . [IT] /le/ 9 . [ire.] /wee/
'mouth' 'word'
3 . [ye] /ye/ 10. [ze»] /zee/ 16. [me^pe] /meepe/
•to break' 'dance r a t t l e s ' 'when?'
U. [ka] /ka/ 1 1 . [ka»] /kii/ 17. [ ^ a ] /gba/
•house* *to pour' 'dog'

5. [ t o ' ] /ko/ 12. [loT<] /i55/ 18. [tow_] /t5uV
•name* 'week' 'kill'

Nasalized and Oral Vowels 3k3
6. [go] /go/ 13. [aoT] /zoo/
•to come from' 'doctor'
7. [5»] /lS/ Hi. [^T] /wuu/ 19. [3|] /du/
•daughter' 'breath' 'to squat'
RE 2U»l8t Mano. Mimicryt Vowel Glides and Nasalization
1. ['ney] /we£/ 'urine' U. [*u»y] /wei/ 'monkey'
2. ['uev] /wei/ 'mortar' 5. [*uey] /wex/ 'to scatter'
3. [*u^f] /wSl/ 'pestle'

As you mimic t h e following m a t e r i a l s , n o t i c e t h e two d i f -
f e r e n t vowel g l i d e s , and t h e n a s a l i z a t i o n and lack of n a s a l i z a -
t i o n on each. Notice a l s o t h a t t h e n a s a l i z a t i o n extends over,
or occurs s o l e l y on t h e n o n - s y l l a b i c g l i d e [ y ] . The reasons
for i n t e r p r e t i n g [*u] as /w/ and [y] as / i / have t o do p a r t l y
with t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e occurrence of n a s a l i z a t i o n , but
of course we need much more data f o r t h a t problem.
RE 2k.l9t Mano. Mimicryt Oral Vowels After [m n]
Mimic the c l e a r o r a l vowels which come a f t e r these nasal

consonants. Hold your f i n g e r s a t your n o s t r i l s t o make sure
t h a t your vowels a r e c l e a r . One n a s a l vowel i s included f o r
c o n t r a s t (No. 8 ) .
1 . [m&»] /mee/ 'large ship'
2 . [n&»] /nee*/ 'good f r i e n d of a woman'
3 . [n?*] /n£a/ 'someone e l s e ' s f a t h e r '
km [ n ^ S b e ] /nSagbe/ ' f r i e n d of a man'
£. [gbono] /gbono/ 'medicine test for lying'
6 . [ny(] /nle/ ' o n e ' s own mother'

3UU Lesson 2U
7. [ j A ] /noo/ •one's ovm mother'
8. [na»] /naa/ «to want'
Transoription and Reading
Use RE 2U.5-2U.6, 2U.8-2li.19.
j nppARTmeMT OF A R C H A E O L O G Y
J
. . . AMP SO YOU TH/NK , PROFESSOR, THAT THIS
C U L T U R E HAP m A l N W PROMT-ROUMDED V 0 \ U 6 L S ?
3k$
LESSON TWENTY-FIVE
Unreleased and Released Consonantsj Clusters With [*>]
No new sounds are introduced in this lesson. We are

rather concerned with some phonomena related to some sounds and
combinations we have previously had.
Unreleased Sounds
You are already familiar with the difference between as-

pirated and unaspirated stops. Think now of an English voice-
less bilabial stop at the end of a sentence, when you have
nothing more to say and your mouth remains closed* He Tent by
ship. In such a case the final /p/ is unaspirated, but it is
more than that. It is unreleased. It is possible to say the
same sentence, still with an unaspirated stop at the end, but
with the lips closing only briefly for the stop. Such a stop
is not unreleased, even though there is no audible release. An
aspirated stop is, of course, released with aspiration.
There are many languages in which syllable-final unreleased

stops are an important general feature of articulation. Whereas
in English our handling of this is rather casual, with consider-
able latitude of free fluctuation in any speaker, there are
languages where the use of the unreleased stop is the norm.
This presents no difficulty to the English speaking person when
he thinks about it, for he has no trouble making unreleased
stops. Unless he forms a solid habit of doing so, however, he
is likely to substitute the English pattern of variation and
fluctuation.
When we need to specify an unreleased stop we may do so by

a diacritic, as follows* [p~ t - k - ] . We will use this symbol
in this lesson, and occasionally later when it seems appropriate
but in general from now on in this course you should consider
voiceless unaspirated stops in syllable-final position as unre-
leased whether you have the symbol or not.
RE 25»1. Mimicry/ Unreleased Stops
Mimic and follow the transcription. Practice what is

written whether you hear the final stop distinction on the tape
or not. Unreleased final stops are more difficult to distin-
guish than released ones.
la. [tha»p~] lb. [tha»t-] lc. [tna«k"]

31*6 Lesson 25
2a. [zz.»p~] 2b. [zvt~] 2c. [zvk~]
3a. [no«p~] 3 b . [no»t~] 3 c . [no»k~]
Ua. [ ^ s - p - ] Ub. [ ^ s ' t - ] Uc. [kpe'k-]
5a. [xu«p~] 5b. [$u»t - ] 5 c [xu»k~]
6a. [ t h i » t s a » p - ] 6b. [ t ^ ' t s a ^ f ] 6c. [ t ^ ' t s a ^ k - ]

• • •
7a. [£lo«gi»p-] 7b. [£Lo»ni»f-] 7 c [61o«nir«k-]
8a. [Ro'Nnvp - ] 8b. [ R o ' N h v t - ] 8 c . [Ro'Nnu-k - ]
• • »
9a. [bv8'lA»p~] 9b. [bvs«iA.»t~] 9 c [bv9«iA«k~]
10a. [ r e ' k ^ ' p - ] 10b. [ f e ' k ^ t - ] 10c. [ r e ' k V k - ]
. . .
Stops are not the only sounds which may be unreleased. In
English nasals and laterals in final position are more consis-
tently unreleased than are stops. In the latter there is fluc-
tuation in the same words between unreleased stops and aspirated
stops, whereas audible release of final nasals and laterals is
more rare.
In a language like French, however, unreleased final nasals

and laterals are much less common than are released ones.
Released "Final" Sounds
We have already discussed aspiration as one kind of re-

lease for stops. This is, of course, a voiceless release, and
in strict phonetic terms we must say that the aspiration con-
stitutes an additional phonetic segment after the stop, even
though it patterns as part of the stop phoneme in English. In
other words, if a stop is released with aspiration, the aspir-
ation really constitutes an additional sound following the stop.
The same is true of voiced release after voiced stops in

English. Occasionally we hear someone say a word like big with
a voiced release of the /g/i [,bz.»ge]. When the /g/ is released
the voicing continues to give an unstressed vowel of central
quality. At other times we may hear a voiceless release pn the
word big, as though it were very slightly aspirated/ [b&g11].
This aspiration is not as heavy as in a regular English voice-
less aspirated stop.
RE 25.2. Demonstration! Releases on English Voiced Stops
Listen to the tape and watch the transcription as the points

Unreleased and Released Consonants 314-7
made above are illustrated for you.
Unreleased Voiced r e l e a s e Voiceless r e l e a s e

1. _big l a . [bz-g] lb- [»t*g9] 1c. [bz,gh]
2. bad 2a. [bse»d] 2b. [«bse»de] 2c. [«bs»d h ]
3 . cob 3a. [lAfb] 3b. [ ' A f t e ] 3c [lAfb 1 1 ]
S t r i c t l y speaking, then, since audible r e l e a s e c o n s t i t u t e s

an a d d i t i o n a l sound segment, t h e r e i s no such thing p h o n e t i c a l l y
as a f i n a l sound with audible r e l e a s e . The audible r e l e a s e
c o n s t i t u t e s t h e f i n a l sound. Phonemically, of course, i t i s
possible t o speak of a f i n a l phoneme which i s r e l e a s e d , as i n
the pronunciations i n t h e second and t h i r d columns above,
RE 25.31 French. Voiced Release
French has a phenomenon which some l i n g u i s t s i n t e r p r e t

phonemically a s voiced r e l e a s e of f i n a l consonants, as i s i l -
l u s t r a t e d i n t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n below. Other l i n g u i s t s analyze
the f i n a l sound as a phonemic segment. Regardless of t h e analy-
s i s , i t a l l comes out t o t h e same pronunciation p h o n e t i c a l l y .
Mimic t h e tape and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
1. [•fiyg]1 /fly/ fille •daughter'
2. [•vir©] Mi/ ville • city'
3. ['Sozal /Soz/ chose •thing'
k. ['?6t§] /set/ cette 'this'
5. ['gepe] /gep/ guepe 'wasp'
6. [•logs] A?g/ langue •language'
7.. [•fraza] /fraz/ phrase •sentence'
8. [•akta] /akt/ acte •act'
9. [•porta] /port/ porte 'door'
10. [mp'tang] /mptan/ montagne 'mountain'
'[ ] i n d i c a t e s a s l i g h t rounding of t h e vowel.

3U8 Lesson 2$
Close and Open Transition

Another way in which an unreleased stop may occur in Eng-
lish is in a word such as cupcake. We often form the articula-
tion for the /k/ while the /p/ is still closed, so that when the
lips are opened from the /p/, the result is a /k/ without any
audible transition between the two. From a purely articulatory
standpoint we have one long stop which begins bilabial and ends
velar. Both the end of the /p/ and the beginning of the /k/ are
inaudible. In this kind of a transition the /p/ is sometimes
spoken of as unreleased, or as in close transition.
[k ev »]
stop closure
bilabial
velar
voicelessness
However, if someone were being very emphatic or overly

precise, he might pronounce cupcake as ['k"Ap"k"evyk"], which
has voiceless open transition (aspiration) between the conso-
nants. We normally say bad~b"oy as ['bse»d'boy] with close tran-
sition. However, in imitating an Italian talking English we
might say f'bee'da'boy] with voiced open transition. Each of
these statements, of course, stands in relation to a presumed
syllable-final phoneme. On purely phonetic grounds we can
think of two consonants with aspiration between, or two con-
sonants with a voiced central vowel between, respectively.
RE 25.U. Differential* CLOSE or OPEN
Respond according to whether the transition between the

medial consonants is CLOSE or OPEN. Don't peek.
1. [ap"ta«] C 6. [kat h «kor] 0 1 1 . [kz,n'tPf] C

•
2. [epa'tae*] 0 7. [xoz9 * zj.m] 0 12. [xons'mez] 0
•
3. [of'si*] C 8. [ g e e t ' s u r ] c 13. [ g e r ' z o f e ] C
U. [eb'dA.] c
h
9. [naf 'fiw] 0 m. [nAetedeS] 0
5. [ine'mu*] 0 10. [Auitmey] C 15. [k^fflga'neimM] 0

Clusters With ['] 3U9
RE 25.5. Negative Practice* Open Transition
People learning English in Southeast Asia and many other

areas tend to put an open transition in the middle of some
English consonant clusters because these clusters do not occur
in close transition in their own languages. The following
English words are transcribed and recorded as such people
might pronounce them. Mimic the tape and follow the transcrip-
tion.
1. [sa'top-] stop 5. [ss'nek-] snake

2. [ s s ' p i l * ] spill 6 . Oe»lAffip-] slap
3. [ss'kin] skin 7. ['mssgk-] mask
k* [sa'mok - ] smoke 8. [«faesgt _ ] fast

Clusters with [*>]
One kind of consonant cluster which needs special drill

by English-speaking people is the cluster which includes [']
as one of its members. Such clusters may consist of two con-
sonants, or more rarely even three or four. ['] may occur in
virtually any position in the cluster, depending on the par-
ticular consonant sequence, and on the language.
RE 25.6. Demonstration! Clusters with [gj
Many dialects of English do have clusters with ['], al-

though not so commonly in the initial and final positions which
will be drilled in this lesson. Mimic the following English
words as recorded on the tape and transcribed below. Make a
clear, strongly articulated [*].
1. cotton [»kha"'n] h. bottle [«ba?l]
2. (negative) ["rn'm] 5. Scotland ['ska'lind]
3. button [»bA*n] 6. flap 'em [«fla3p''m]

• • • t 1
RE 25»7. Mimicry* Clusters of Nasals with [*>]
Perhaps t h e e a s i e s t c l u s t e r s with [*] t o hear and produce

are those where the ['] i s adjacent t o n a s a l s . I n the follow-
ing exercise the tape w i l l read across from l e f t t o r i g h t , and
then down t h e l a s t column. Listen f o r t h e g l o t t a l stop and
mimic with a c l e a r , strong one.
l a . [am ,9 ma] l b . [a"ma] lc. ['ma]

350 Lesson 25
2a. [ e n " n e ] 2b. [ e " n e ] 2c. ['ne]
3a. [on"no] 3b. [o"no] 3c ['no]
Ua. U n " n j . ] Ub. [ t " n z , ] U c f>qv]
5a. [om"mo] 5b. [om"o] 5c. [om']
6a. [An"nA] 6b. [An«'A] 6 c . [An']
7a. [ u n " i m ] 7b. [un«'u] 7c [un']
8a. [sen "nee] 8b. [esn«'ss] 8c. [an']
RE 2 5 . 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l GLOTTAL or NO
I f you hear a g l o t t a l i n sequence with a n a s a l , respond

GLOTTAL. If you do not, respond NO. Each item w i l l be given
twice.
1. ['ma] GL 7. [ o n ' ] GL 13. ['nosi] NO
2 . [me] NO 8. [sen] NO lU. ["mefce] GL
3 . [no] NO 9. [An'] GL 1 5 . ['novt,] NO
U. ['He] GL 10. [an] NO 36. [»sulan] NO
5. [ni] NO 1 1 . [vm'] GL 17. ['y<5&An'] GL
6. [»nu] GL 12. [ 0 n ' ] GL 18. ['Siilt.ni'] GL
RE 2 5 . 9 . Mimioryi Clusters of L a t e r a l s or Vowel Glides with [']
Mimic as you follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n ,
la. [ol»"ro] lb. [o"l*o] lc fro]
2a. [aw"wa] 2b. [a»'wa] 2c. ['wa]
3a. [ o y " y o ] 3b. [o«'yo] 3c ['yo]
Ua. [Ay»'yA] Ub. [Ay«'A] Uc [Ay]
5a. [£w«'wi] 5b. [ i w " i ] 5c. [4W]
6a. [/5L*»'1*«5] 6 b . [£LA"*5] 6 c . [«LA»]

Clusters With [*] 351
RE 25.10. Differentials INITIAL or FINAL
Respond according to -whether you hear the [*] in INITIAL

position or FINAL position. Each item will be given twice.
Don't peek.
1. [nam''] F 6 . [*nen] I 1 1 . [iu,n~] F
2. [*nin] I 7. [nam*] F 12. [qvtf] F
3. [*ycey] I 8. [•fitfi] I 13. ['mam] I

4 . [Sen?] F 9. [»l A ul A ] I lit. [»Wiw] I
5. [rar*] F io. [yuy*] F 15. ['neen] I
RE 2 5 . 1 1 . Discriminati on» SAME or DIFFERENT
Clusters in this exercise will be made up of voiced fric-

atives or voiced stops with [']. For each pair respond with
SAME or DIFFERENT. The differences will be between single con-
sonants and consonant clusters with [*>]. Don't peek.
1. [»zu zii] D ru lor* nor] D

2 . [ 9 vce ">voe ] S 12. [ey ey»] D
3 . [*bi bi] D 1 3 . [on on] S
iw ['do *»clo] S Hi. [AW» AW'] S
5. [gee gos] S 15. [oen? oen] D

6 . [gi »gi] D 16. tag ©q'] D
7. [£a »2a] D 17. [um* urn'] S
8. [je je] S 18. [vn tra">] D
9. [*de de] D 19. fur* uiA°] S

10. [">h> *iv] S 20. ["3 ^] S
RE 25.12. Mimicry! Clusters of Voiced Stops with [•»]
Mimic the tape as you follow the transcription. There

will be a tendency for some of you to substitute similar-
sounding (and similarly articulated) implosives (see Lesson 27)
here. Keep your fingers lightly on your larynx. It should not
pull sharply downward in the clusters here. Keep even pressure
352 Lesson 25
with your lungs. Be sure you get good voicing on the stops
also.
la. [Ab'^bA] lb. [A'-'bA] Ic. [*bA]
2 a . [j6d"d«5] 2 b . [6»'b«5] 2c. [*d(6]
3a. [ e j " j e ] 3b. [e";je] 3 c . [*je]
Ua. [ i g ' ^ g i ] Ub. [ 4 » ' g i ] Uc. t ' g i ]
5 a . [ug'-'gii] 5 b . [ug'*tL] 5c [ug*]
6 a. [ a j " j a ] 6b. [ a j " a ] 6 c . [ad*]
7a. [oed'^dce] 7b. [ced'^ce] 7c [ced']
8a. [ab«'ba] 8b. [ab«*a] 8c. [ab']
RE ;> 5 . 1 3 . M i n d c r y i C l u s t e r s of Voiced F r i c a t i v e s w i t h [*]
la . [i4»'<ii] lb. [i«'di] Ic. [*€&]
2a . [fflv"vee] 2b. [ffi,9Vffi] 2 c . [*vse]
3a . [te^zi*] 3b. f«5«'z«5] 3c [•>z6]
Ua . W&v] Ub. [z-"zz,] Uc. [•*«-]
5a . [eg^ge] 5b. [ e " g e ] 5c [eg"]
6a . [ced"dce] 6b. [oe " d o e ] 6c. [ced']
7a . [iv«'vi] 7b. [i^vi] 7c [iv*]
8a . [vz'^zv] 8b., [v"zv] 8c. [uz']
9a . [e2«*fe] 9b.. [9"ze] 9c [92']
10a . [eg''gel 10b.. [e"ge] 10c.. [eg']
RE 25.1U. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! GLOTTAL o r NO
Each i t e m w i l l b e g i v e n t w i c e . Don't peek.
1. [*zi6] GL U. [ z o ] NO 7. [ceb''] GL
2. [*dA] GL 5. fvi] GL 8. [id'] GL
3. [gii] NO 6. [9g*] GL 9 . [62; NO

Clusters With ['] 3$3
10. [oj] NO 12. ["bisom] GL lii. [ T u S a z ' ] GL
11. ['dAfun] NO 13. [«zcex£.r)] NO 15. ['WWGQV] GL
RE 25.15. Demonstrationt Clusters of Voiceless F r i c a t i v e s or

Stops -with [']
Since clusters of v o i c e l e s s consonants with ['] are harder

t o hear than those of voiced consonants, try the following exer-
c i s e t o warm up t o them. Mimic t h e tape and follow the trans-
cription.
a. Begin with the affricate [kf] and switch t o ['f] f o l -

lowing t h e tape and the transcription. The purpose of t h i s
exercise i s t o help you f e e l the release of a stop i n t o a f r i c -
ative on the [kf] and then switch t o the desired [ ' f ] , maintain-
ing the same " f e e l " of r e l a t i o n s h i p .
[kfa kfa kfa kfa ' f a ' f a ' f a ' f a kfa ' f a kfa ' f a ]
b. Use the same pattern for d r i l l i n g the following pairsi

[ksa ' s a ] , [kSa ' 2 a ] , [kxa ' x a ] ,
c. Get the f e e l of combinations with voiceless stops i n

the same way. Notice that there i s an audible transition be-
tween t h e consonants even when no a i r escapes between them.
The a i r released by the f i r s t stop rushes i n t o f i l l the cavity
closed by the second stop. Use these pairsj [kpa 9 p a ] ,
[kta ' t a ] , [kca ' c a ] ,
RE 25.16. Mimicryt Clusters of Voiceless Fricatives with [']
la. [ee"6e] lb. [e"0e] lc. ['6e]
2a. [ 9 f t ' f 8 ] 2b. [8»'f9] 2c. t ' f s ]
3a. [ c e s " s c e ] 3b. [ce«'soe] 3c ['see]
Ua. [ v s » ' s » ] Ub. [ u " S v ] Uc. [ ' 8 v ]
5a. [ i x » ' x i ] 5b. [ i " x i ] 5c fxi]
6a. [*E«»Xtf] 6 b . [s»X«'jO] 6c. [<&*]

-
7 a . [18 " S i ] 7b. [ i 2 " i ] 7c. [is ']
8a. [ A S " S A ] 8b. [AS " A ] 8c. [ A S ' ]
9a. [aeffee] 9b. [aef'ae] 9c [eef']

10a. [vQ*">Qv] 10b. [z,6»'z,] 1 0 c . [z.e»]
35U Lesson 25
RE 25.17. Mimicry! Clusters of Voiceless Stops with [']

l a . [cqp»'pa] lb. [a"pa] lc. ['pa]
2a. [ t f f ' t r f ] 2b. [0"t«5] 2c. ['t0]
3a. [ec"ce] 3b. [ e " c e ] 3c fee]
Ua. [ i k « ' k i ] Ub. [ i « ' k i ] 1+c. [»k£]
RE 2 5 . 1 8 . Discrimination! SAME or DIFFERENT
Each p a i r w i l l be given t w i c e . Don't peek.
1. [*Wj ku] D 1 1 . ['xoe 'xoe ] S
2. ['fu 'fu] s 12. [»Sii 'Su] S
3 . [9i ©i] S 1 3 . [k± 'k±] D
u. [s? *s?] D lU. [ » 9 A 6A] D
5. ['PA 'PA] S 15. [ ' t i ti] D

6. [So So] S 16. [uS' us'] S
7. [X^ x<£] S 17. [oaf oef] S
8. [tii 'tii] D 18. [ax ax'] D
9. [C9 09] S 19. b e ' »e'] s

10. [pee 'pee] D 20. [es es] S
RE 25.19. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! GLOTTAL or NO
Each item w i l l be given twice. Don't peek.
1. ['s<5] GL 7. f e e s ' ] GL 1 3 . [«'pin«S] GL
2 . [po] NO 8. [z,S'] GL Ik. ['kvinu] NO
3 . [t±] NO 9. [ux] NO 1 5 . ['safio] NO
h. [ ' X A ] GL 10. [ o f ' ] GL 16. [»'tear&] GL
5. [fe] NO 11. [as'] GL 1 7 . ["9on±] GL
6. ['ku] GL 12. [og] NO 18. [ " f e w e ] GL

Clusters With ['] 355
RE 25»20r Quiotepec Chinantec. Mimicryi Miscellaneous Nasal

~ Clusters and Tones
Follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic t h e t a p e . You w i l l

hear t h e l i n g u i s t giving the Spanish form before t h e Chinantec
item.
1. [m»M] <I ask f o r ' 7. [fin*] 'snake'
2. [dm] 'sandal' 8. ['"5KM] 'new'
3 . [h»&] 'tick' 9. [*»**] 'underbrush'
k. [nM] ' t h i c k (as a t r e e ) 10. [MnM] 'blood'
5 . ftf>] 'pill' 1 1 . [Mm?] 'tomato'
6 . [»•?] 'cloth' 12. [Mmt^l] 'water'
RE 25.21* Quiotepec Chinantec. Mimicry* Miscellaneous Nasal

Clusters and Tones
Mimic and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Note the r e a r t i c u l a -

ted [m] as w e l l as t h e long ones. Note the meanings, a l s o j
l a . |MmM] 'blood' l b . [MmtM] 'water'
2a. [M^M] 'my blood' 2b. [Mm«M] 'my w a t e r '
3 a . [Mm?nM] 'your ( s g . ) 3 b . [»Mm^nM] 'your ( s g . )

J L A
-—- blood' water'
i+a. [MnM] ' h i s blood' Ub. [Mm-I^Ml ' h i s water"
Chinantec i s spoken i n t h e s t a t e of Oaxaca, Mexico.

Data arri recording were prepared and supplied by Dr. Frank
Robbins of t h e Summer I n s t i t u t e of L i n g u i s t i c s . The recording
i s of the speech of Ramon Garcia.
356 Lesson 25
5a. [Mtaj7] 'our ( i n c l . ) 5b. [MW] 'our ( i n c l . )

blood* ' water'
6a. D%*y>nM] ' o u r ( e x c l . ) 6b. [MS^'n^nM] ' o u r ( e x c l . )
1 ,-T
" blood' ' ,u~ water'
7a. [Mm«m»] »your ( p i . ) ? b . [MjAn?] 'your ( p i . )

-L_L blood' ' l±- water'
RE 25.22* Quiotepec Chinantec. Mimicryt Miscellaneous Nasal
Clusters and Tones
l a . [>M] ' I ask f o r ' l b . (i*irPm] ' I pinch'
2a. [mi"nM] 'you ( s g . ) 2b. ['"Spin] 'you ( s g . ) pinch"

•L-L ask f o r ' *L1.
3a. [DM] 'he asks f o r ' 3b. ["m'ra] 'he pinches'
r^
Ua. [ W ] 'we ( i n c l . ) Ub. ['rn^rf'] 'we ( i n c l . )

A
' ask f o r ' ' pinch'
5a. [•"VîiÂl] 'we ( e x c l . ) 5b. [*jl^3»m] 'we ( e x c l . )
1
' J l _ ask f o r ' ' "— pinch'
6 a . [iJ*i«m0nli] 'you ( p i . ) 6b. [''m»«in'»] 'you ( p i . ) pinch'
• \!_i ask f o r ' V_!_
Use any of the following exercises f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n *

RE 2 5 . 1 , 25.3-25.lU, 25.16-25.19. For reading back t r y 2 5 . 1 ,
2 5 . 3 , 25.U, 25.7, 25.12, 25.13.
357
LESSON TWENTY-FIVE R
Review
Consonants
The inventory of the symbols representing the consonant

sounds so far is to be found in Table 25R.1 (p. 358). You are
responsible for the production of all of these sounds except the
ones in parentheses, which are included for reference only be-
cause they have not been drilled, but have been encountered in
the actual language materials. You are not responsible for
hearing the difference between dental and alveolar stops, na-
sals, and laterals. You should hear this difference in frica-
tives and affricates.
In addition to the consonant symbolization on the chart,

review the affricates which are not included (p. 138), length
(p. 269), syllabic consonants (p. 151), and the material on re-
leased and unreleased consonants, close and open transition,
and consonant clusters, in Lesson 25 (p. 314-5).
TE 25R.1« Matching Consonant Symbols
After you have reviewed Table 25R.1, paying particular

attention to the diacritic marks and the distinctions they rep-
resent, try TE 2£>R.l in the Workbook Supplement (pp. 6l-6u).
This exercise is to help you remember the symbols and their
values.
Vowels
Tables 22.1 and 2I4..I (pp. 309 and 333 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) chart

t h e vowel q u a l i t i e s t o d a t e . Review the vowel symbols and t h e
q u a l i t i e s they r e p r e s e n t . Review also t h e on-glides [w y r ]
and t h e o f f - g l i d e s [w y r H] i n Lesson 12 ( p . 175), length i n
Lesson 18 ( p . 269), and vowel c l u s t e r s i n Lesson 20 ( p . 293).
TE 25R2. Matching Vowel Symbols
The increasing number of vowel symbols now needs a t t e n t i o n

t o make sure t h a t you remember what the i n d i v i d u a l symbols stand
f o r , and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o each other i n the c h a r t . This exer-
c i s e , which works on the same p a t t e r n as TE 25R.1 i s designed t o
help you t o e s t a b l i s h these r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Repeat i t as many
times as necessary. The exercise w i l l be found on pp. 65"68 of
the Workbook Supplement.
358 Lesson
Doub
to
P CO
H
£
cr s
CO H-
P»
3
o
ental
H
STOPS
VI, unaspirated *P
VI, aspirated P A
Voiced % b d
VI. flap
Vd, flap
FRICATIVES
VI. flat P Q
Vd. flat b d
VI. grooved s
A
Vd. grooved z
VI, lateral
Vd, lateral
AFFRICATES1
VI. flat unaspirated pp pf te
A
VI. flat aspirated pp* 1 pf h

te1
A
Vd. flat bfe bv td

VI, grooved unaspirated ts
A A
VI, grooved aspirated w

Vd, grooved
VI, lateral unaspirated
VI, lateral aspirated
Vd, lateral
Review 3$9
1
> > W n *-Q
{O
K e
H-
W 5 S R
*' 'H CL
*"^ S^J Li ZL
CD <D
H P
p CD
PT 1 »1
r- <+
cr
O JO O c+ <
JU a
ai . H H H
M H
&> P H H H - ,.
P
1
£ 8. £
t c t k k k
th ch th k*1 k11 k11
d J d g g g
#
* •
d*
(-c) x x x
g g g
s & S
•
z i 2
*
i>
kx
A A
kx kx
kx11 kx 11 kx 11
gg gg gg
»* •• •
ts 5 ••
1
ts* 6h tSh
•»
dz 5 dz
••
t£
«?»
dl
360 Lesson 25R
o M M o
Q H« fa (D
a1 5> H« ct-
H a* q »
H
® S J,
H 2
3-
H
NASALS
Voiceless M N
r
Voiced m m n
Voiced f l a p
LATERALS2
Voiceless
Vd. high tongue 1"
Vd. low tongue lv

A
Vd. f l a p
TRILLS
Voiceless
Voiced
FLA.PS (cupped tongue)?

Voiceless
Voiced
Table 25R.lt
T'or a f f r i c a t e s with d i f f e r e n t points of a r t i c u l a t i o n on

t h e stop and f r i c a t i v e , see p . 138.
2
Lateral fricatives and affricates are shown under frica-
tives and affricates, respectively.
3
Nasal flaps are shown under nasals, lateral flaps under
laterals, and flat tongue flaps under stops.
Review 361
W a o
s
5
CD
CO
9-
3
p. P-
<i
P>
o
CD
2
£
H
O
o CD p. 4 P.
P5 4 CD
c+
fo
CD
P- £
H
N N
! 9 9
n n ID j] 13
1"
lv
(r)
Consonants t o Date
362 Lesson 2^R
Pitch and Syllables
Don't forget to review pitch in the early lessons if it

gives you any difficulty, and the characteristics of syllables
in Lesson 10 (p. 1^0).
Transcription
a. For any sounds which you have difficulty recognizing,

use the differential drills in the lessons where they were in-
troduced as transcription drills. Check your answers with the
Manual.
b. Transcribe drills containing longer sequences. Redo

some of the "fill in" transcription exercises in the Workbook
Supplement.
In all of your transcription, study your mistakes in com-

parison with the correct form and see the reason for your er-
rors if you can. Keep track of your errors on the Transcrip-
tion Tally form in your Workbook Supplement.
Reading

checking your production against the tape. Work with your
buddy so that you can have some check on your production.
Sammies
Draw Sammies of [| i | 1] using Little Blank Sammies from

the Workbook Supplement. Review the formation of any sounds
of which you are not sure.
363
LESSON TWENTY-SIX
Back Unrounded Vowelsj M o d i f i c a t i o n of Vowel Q u a l i t y
Front Central Back

U. R. U. R. R.
u.
High i u ra u
Lower-high v i V
Mid e t> V o
Lower-mid e 9
Low ffi 08 A
Lower-low a a
Table 26.It Vowels
With the present lesson we complete the inventory of basic

vowel qualities which will be used as reference points for
vowel production in this course. The symbols for the two new
vowels are [in] "inverted m" and [v] "gamma." It may help to
remember [ui] if you notice that [u], beside it, has the shape
of an inverted n. tu. is written by hand in analogous fashion
to H . v is not strictly speaking a Greek gamma, but looks
enough like it so that we call it that for want of a better
term.
RE 26.1. Demonstration! Table 26.1

so. When you are familiar with the material, read off the
vowel chart with the tape. Get the new sounds as best you can
by mimicry.
RE 26.2. Discrimination! SAME or DIFFERENT
Respond orally with SAME or DIFFERENT. Don't peek. Use

this exercise for transcription if you can handle it well
orally.
la. {xmm xum] D 3 a. [xum xmm] D
2a. [xmm xmm] S Ua. [xum xum] S

36U Lesson 26
5a. [xtum xurn] 8a. | kl v 'xum k l v «xum] S

i i
6a. [kl v 'xum kl v 'xmm] D 9a. [ kl v 'xmm kl v 'xum] D

i i
7a. [klv«xmro kl v 'xmm] S 10a. | kl v 'xmm k l " 'xmm] S

i i
l b . [2op Srp] D l c . [sip snip] D
2b. O p 2op] D 2c. [ suip suip] S

3b. [2yp 2op] D 3 c [ sip sip] S
Ub. [2op gop] S Uc | srnp s i p ] D
5b. [fc*p 2vp] S 5c [sip srnp] D

k
6b. [c&'fcop ce'fcvp] D 6c. kpa' srnp pa« s i p ] D
7b. [ce'Svp ce'2vp] S 7c '^pa'sip ^)a'sip] S
8b. [ce'2op ce'2op] S 8c. ( kpa'smp ^>a'smp] S
9b. [ce'2*p cs'Sop] D 9c -k k D

pa'sip pa'smp]
10b. [ce'Svp ce'2op] D 10c [^pa'suip pa'smp] S
I d . [l*ey l A *y] D le. 'gmw gyw] D
2d. [ r v y T-xy] S 2e. [gvw gyw] S
3d. [ r v y roy] D 3e. [grow gyw] D
Ud. [ r a y l A vy] D he. [gyw gyw] S
5d. [l A 9y l A ay] S 5e. [guw gmw] S
6d. [ n e ' l ' v y ne'lA9y] D 6e. 'no'gyw 130«gmw] D
7d. [ n e ' l ' v y neTyy] S 7e. [no'gumr 130 'gKw] D
8d. [ n e ' l ' g y ne'l'gy] S 8e. [lp'gyw no'gimr] D
9d. [ n e ' l A v y fie'Tgy] D 9e. [no'g*w 130'gvw] S
lOd. [ n e ' l ^ a y ne'Tvy] D lOe. [rjo'gmw no'guiw] S

Back Unrounded Vowels 365
RE 26.3. Demonstrationt Producing [m]
You will find it helpful to watch yourself in a mirror as

you practice these steps. Work with your buddy.
a. Begin with a tight high back [u] and unround your lips
to get [m]. Experiment with modifying the position of the back
of your tongue until you can mimic the tape closelyi [dm» dm
dm dm dm].
b. Start with [i] and shift the highest part of the tongue
up and back to get [mj.
c. Start with [g] and lower the tongue slightly so that it

no longer produces a fricative. You should get close to [m].
Practice [gm» gm gta gm gm]»
« . . . .
d. Most speakers of English do not have a high back sound
i n t h e words of t h e sentence we are going t o use, but t h i s i s
about t h e c l o s e s t t h e y come t o i t . P r a c t i c e t h e sentence with
unrounded l i p s and then modify your tongue p o s i t i o n t o match
the t a p e . Avoid g l i d e s . A cool pool i n t h e school.
e» Say what Miss Muffet said when t h e s p i d e r s a t down
beside h e n [*m»]l
f. P r a c t i c e t h e following sequence several t i m e s , e x p e r i -

menting with t h e l a s t item t o get a pronunciation which matches
t h a t of t h e t a p e .
1 . f l e e c e t h e geese ['fli>ys di'gi>ys]
2. fluce t h e goose [ ' f l i w s eli'giws]
3 . f]fflce t h e gmse. ['fins di'gas]
g. Hold your tongue s t i l l and g l i d e your l i p s i n t o g r i n -

pucker-grin, etc* [u»m,unn,u*ra»u»m»], [umwuuiuurumura].
h . Hold your l i p s unrounded and glide your tongue back-

front-back, e t c . [i»m»i»ra»i«ra»i»m»], [indmimimimira].
RE 26.U. Demonstrationt Producing [*]
a. Begin with mid back [o] and unround your l i p s to get

[v] # Experiment with modifying t h e p o s i t i o n of the back of
your tongue u n t i l you can mimic t h e tape c l o s e l y t [d*» dv dv
d* d v ] .
b . S t a r t with [9] and s h i f t t h e highest p a r t of the tongue
366 Lesson 26
up and back t o get [v]#
c . S t a r t with [g] and lower t h e tongue even more than for

[in], t o get close t o * [ v ] . P r a c t i c e [g*» gv gv gv gx] and
[gm* gv» gn» gv» gi« gV»].
• • • • • •
d. S t a r t with [m] and lower t h e tongue s l i g h t l y t o get
[ v ] . P r a c t i c e [mûwnixnrv],
e. P r a c t i c e t h e following sentence with unrounded l i p s
and then modify your tongue p o s i t i o n t o match t h e t a p e . Avoid
g l a d e s . Will t h e show go on t h e road?
f. P r a c t i c e t h e following sequence s e v e r a l t i m e s . Experi-

ment with t h e l a s t item to get a pronunciation which matches
t h a t of t h e t a p e .
1. make t h e cake [ l me v yk di»k*1e»ykr1]
2. moke t h e coke ['mowk di'ôwk* 1 ]
3 . mifke the cvke ['mtk di'k^vk 1 1 ]
g. Hold your tongue s t i l l and glide your l i p s i n t o g r i n -

pucker-grin, e t c i [o»y*o*y»o«v«o»v»], [ovo*o*o*'].
h . Hold your l i p s unrounded and glide your tongue back-

front-back, e t c , [e**»e»Y*e*y»e'w»e»*»], [evevevevex],
RE 2 6 . 5 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ROUNDED or UNROUNDED
Respond o r a l l y t o the t a p e . Don't peek. Use t h i s exer-

1 . [lu] R 5. [l*d] U 9. [slntiz] U
2. [lo] R 6 . [lud] R 10. [slodz] R
3 . [ix] U 7. [lod] R 11. [slrdz] U
U. [Ira] u 8. [hd] U 12. [siudz] R
RE 2 6 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l t ROUNDED, UNROUNDED or MIXED
In t h i s exercise you w i l l hear t h r e e vowels i n each u t -

t e r a n c e . Sometimes a l l of them w i l l be unrounded, sometimes
a l l w i l l be rounded, and sometimes they w i l l be mixed. Respond
accordingly. Don't peek. Use t h i s exercise f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n
afterwards.
1. [ ' u ' o ' o ] R 5 . ["»D'o'nt] M 9. [ ' o ' u ' v ] M
2. ['B»»%] U 6 . ['K'UI'V] U 10. ['O'o'ii] R
3 . ['v'n'm] u 7 . ['v'uCv] U 11. ['o'ni'ir] U
In t ' m ' u ' o ] M 8. ['oPu'o] R 12. [ ' o ' o ' o ] R
RE 26.7. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! GLIDED or NO
1 . [ktnw] GL 5. [pâ'xvz] NO 9. [se'qxf] NO

* *
6 . [pâtx-KHz] GL
2. [low] GL 10. [Se'ijnrf] GL
7. [p h a«x*yz] GL
3 . [kmH] GL 11. [se'guf] NO
8 . [p h a«x*rz] GL
U. [ k v m ] NO 12. [Se'rjYts] NO
RE 26.8. Mimicry! [m v ±]
Mimic the tape and follow the transcription. When you

can mimic well, try transcribing the exercise.
l a . [sni»] lb. [ s v ] l c . [ si»]

2a. [sm»t] 2b. [s*»t] 2c. [ s i » t ]
3a. [svrai't] 3 b . [swv»t] 3c 'sW±«t]
Ua. [snm»t] Ub. [ s n v t ] Uc. " s n i ' t ]
5a. [ s k ^ V t ] 5b. [ s k V t ] 5c [ s k ^ t ]
6a. [ k V t ] 6b. [ A s t ] 6 c . [kîst]
7a. [yo'k^mst] 7b. [ y o ' k N s t ] 7c "yo'k^st]

8a. [ z e ' p uistj 8b. [ z e ' p ^ r s t ] 8c. ; z e « p h i s t ]
9a. [ze'puiTk 11 ] 9b. [ze'pvrk* 1 ] 9c Ize'pirk*1]
10a. [bu'pntL'k11] 10b. [bu'pvl-k 11 ] 10c. bu'pil'k11]
RE 26 . 9 . Negative P r a c t i c e i "This i s the House theit Jack Built"

Substitute the vowels as indicated in the lists below.
The verse begins on p. 205 if you need to refer to it.
368 L e s s o n 26
a b c d
House [hois] [hvs] [his] [hss]
Malt [malAt] [m*lAt] [mirt] [m9l*t]
Rat [rait] [rvb] [rit] [r9t]
Cat [A*] [khXt] [khit] [kh8t]
Dog [dug] [d*g] [dig] [dag]
Cow [k\w] [kNw] D&sr] [kV]

Maiden [mradn] [m»dn] [rnidn] [iredn]
Man [nam] [mwi] [rain] [men]
Priest [p^rrast] [F^rxst] [purist] [p^rsst]
Cock [k^nk] [kNk] [k^k] [k^k]
Farmer [fuunr] [f*rnr] [fimr] [famr]
RE 26.10. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Tongue Height

LOWER-LOW. When you can do t h i s w e l l , use the e x e r c i s e f o r
t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Don't peek.
1. [3m»] H 6. [te*»n] M 11. [ripf] L-H
2 . [ie«] L-M 7. [boe»n] L 12. [rtfpf] M
3 . [1±«] L-H 8. [WS.q] M 13. [ftnpf] H
U. [1/v] L 9. [bi»n] H Hi. [*Apf] L
5. [I*-] M 10. [bm»r)] H 15. [rvpf] M
RE 26.11. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! FRONT, CENTRAL, or BACK
1. [Mmu»] F 5. [kxi»e] C 9. [sm»t&] B
2 . [Mn©«] C 6 . [kxce«e] F 10. [s*»t£] B
3 . [Mmv] B 7. [kx»»e] B 1 1 . [si>t£] F
h. [Mmm»] B ' 8. [kxa«e] C 12. [s<5«t&] F

RE 26,12, Differential! ROUNDED or UNROUNDED
1. !>•] u 5. [da*'] u 9. [ggtf'i] R

••
2. [J0-] R 6. [dm*'] u 10. [ggi«£] U
••
3. [ # • ] R 7. [doe*'] R 11. [gge-fc] U
U. [ # • ] U 8. [diM] R 12. [ggD'i]

• •
u
RE 26.13. Diff( s r e n t i a l * F u l l L a b e l s
Give the f u l l l a b e l f o r each of the vowels you h e a r .
1. [V*] MBU 1 1 . [zwa«kl v ] L-L G U

2. [V-] L CU 1 2 . [zw±«kl v ] L-H C U
3. [ k p u » ] H F R 13. [zwi»klv] HFU
lw [*!*>•] L-L B U l U . [zwe»kl v ] LilFD
5. [kp8»] L-M C U 1 5 . [sui»5] H BU

6. ft**] MF R 16. [SB»8] L-L B U
7. [ k Piu«] H BU 17. [ga»8] L-L F U
8. [zwD»kl v ] L-L B U 18. [soe • £ ] L F R
9. [ z w o e « k l v ] L F R 19. [S9»5] L-M C U
10. [zwo»klv] L BR 20. [su«5] HFE
RE 26.1)4.. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! Vowel Symbols
Give the name of the symbol with which the vowel i s t r a n s -

cribed, or w r i t e t h e vowel.
1 . [t*V»] GAMMA. 7. [dzoe »v] o DIGRAPH
2. [ t ^ i * ] u UMIAUT 8. [dzi«v] BARRED i
3 . [t h A»] CARET 9 . [dgffl'v] a DIGRAPH
lu [t^v ] INVERTED a 10. [ d z ^ v ] SCRIPT a
5. [tht» ] INVERTED m 1 1 . [dze«v] EPSILON
6 . [-fch«5-] CROSSED o 12. [dzo«v] BACKWARDS c

370 Lesson 26
RE 26.15. Negative Practice! "Ten Little Indians"
Practice back rounded, back unrounded, and central un-

rounded columns of the vowel chart as demonstrated on the tape.
Then continue with nasalized and oral vowels.
a. [*u] little, [in] little, ['»] little Indians,
['o] little, [*r] little, [*o] little Indians,
[*D] little, [*A] little, [»e] little Indians,
['£] little Indian boys.
b. f i ] little, [»i] little, [»i] little Indians,
[9v] little, [»&] little, [*£.] little Indians,
[*e] little, [»e] little, [*e] little Indians,
[*e] little Indian boys.
c. Continue around the whole vowel chart in this manner.
d. Reverse the sequence in b as follows*
[»i] little, [»i] little, [»i] little Indians,
[»t] little, [»t] little, [">v] little Indians,
[»e] little, [»e] little, ['e] little Indians,
[*e] little Indian boys.
e. Continue with the remainder of the chart.
Modification of Vowel Quality
We have been treating the vowels such as those represen-

ted on the vowel chart of Table 26.1 pretty much as though they
were fixed norms which could be established with exactness.
It must be pointed out now that any such treatment is at best
a convenient fiction. Every difference in vowel sound is
phonetically a different vowel, and it is virtually impossible
to repeat the same vowel sound identically twice in a row so
that an experienced phonetician cannot hear a difference.
Furthermore, there is no absolute reason why the vowels which
we have chosen for our norms should have been selected rather
than others slightly differently placed in the mouth. There
is nothing more basic about these than any of the thousands of
Modification of Vowel Quality 371
other distinguishable vowel qualities.
However, for pedagogic convenience we have chosen the

vowels represented in Table 26.1 as our approximate norms. We
try to produce as close a consistency of articulation and hear-
ing on them as we can, realizing that individual differences
between speakers and within the production of any one speaker
cannot be entirely eliminated. These areas are our reference
points.
As we meet sounds in languages, however, they rarely hit

our reference norms exactly. They may have allophones some of
which are slightly higher, some slightly lower, some morefront
and some more back than the general norms we have tried to
establish. Phonetic flexibility involves the ability to ad-
just articulation to reproduce any such variations.
To represent such variations we will not add new symbols,

but use arrow heads to show the relationship of the sounds to
the norms. These diacritics may be used with any vowel symbol.
For example, [e*] is slightly higher than [e], [vv] is slightly
lower than [u], [a>] is slightly more back than [a], and [£<•]
is slightly more forward than [£]. Note also that a combina-
tion like [07] indicates a vowel slightly higher and more for-
ward than [0].
In addition to these indications of variation in tongue

positions [^] means slightly more rounded than [&], and [u]
slightly less rounded than [u], etc.
We will not ask you to use such symbols as these for trans-
cribing in this course. They are suggested as an aid in actual
language analysis and study. We will, however, practice making
articulatory modifications from the vowel reference points with
which we are working.
RE 26.16. Demonstration! Bracketing Vowels
In this exercise we will work on developing flexibility in

vowels varying slightly from our norms by the "bracketing tech-
nique." To do this we pronounce two vowels, the first one
being one which lies in the direction in which we want to mod-
ify our vowel, and the second the vowel we want to modify. We
follow this with the modified position. Follow the transcrip-
tion and mimic the tape.
1. [»n[» *i» '!>•] 3. [»£• *o» *o<»] 5. [*»• 'a* *a>«]

372 Lesson 26
7. [»u> "»«!• '/6*»] 9. [*0» *o» *o-»] 1 1 . [*i» *u» *^»]
8. [ ' e ' *ae» ' e A » ] 10. [ 9 e» °e« »e*»] 12. [ * « • "*m* »»•]
RE 26.17. Reviewi Nasalized and Oral Vowels
Mimic the tape on these nasalized and o r a l vowels and

follow along i n t h e Manual. Be e s p e c i a l l y careful not t o make
extra tenseness or l a r y n g e a l i z a t i o n s u b s t i t u t e f o r a strong
difference of n a s a l i z a t i o n , and be careful t o have c l e a r o r a l
vowels when r e q u i r e d . Hold your fingers a t your n o s t r i l s t o
help you d e t e c t o r a l and nazalized vowels.
l a . [ti»] lb. [ti»] 1 c . [ni»] Id. [ni»]
2a. [pu»] 2b. [pu»] 2 c . [mu»] 2d. [mu»]
3 a . [ose»] 3 b . [cm»] 3 c . [rce»] 3d. [nee*]
Ua. [k*»] Ub. [k>r»] h e . [n«r»] Ud. [nx»]
5a. [km*] 5b. [km«] 5c. [nip] 5d. [nm»]
6a. [ t i » n ] 6b. [ t i « k ] 6 c . [ni»k] 6d. [ni»n]
7a. [pu«n] 7b. [pu»k] 7c. [mu»k] 7d. [mu»n]
8a. [cae»n] 8b. [cs»k] 8c. [nae»k] 8d. [nse»n]
9a. [k*«n] 9b. [ k y k ] 9 c [n»»k] 9d. [ n f n ]
10a. [km»n] 10b. [kui»k] 10c. [nn^k] lOd. [nm»n]
RE 26.18. Reviewi Vowel Clusters and Glide Clusters
Mimic t h e tape and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
1. [l'ow'sewra] 8. [nmH'swAir]
2 . [l A ou«seom] 9. [nuiH'suiAir]
3 . [l'ow'sevm] 10. [fwyew'xaesy]
k» [l A rm'sevm] H. [fwisw'xuisei]
5. [nuH'swAyr] 12. [fwiera'xmaey]
6 . [nuA'swAyr] 13. [ehfa'lVow]
7. [nmH'swAyr] lU. [droTVoui]

RE 2O.19I Vietnamese. Transcription* Stress and Juncture
The following sentences from Vietnamese consist of thirty-

nine different combinations of the same five words. Each of
these variations has its own meaning. However, as you listen
to the recording you will notice that juncture, stress, and
intonation also change along with the word order.
For this exercise use pp. 69~7U of your Workbook Supple-

ment, and do not refer to the text below until you have done
the transcription. The Supplement does not have the juncture
or stress transcribed for you. fasten to the tape recording
as many times as you need to, and mark the primary stresses in
the Supplement whenever you hear them.
Then listen for open juncture. This will not occur in

every sentence. Indicate it by drawing a vertical line |
where you hear it.
When you are satisfied with your transcription of stress

and juncture check your transcription against the transcription
below. Blanks for a second try are also given you so that you
can try this exercise again another time. (Juncture is repre-
sented below by space in our usual fashion, see pp. l58-l5°.)
1 . ['sa»wnol< ^•wxAQm'd*e>n] 'Why does he say that he won't

come?'
2 . [Sa»wj' ba/wnoxA1]m' a*e>n] 'Why do you say that he won't

come?'
3. [Sa«wxAI3m]'ba.»wno'd*e>n] 'Why haven't you told him to

come?'
U. [Sa»-.7XAI3m,'d"e>n 'ba^wno] 'Why d i d n ' t you come t o t e l l

him?'
5. ['Sa'wnoxA^m'ba , wde> n] 'Why d i d n ' t he t e l l you t o come?'
6. [ ' s a « w dVni'ba'wnoxffim] ' W e l l , d i d somebody come t o tell

« i — /
him?"
7. [' §a«w ba'wiio 1 d*e>nxA^m] ' W e l l , have you t o l d him t o com

come?'
"The examples are t a k e n from L e - v a n - L y , Le P a r l e r V i e t -

namien, pp. 2 3 ^ - 2 3 5 . The r e c o r d i n g i s b y Nguyen-van-Van.
Lesson 26
n o ' d V n Sa»rcc5?3in;*Da?*n 'He came. Why h a v e n ' t you t o l d

him?'
no'de>n x/Lnm,!B$x«£3a»w] •He i s coming, but he i s not
saying anything.'
nodVn^B^*w xflSTmTSct*Ws] 'He j u s t said t h a t i t d o e s n ' t
make any d i f f e r e n c e . '
no|fba*w §aJ55533mrdAe»n] 'He s a i d , "Why not come?"'
nod!e>nj«6o>w Sa*wxAnm] 'He came t o say, "Why n o t ? " '
not«ba»w «d?e>nxi$mTi§OJ«w] •He s a i d , "If you come, i t

doesn't matter."'
noj'ba^w 35fflm'cfe>n2a.»w] 'He s a i d , "Aren't you coming?"'
noxAnm'ba»w £>a.«w'd"e>n] 'He d i d n ' t say, so why come?'
nox2KrmJ>a*w'de>ns'a»w] ' D i d n ' t he say t o come?'
nox&) mtfe > n|t Scows'a»w] ' D i d n ' t he come to t e l l you?'
' ba»wnos CWXAS m' d"e >n] ' T e l l him why he d i d n ' t come.'
»ba»wno ' de> nxftSm' £a»w] ' T e l l him, "If he comes i t

doesn't matter."'
'^•wf§a»wnoxA1Dm'de>n] ' T e l l why he d i d n ' t come.1
bpc^wno'dVn Sa?w"'x38m] ' T e l l him t o come. Why n o t ? '
'ba^wnoxA?3'm'6fe>nSa5w] 'You say t h a t he i s not coming?'
ba'w'xvfl'm Sa»wno'cfe'»n] 'Somebody s a i d , "No, why did he

come?"'
a»w no'aTe>nxArm] 'What aire you saying? I s he

coining? '
25. [ X X ^ D O / W s'a»wno'd"'e>n] 'Nobody t o l d him why he had
L
- ° come.'
26. [5cA^mê>n;'8o^wnol'a5w] ' D i d n ' t you come t o t e l l him?'
27. [XAWSO^W, '6a^wno'cte>n] •It doesn't make any difference.

Tell him to come.'
/ — 1 *
28. [XAQID!'£a»wno' cfe* nSa.w] •Haven't you told him to come?'
29. [xAOm'dVn §a^w«no ga?w] •They aren't coming. What does

one tell him?'
30. [xArm'd"e>n no >'DOUBTS'a»w] 'They a r e n ' t coming. What does

he say?'
3 1 . [*c(e>n fta,wnoxAiJm'"s'a»w] 'Go and t e l l him t h a t i t d o e s n ' t

make any d i f f e r e n c e . '
32. ['dVrixJfflm •^•imo's'oFw] 'Are they coming? What are we

going t o t e l l him?'
33* ['d"e>nxAS)m no'tjoAfs'a'w] •Are they coming? What does

he say?'
3k. ['cfe>n Sa'TtxA^rd'tjcinmo] ' l o u are coming. Why d i d n ' t
you t e l l him?'
35. [ld*e>nBo^wno« Sa'WXAQm] •Go and say t o him, "Why n o t ? " '
36. ['cTe>n Sa^wnoxA^n}'Sp^w] 'You are coming. Why h a s n ' t he

said so?'
37. [ ' d V n nobp^wxA'Jm'§a«w ] 'Cornel He says i t d o e s n ' t make
any d i f f e r e n c e . '
3 8 . ['cfe>n ndxTKIl'So-^wSaTw] 'They are coming, and he d o e s n ' t

say anything'
39. ['dVn s'aT^'I^TOo'fxSlm] 'You are coming. Why have you

t o l d him you are n o t ? '
376 Lesson 26
EE 26.20t Vietnamese. Differential* Intonation
Go through the tape recording of the previous exercise

again, this time listening for the pitch on the last syllable
of each sentence. Draw the pitch contour of this syllable on
the blank sentences of the Workbook Supplement. Pay particu-
lar attention to cases where the same syllable comes out with
different pitches. This is due to intonation (question vs.
statement, etc.). Listen repeatedly until you feel that you
have transcribed the pitch of the last syllable correctly in
each case, and then check your transcription with the text
above.
RE 26.21g Vietnamese. Mimicry
Now mimic the Vietnamese sentences of RE 26.19. Follow

the transcription in the Manual as you do so. Pay particular
attention to the stress, rhythm, juncture, and pitch. Mimic
until you can do it fluently and easily. Work with your buddy.
Use RE 26.2, Z6.5~26.lk, 26.17~26.l8.
Suggested Reading
At t h i s point i n t h e course i t would be h e l p f u l t o read

through some of t h e following m a t e r i a l s , skipping any p a r t s
which you have already s t u d i e d .
Eugene A. Nida, Learning a Foreign Language, pp. 86-li+O.
H. A. Gleason, An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o D e s c r i p t i v e L i n g u i s t i c s ,
pp. 158-26$ (1955 e d i t i o n ] , or pp. 239~372 (1961 e d i t i o n ) .
Charles F . Hockett, A Course i n Modern L i n g u i s t i c s ,

pp. 62-119.
Charles F . Hockett, Manual of Phonology, pp. 23~U2.
I n t h i s reading you may f i n d an occasional d i f f e r e n c e i n

t h e symbolization of sounds. Note p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e following
equivalences i n t h e vowels.
Nida's LAFL
This Manual (and o t h e r s ) Other
u u y
<> o
Nida's LA.FL
This Manual (and others)
OS S
m ••
1
t e
A ^^7-
Consultant
U)E H I R 6 P HER TO TEACH P o U B L E STOPS!

378
•LESSON TWENTY-SEVEN
Implosivesj Fortis and Lenis Articulation
Velar
Alveopalatal
Dental/
Bilabial
Double
Alveolar
STOPS
Lung air
VI. unaspirated k t c k
P P
VI. aspirated * # ch k*
Voiced Sb b d i g
Ingressive pharynx air
Voiceless H £ i € k
gD b d
Voiced $ g"
FRICATIVES1
Lung air
Voiceless P s s X
Voiced b z i. g
Ingressive pharynx air

Voiceless <*> (*) (•") (*)
Voiced (*) (S) (8) (*)
Table 27.1* Some Implosives
In t h i s lesson we introduce an entirely new feature of
articulation. This time, however, i t does not relate to the
relative positions of the organs in the mouth, but t o a move-
ment which produces an entirely different a i r stream from what
we have had up to now.
Only a sampling i s given of the fricatives. Ingressive

pharynx a i r fricatives w i l l not be drilled in this course. Af-
fricates may also be articulated with ingressive pharynx a i r .
Implosivesj Fortis and Lenis Articulation 379
In Sammy 27.1 the dotted arrow shows us the air stream
on all sounds which we have practiced up to the present. This
air stream originates in the lungs, through movement of the
muscles in the chest and abdomen, and moves outward through
the mouth, nose, or both. It may be stopped momentarily, im-
peded, or made to pass through air cavities of different shapes,
but it is always an air stream -which originates in the lungs
and moves outward. It is egressive lung air. The majority of
sounds in all languages are made with egressive lung air.
Sammy 27.It Showing Egres- Sammy 27.2i Showing Ingres-

sive Lung Air sive Lung Air
But although egressive lung air sounds are by far the

most common, Sammies 27.3 and 27.h picture another source of
air stream which occurs in languages scattered all over the
world. It seems to be most common in Africa, with important
occurrences in Asia, the Pacific, and in American Indian lan-
guages. To give two notable examples, it occurs frequently in
such national Languages as Thai and Vietnamese, and can in no
sence be considered marginal or uncommon.
Tingressive lung air (talking while you breathe in) is

perfectly possible, but very rare in languages. Hockett's
Manual of Phonology mentions one language, Maidu, where two
consonants regularly have ingressive lung air (p. 26). We do
not drill it in this course.
380 Lesson 27
The air stream for ingressive pharynx air sounds does not
originate in the lungs, and it does not go out through the
mouth and nose, but comes in. Ingressive pharynx air is pro-
duced by closing, or nearly closing, the vocal cords, and pull-
ing the larynx downward while some articulation such as a stop
is being made in the mouth, as in Sammy 27.3. This creates a
partial vacuum in the air cavities (including the pharynx).
When the articulation in the mouth is released, air comes in
through the mouth to fill the partial vacuum, as shown in
Sammy 27.U. The movement of an ingressive pharynx air sound is
very rapid, and they occur in normal stream of speech surround-
ed by egressive lung air sounds without the slightest hesita-
tion or awkwardness.
Sammy 27.3* Larynx Movement Sammy 27.Ut Ingressive Air

to Create Partial Vacuum Stream After Labial Articu-
for [p] lation is Released
If you will examine Table 27.1 you will see that we have
listed a sampling of ingressive pharynx air stops and frica-
tives. The fricatives are more rare and will not be drilled
in this course, although some of them will be used in the dem-
onstrations to help you develop a feel for the proper larynx
movement. The stops are often called implosives because of
the ingressive air stream.
For symbols we use the usual ones for various articula-

tions, modified by a hook which begins at the northwest corner
of the symbol when there is such a corner, and at the northeast
corner if there is a more convenient point of attachment there.

From the standpoint of symbolization there is therefore only
one new feature to learn (the hook), representing the one new
feature of articulation.
One more point concerning implosives needs to be made. It

has to do with voicing. Voicing, you remember, is an air move-
ment through the vocal cords, such that a characteristic rumble
is created (pp. UU-U5). This involves the use of lung air.
Voiced implosives, therefore, require two air streams. The
primary air stream is ingressive pharynx air, created by the
downward movement of the larynx. The secondary air stream is
lung air allowed to leak up through the moving larynx into the
pharynx. As the larynx moves down it is not quite closed,
leaving enough aperture to create voicing. It moves downward,
creating a partial vacuum in the pharynx. This vacuum is filled
primarily by the air coming in through the mouth, but second-
arily by air coming in from the lungs. Voiced and voiceless
implosives are shown in Sammies 27.5 and 27.6 with their re-
spective air streams.
Sammy 27.5i [£] Just Re- Sammy 27.6* [g~] Just Re-
leased. Note the single leased. Note the two air
air stream. streams going into the
pharynx.
Production and Recognition of Implosives
In spite of the long explanation above, implosives are

382 Lesson 27
not difficult to learn to make. Most people succeed on the
first try, and others find that the combination "clicks" in a
few days.
EE 27.1. Demonstratiom Production of Implosives
Mimic the tape and follow in the Manual.
a. Some people make a [g*] when they imitate a frog croak-
ing. Try it in mimicry of the tape* [g*x g"» g"» g» £*].
b. Some people use [k] to imitate water pouring from a
bottle* [k k £ £ £].
c. If you can do either of the preceding articulations,

put the implosive with a variety of vowels.
1. [g"a g~a ga ga g~a] 5. [ka £a £a £a £a]
2. [g\i g*u g"u gu gu] 6. [ku ku ku £u ku]
3. [|e £e g*e £t it] 7. [£e £e £e £e £e]
U. l$fi £fi it £* it] 8. [ft* k* £* £* £*]
d. Try to produce additional implosives by analogy.
1. [g"a ba £a 6a g"a 6a] 3. [£a p\x £a fa, ka £a]
2. [g~a da £a da ga da] k, [£a -fia £a £a £a £a]
Do the same with other vowels as well.
e. Try another approach to implosives. Do this in front
of a mirror and watch the movement of your larynx up and down,
or keep your fingers on it to feel the movement.
Say [a*] with ingressive lung air. That is, suck it
into the lungs as you say it.
Close the lips and keep on trying to suck in the [a»].
This may lead you to drawing down the larynx and producing [£].
f. Many people actually produce implosives when they are
trying to get strong voicing on a stop. Without releasing the
bilabial articulation, try voicing and lowering the larynx at
the same time. Do the same in alveolar and velar positions.
Feel the movement of the larynx.
g. If you can make implosives, and if double stops are
not too difficult for you, you should have no trouble with
[6b *p]. Try these sequences.
1. [ga ba Sba g"a 6a Soa] 2. [ka pa *pa lea £>a *£a]
h. In producing voiceless implosives you may find that

you have a little difficulty with coordination between the re-
lease of the implosive and the onset of the vowel which follows.
Because the implosive involves the closure of the vocal cords
there is a danger of holding the [*>] too long, so that it is
an additional segment between the implosive and the vowel.
Listen to the tape as it demonstrates good transition and poor
transition on the following sequences. Practice to produce
the good transition.
Good Transition Poor Transition
la, [ka] lb. [k'a]
2 a. [ia] 2b. [fro]

3a > [f»] 3b. [p'o]
RE 27 . 2 . Disc riminatioiu SAME or DIFFERENT
la. [Sz, bz, ] D lb. [ £e te] D

k k T
2a. [de cfe ] D 2b. i S
3 a . [ g bu g
bu] S 3b. [ ^ o k
Po] D
Ua. [&bo ^>")] D Ub. [ km km] S
5a. [g% g*m] S Sb. ;t» tv] S
6a. [i^vcfv "vdV] J

S 6b. [ »')6tu • *»&£] D
4
7a. [«»*& ftfdu] D 7b. [ • ' 0 3 pm "oepw] S
8a. ["oefera "oefim] S 8b. ["nfy* t'D^y] D
9a. [t'Kjgfcr "x^br] D 9b. '•"mko "aikra] S
10a. ["BgtD •''ingo] S 10b. ;«'^ku "j6ku] D
11a. [»g~tfzu •grfzii] D lib. i'fttZTI •pizn] D
12a. [ ' b i r o •bizn] D 12b. 'tvzir »£vzr] D
13a. ['ofl7Z* •dvzr] D 13b. [•êza • k peza] D

381; Lesson 27
RE 2 7 . 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! IMPLOSIVE or NO
li [*H I 5. [n«do»] NO 9. [ycenA'ko] I
2 . [£a«] I 6. [n'go«] NO 10. [yoenA'to] NO
3. [ca«] NO 7. [ntSbo.] I 1 1 . [yoenA ,k po] NO

i
U. [Sa»] I 8. [m>po«] I 12. [yosnA'bo] I
RE 27.U. Differential! LUNG or PHARYNX
In this exercise you will not be distinguishing anything

different from what you were doing in the preceding exercise,
but it gives you a chance to approach it from a different level
of terminology.
1. [dli] L 5. [ s c e ' k p e ] L 9. [wiEi'pae] P
2. [bu] P 6. [soe» g bs] P 10. [wi2i ,g D6e] P
3. [fai] P 7. [soe'je] L 11. [wiSi'bse] L
U. [pil] L 8. [ s o e ' t e ] P 12. [wi2i'g"ffi] P
RE 27.5. Differential! VOICED or VOICELESS
1. [&] VD 5. [iz.'£i] VD 9 . [sop A»ku] VL
2. [f>fi] VL 6. [ I ^ S f e ] VD 10. [sop A'fu] VD
3. [<&>] VD 7. [lt-'cSi] VL 1 1 . [sop h A»ju] VD
U . [ k p/6] VL 8. [!&»&] VD 12. [SOP A»£u] VL
RE 27.6. Negative Practicet Implosives
Practice the following English sentences, or others like

them, substituting the implosives indicated. Mimic the tape
and follow the transcription.
1. 6ig Bad Boy U. peck of pickled p'ep'pers
2. g"ooey g*reen g"rapes 5. katheryn kissed her kousin
3. cfoes dfottie d"ream 6. -£ake tommy to the train
RE 27.7. Mimicry* Implosives
Mimic the tape, following the transcription as you do so.

Implosivesf Fortis and Lenis Articulation 385
l a . [6u] lb. [ub] lc. [bub] Id. [bufiuB]
2 a . [Se] 2b. [eb] 2c. [befi] 2d. [BeBeb]
3 a . [do] 3b. [ocf] 3 c . [cGxf] 3d. [dbdbcf]
Ua. [d"t ] Ub. têf] lie. [dlrf] Ud. [d*lcfz,cP]
5a. [it] 5b. [i|] 5 c [&£l 5d. [ & & g ]
6a. [g"ce] 6b. [**] 6c. [£«£] 6 d . [g*oe gas £]
7a. [fe] 7b. [a*] 7c [feft 7 d . [$&$&§]
8 a . [£i>] 8b. [vp] 8c. [frtf] 8 d . [pv£pf>]
9a. [£e] 9b. [si] 9c [£<>•£] 9d. [£ets€]
1 0 a . [£o] 10b. [o£] 10c. [£o£] lOd. [•£o£o£]
1 1 a . [id.] lib. [ife] lie. [fiifi] lid. [kikilc]
1 2 a . [k<5] 12b. [ok] 12c. [fiafc] 1 2 d . [kokok]
EE 2 7 . 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! GLOTTAL o r IMPLOSIVE
When an implosive is articulated in strong, exaggerated

fashion such as we have been demonstrating here for learning
purposes, it does not sound much like clusters of ['] plus
voiced or voiceless stops practiced in Lesson 25 (pp. 3U9~35U).
In many languages, however, implosives are not so strongly ar-
ticulated as this, and the acoustic difference between them and
clusters with glottal stop becomes small. This is not diffi-
cult to understand because glottal closure is involved in either
case. In this exercise decide whether you hear a cluster of
[*] plus stop or an implosive, and respond with GLOTTAL or IM-
PLOSIVE. Don't peek.
1. [ & ] I 6. [»te] G 1 1 . [du] I
2. [»gA] G 7. [£e] I 12. [ka] I
3. ['pi] G 8 . [*du] G 12. [rffc] I
U. [ $ • ] i 9 . [*k6] G lU. ['poe] G
5. [<&] I 10. ['JOB] G 15. ['tee] G

386 Lesson 27
RE 2 7 . 9 . Mimicryt Implosives and Clusters with [*]
l a . [6a] l b . O'Sa] l c . [*ba] I d . [v"> «ba]
2a. [<&] 2b. [e'd/6] 2c. [*dj«] 2d. [e"d/6]
3 a . [Ja] 3b. [o'js] 3 c . [»jo] 3d. [ o " j e ]
Ua. [g%] Ub. [ i ' g i ] lie. [»gi] l«i. [ i " g 4 ]
5a. [ 6 A ] 5b. [U«6A] 5 C ['PA] 5d. [u"pA]
6a. [•£«] 6 b . [«S'£i;] 6c. [He] 6d. [/6*>«tv]
7a. [c*e] 7b. [i'tfe] 7 c [»oe] 7d. [i»«ce]
8a. [iav] 8b. [O«£A] 8 C . ['kA] 8d. [o"kA]
RE 27.lOt Kaka. Mimicryt Implosives
1. [fco]_ '3rd plural' 5 . [Jo] 'village'
2. [So] 'rot' 6 . [d\g 'jump'
3 . [be-] ' h o l e ' 7. [joj 'ton'
U. [Jeg 'eat' 8. [fba] 'palm n u t '
RE 27.11/ Kaka. Mimicryt [fc]
1. [b"oSo] 'bedbug' 6 . [feando"] 'bind'
2. [boso v ] ' g e t wet' 7 . [6akije] 'keep 1
3 . [6okws] 'joke' 8. [benov] 'refuse'
U. [6smbe] 'manner' 9 . [fiembe] 'center'
5. [finlDUse^] '•butterfly' 10. [bqfio ] 'compress'

Implosivesj F o r t i s and Lenis A r t i c u l a t i o n 387
H . [fiendo] 'surround- lU. [bute*] 'open'

ings' '
12. [b^gs> ] 'plow 1 15. [ t u s e v ] 'cover'
13. [Se-!titev|ri] 'domestic 16. [ b i f i k i j 'perspiration'

animals'
RE 27.12t Kaka. Mimjcryt [d" J]
1. [cTukwe] 'tear' 5. [Ja] •village'
2 . [dakwe] ' c o r d for hang- 6 . [doj 'jump'

ing'
3 . [dovkwe] 'become b i g ' 7. [cfete] 'like that'
h. [ d i t e ] 'fire'
RE 27.13» Kaka. Mimicryi [ J dl
1. [jbn!go*r] 'brain' 7. [je*mbo"] 'sing'
2 . [jamî] 'war' 8. [je v mbije*] 'believe'
3 . [Jan] 'garbage' 9. [ J o n g w e ^ ] 'chamelion'
h» [$&] 'eat' 10. [d*ovkwev] 'become b i g '
5. [ 3 i b i > ] ' p r o t e c t ' 1 1 . [d"akwev] 'cord f o r

~"^- hanging'
6 . [d*ibV] 'close' 12. [jq] 'village'
F o r t i s and Lenis A r t i c u l a t i o n
A l i t t l e experimentation i n your own speech t r a c t w i l l be

enough t o show you t h a t speech a r t i c u l a t i o n s may be made with
388 Lesson 27
tense, tight muscle movements (which we will call fortis), or
lax, light muscle movements (which we will call lenis). lou
can, for example, pronounce the English word pie in such a way
as to barely touch the lips together for the initial stop.
This light articulation gives you a lenis [p/1]. However, you
can also say the same word beginning with a stop in which the
lips are tightly and deliberately pressed together with tense
muscle tone. In that case the word begins with fortis [p*1].
In English /b d g/ tend to be lenis, as opposed to /p t k/

which tend to be fortis. You will remember that in Lessons
5 and 7 (pp. 79ff• and lllff.) when voiced stops were being
introduced, it was pointed out that many speakers of English
do not regularly voice /b d g/, but normally have voiceless
unaspirated stops for these phonemes, at least in many posi-
tions. This statement remains true but we can now add as well
that these English voiceless unaspirated stops are lenis, which
helps to keep them separate from /p t k/.
The tenseness of articulation, therefore, is another va-

riable in languages. Usually, relatively fortis or lenis qual-
ity is one factor along with many which go to make up the fea-
tures by which one phoneme is distinguished from another. In
some languages the contrast between fortis and lenis is the
principal distinguishing feature of a set of phonemes. Korean,
for example, has fortis consonants / p t c k s/ and lenis con-
sonants /p t c k s/ as well as the aspirated* set /p*1 ^ c*1 k^/.
The lenis set may be slightly aspirated (but not as much as'the.
aspirated set) and has voiced allophones between voiced sounds.
In this course we will not pay any further attention to

the distinction between fortis and lenis other than what is in-
cluded in this lesson.
RE 27.1b. Differentials FORTIS or LENIS
This exercise will give you an opportunity to hear a dis-

tinction between fortis and lenis articulation of stops. As
with many other features of articulation, it is not possible
to eliminate every other variable like length. The fortis ar-
ticulations may tend to be longer, but we will try to keep
them constant.
1. [pa] L 3. [ca] L 5. [ta] F

t * *
2. [pa] F U. [ka] L 6. [ta] L
» » i
'C. H. Park, An Intensive Course in Korean, Book I

Implosivesj F o r t i s and Lenis A r t i c u l a t i o n 389
7. [uku] F 1 1 . [upu] L 15. f o e ] F
8. [ucu] F 12. [upu] F 16. f o p ] L
9. [ucu] L 13. [ ' o t ] L 17. [ ' o t ] F
10. [uku] L lit. ['ok] F 18. ['ok] F
RE 27.15* Red Bobo. Transcription* Length and Tone
Use pp. 75~80 of your Workbook Supplement for t h i s exer-

c i s e . Without looking a t t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n below, l i s t e n t o
the t a p e as many times a s necessary, and draw i n the pitch con-
t o u r wherever i t i s not i n d i c a t e d i n the Workbook. Then go
through the m a t e r i a l again, i n s e r t i n g [• ' ~J whenever
you hear i t . Use t h e " F i r s t Try" column on these repeated
l i s t e n i n g s u n t i l you a r e s a t i s f i e d with your t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
Use t h e "Second Try" column another day i f you f e e l you need i t .
The sentences a r e recorded i n groups on the t a p e . Indi-

vidual sentences a r e not repeated, but t h e groups a r e .
1. /oSdjwaj'yamuhe«le/ 'Doesn't he l i k e the s a l t here? '
/otyiftfa*'bagahe«le/ 'Doesn't he l i k e t h e gown h e r e ? '
/oyi,'wa'yo«muhe»le/ 'Doesn't he l i k e the milk h e r e ? '
jwa'ho»lehe«le/ 'Doesn't he l i k e t h e sand h e r e ? '
2 . /o'dia,wa"yamuhe«le/ 'Did he leave our s a l t here? 1
/odiaVai'bagahe'le/ 'Did he leave our gown here?'

i i L
/odiaiwa'yo»muhe*le/ 'Did he leave our milk here?'
/o'diajwa'ho»lehe*le/ 'Did he leave our sand h e r e ? '
"TData are from t h e Ouarkoye d i a l e c t of Upper Volta. Anal-

y s i s and recording was done by t h e Rev. James M. R i c c i t e l l i of
the C h r i s t i a n and Missionary A l l i a n c e .
390 Lesson 27
3 . /6\nawa;'yaimj(he»le/ ' W i l l he give our s a l t h e r e ? '
/ot,nawa;' bagafr e • l e / ' W i l l he give our gown here? '
/oxnawa'yo»muhe»le/ 'Will he give our milk here?'
/b^nawa'ho«lehe»le/ 'Will he give our sand here? 1
U. /b< cawa*yarouhe'le/ ' I s he looking f o r our s a l t here?"
/btcaira] 1 bagaihe«le/ ' I s he looking f o r our gown h e r e ? '
/chcawa'yo»muhe»le/ ' I s he looking for our milk h e r e ? '

• •
/btcawa'ho«lehe«le/ ' I s he looking for our sand here?•
5. / g b a ^ l a l a » / ' T h e y ' l l take t h e monkey.'
/^bajlala^/ ' T h e y ' l l take an a n t e l o p e . 1
/SbalajLa^/ 'They took a monkey.'

r
/^bajlaia^/ 'They took an antelope.
/SbsKlala*/ ' T h e y ' l l eat a monkey.'
/gba^laSa^/ • T h e y ' l l eat an a n t e l o p e . '
/^balala*/ 'They a t e a monkey.'
/gbalala^/ 'They a t e an a n t e l o p e . 1
6. /bcftilafLa*/ 'A man took a monkey.'
<£Eaia»/ A man took an a n t e l o p e . '
/b^la-La*/ A man a t e a monkey.'
/bX^lajia*/ A man a t e an a n t e l o p e . '
7. /oga^mialhe/ The f a t h e r i s n ' t h e r e . '
/ozatniajhe/ The c h i l d i s n ' t h e r e . 1
/o&a*>miajhe/ The man i s n ' t h e r e . '
/ona«imia|he/ The cow i s n ' t h e r e . '

. t
/ona«jmia!he/
'j—' —P The scorpion i s n ' t h e r e . '
/ona»|miajh,e/ The cow i s n ' t h e r e . '

i
1 i
/ojtia«miahey The snake i s n ' t h e r e . '
/o!ba»miahe/ The man i s n ' t h e r e . '
/oha«miaihe/ The snake i s n ' t h e r e . ' (not recorded)
/ona«tmis|he/ The scorpion i s n ' t h e r e . ' (not recorded)
RE 27.l6t Red Bobo. Mimicry
Replay RE 27.15 s e v e r a l t i m e s , mimicking c a r e f u l l y . Work

p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e tone p a t t e r n s . Follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
T r a n s c r i p t i o n and Reading
Use RE 27.2-27.5, 27.7-27.X3.

392
LESSON TWENTY-EIGHT
Voiceless Vowels/ Laryngeal!zation
Front Central Back
U. R. U. R. U. R.
High I U U
Lower-high I
Mid E 0 0
Lower-mid
Low M CE 0
Lower-low a
Table 28.1* Some Voiceless Vowels

All of the vowels p r a c t i c e d up t o t h e present time have
been voiced. Voiceless vowels also occur i n many languages as
diverse as French, Japanese, and Comanche, I n most cases t h e
voiceless vowels are allophones of phonemes which a l s o have
voiced members, but t h a t does not l e s s e n t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r
recognizing them and being able t o produce them.
Table 28.1 presents only a s e l e c t i o n of v o i c e l e s s vowels

f o r d r i l l purposes. Any vowel q u a l i t y may be a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h -
out v o i c i n g . Voiceless vowels a r e i n d i c a t e d by c a p i t a l l e t t e r s
on the analogy of v o i c e l e s s n a s a l s and l a t e r a l s .
RE 2 8 . 1 . Demonstration* Producing Voiceless Vowels
a. S t a r t with English / h / which i s s i m i l a r t o , though not

i d e n t i c a l with, v o i c e l e s s vowels. Mimic the tape and get t h e
f e e l of English / h / i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s before d i f f e r e n t
vowels. Prolong t h e / h / , and then i s o l a t e i t . Read a c r o s s .
l a . heat l b . h«eat lc, [I]
2a, h a t 2b, h«at 2c. [M]
3 a . hot 3 b . h«ot 3 c . [ct]
Ua. hope ' hb, h»ope Uc. [0]
5a. hoot 5b. h»oot 5c [U]

Voiceless Vowelsj Laryngealization 393
The end product of this series is a voiceless vowel with
an additional laryngeal quality (an additional constriction in
the larynx) characteristic of English /h/. Note how the quali-
ty of the /h/ differs according to the quality of the following
vowel.
b. Much the same effect can be obtained by whispering the

five words above, or other English words. This time, however,
the voicelessness continues throughout the vowel. Whispered
vowels are voiceless, but again there is an additional con-
striction in the larynx which makes them easier to hear than
as though the larynx were fully open for complete voicelessness.
c. Mimic the tape. This time you will deliberately turn

off the voicing of vowels, but as you do so, try not to "whis-
per" them or give an /h/ quality to them. Maintain the oral
articulation for the vowel and turn off the voicing, or turn
it on as called for in the exercise. Be sure that your voice-
less vowel is fully syllabic„
la. [il] lb. [ili] lc. [Ii] Id. [ n i ]
2a. [eE] 2b. [eEe] 2 c . [Ee] 2d. [EeE]

3a. [ffi/E] 3b. [a/Ete] 3 c [/Be] 3d. [/Eee/E]
Ua. [ i l ] Ub. [414] Uc. [14] Ud. [141]

5 a . [ad] 5b. [aOSx] 5 c tab] 5d. [aaCL]
6a. [uU] 6 b . [uUu] 6 c . [Ua] 6d. [UuU]
7a. [oO] 7b. [oOo] 7c [0o] 7d. [OoO]
8a. [oo] 8b. [ooo] 8 c . [0o] 8d. [Oo!)]
9a. [ufj] 9b. [uUu] 9 c £uu] 9d. [UuU]

10a. [/$] 10b. [4M 10c. [00] lOd. [0«S0]
11a. [ceCE] U b . [oeOEoe] l i e . [CEoe] l i d . [OSoeOE]
d. Mimic the demonstration of Table 26.1 (p. 363), fol-

lowed by Table 28.1.
RE 28.2. Differential* Full Labels
Give the description of the articulation of each of the

voiceless vowels which you hear.
39U Lesson 28
1. [pa] L-L C U 6. [nok0] 11FE 1 1 . [tOni] MBR
2. [pU] HBR 7. [nokl] HF U 12. [tEni] MFU
3 . [pM] LFO 8. [nok-0] LBR 13. [tOni] L-L C U

U. [pi] L-H C U 9. [nokE] MFU Ik. [t/Eni] L FU
5. [pCE] L FR 10. [nokU] HFR 15. [ t A i i ] M FR
RE 2 8 . 3 . Mimicry* Voiceless Vowels
Mimic the tape and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n .

l a . [ 'lapd] l b . ['XopQpa] l c . ['lapdpCL]
2a. [ •notO] 2b. [•notOto] 2c. [•notOtO]
3 a . | 'zecE] 3b. [•zecEce] 3 c . f'zecEcE]
Ua. [ • r i k l ] Ub. [ • r i k l k i ] Uc. [ ' r i k l k i ]
5a. [ •sukU] 5b. [•sukUku] 5 c ['sukUkU]
• •
6a. | 'd)6s0] 6b. [«A0S0S0] 6c. [ • d e i s ^ ]
7a. [ 'fcexCE] 7b. [•fcexGExce] 7c ['foexOExQE]
8a. [ ••mieu] 8b. [ 'wiieueii] 8c. [«wu9U9U]
9a. "'mopO] 9b. [•mopOgo] 9c [•mopOpO]

10a. •nisi] 10b. [ • n i s f s i ] 10c. [ ' n i s l s i ]
11a. ''nass/E] l i b . ['Bass/Ess] l i e . ['KBS/£§/£]

• • •
RE 28.,ht Comanche. Mimicry* Voiceless Vowels
Mimic the tape and follow the t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
1. ['mo'O] 'hand' 2. ['papl] 'hair'
Data from Henry Osborn and William A. Smalley, "Formulae

for Comanche Stem and Word Formation," Venda Riggs, "Alternate
Phonemic Analyses of Comanche," William. A. Smalley, "Phonemic
Rhythm i n Comanche," and E l l i o t t D. Canonge, "Voiceless Vowels
i n Comanche." The recording i s not b y a n a t i v e speaker.
Voiceless Vowels| Laryngealization 395
3. [Ho'l] 'pipe' 17. ]'sahopA] 'broth'
h. ['pe«tl] 'daughter' 18. [ • t o s i « t 0 ] 'hoof
5. [«tscx»tl] 'good' 19. "'nateo'pf] 'picture'

6 . [»hi«pl] •drink' 20. ""eplpl] 'blue'
7. [«ti»pE] •month' 21. | ' t o ' I n i * ] 'pipes'
8. t ' h u » p l ] 'tree' 22. "'naklni*] • ears'
9. [»pu»kU] 'horse 1 23. '•kuplta''] •a l i g h t "
10. [ • p c p l ] •drawing' 2lu i ' - ' i k l s i ' ] • i t i s right

here'
1 1 . t »ko«pE] 'face' 25. i'kWlrT'a] 'spill'
12. [ ' p i a p i ] 'big' 26. "'siklti'u'] ' i t is here'
13. [•tiasE] 'again' 27. ( •sokOfi'u*] ' i t i s over

there'
Ik. [•moakU] 'lots' 28. [•sukufi'u*] ' i t i s out of
sight'
15. [ ' t i b i t s l ] •very' 29. '.' noMfeakiki'>u'» ] 'he came t o
pack'
16. [•hunupl] 'creek' 30. \lnoribaklki'u''] 'he packed
and came on'
Voiceless Glides
Many d i a l e c t s of English have two v o i c e l e s s g l i d e s , /ff/

and / Y / . I t might help you t o review TE A.2 and A.3 (pp. 1*72
and u 7 3 ) . Note t h a t the v o i c e l e s s glides d i f f e r from the
v o i c e l e s s vowels i n the same way t h a t voiced g l i d e s d i f f e r
from voiced vowels. They are n o n - s y l l a b i c , and c o n s t i t u t e on-
g l i d e s t o s y l l a b i c vowels or o f f - g l i d e s from them.
RE 2 8 . 5 . Mimicry* Voiceless Glides
Mimic and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
l a . [ffa?] l b . [»cJT] lc. [la'] Id. [»al]
2a. [Worn] 2b. [moW] 2c. [lom] 2d. [moY]
3 a . [Wen] 3 b . [neW] 3c [Yen] 3d. [reY]
Ua. [wAlA] Ub. [1*AW] Uc. [YA1~] Ud. [1 A AY]

396 Lesson 28
5a. [Woe z ] 5b. [zoeW] 5 c [Ycez] 5d. [zceY]

6a. [woe] 6b. [goW] 6c. [Yog] 6d. [goY]
7a. [Week] 7b. [ism] 7c [Ysak] 7d. [teY]
8a. [Wif] 8b. [fiW] 8c. [Tif] 8d. [fiY]
9a. [kWen] 9b. [neWk h ] 9 c [klen] 9d. [neYk*1]
10a. [sWaa] 1 0 b . [daWs] 1 0 c . [sYad] lOd. [daYs]
RE 28.6. D i f f e r e n t i a l * GLIDE or FRICATIVE
The a r t i c u l a t i o n of [Y] i s very s i m i l a r t o t h a t of [ x ] ,

and [W] t o t h a t of the i n i t i a l p a r t of [xw]. The difference
l i e s only i n t h e degree of s t r i c t u r e , t h e tongue being c l o s e r
t o t h e point of a r t i c u l a t i o n i n the f r i c a t i v e . I n t h i s exer-
c i s e respond with GLIDE or FRICATIVE according t o t h e v o i c e l e s s
glide or f r i c a t i v e you h e a r .
1 . [YAt h ] GL 5 . ["eWen] GL 9 . [»noYoz] GL
2. [xAt h ] FR 6 . [«'exwen] FR 10. ['noYoz] GL
3 . [xwAth] FR 7. ["exwen] FR 1 1 . [«noxoz] FR
k, [WAth] GL 8. ["exwen] FR 12. [»noxoz] FR
Voiceless Vowels, [ h ] , and Aspiration
We have already pointed out t h a t English / h / i s a v o i c e l e s s

vowel plus a d d i t i o n a l c o n s t r i c t i o n i n t h e l a r y n x . A s p i r a t i o n
of s t o p s i s a l s o t e c h n i c a l l y non-syllabic v o i c e l e s s vowel, usu-
a l l y of indeterminate c e n t r a l q u a l i t y . S t r i c t l y speaking, then,
a s p i r a t i o n i s a v o i c e l e s s on-glide corresponding roughly with
t h e [H] o f f - g l i d e i n q u a l i t y , but corresponding with [SIT] and
[Y] i n i t s v o i c e l e s s n e s s . This information does not a f f e c t
our production or t r a n s c r i p t i o n of [ " ] , but simply f i l l s out
our p i c t u r e somewhat.
RE 28.7. Mimicry! Contrasting Voiceless Vowels and A s p i r a t i o n
You can d i s t i n g u i s h r e g u l a r a s p i r a t i o n from v o i c e l e s s

vowels following stops by t h e s y l l a b i c nature of the vowel,
and t h e f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t vowel q u a l i t i e s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d .
Follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic t h e t a p e .
l a . [mak h «su''] ' l b . [makO'su*] l c . [makE'su*]

Voiceless Vowels/ Laryngeal!zation 397
2a. [zet h »yArj] 2b. [zet/E'yAn] 2c. [zetU'yAn]
3a. [kpith«tvv] 3b. [kpitl«tpv] 3c [kpita'tuv]
Ua. [ j 0 t h ' x o e l A ] Ub. [j/StU'xcEl"] Uc. [ j ^ t O ' x c e r ]
5a. [got^'iraw] 5b. [gotl'ndw] 5c. [gotO'miw]
RE 2 8 . 8 . Mimicry* Postvocalic [h]
[h] does not occur i n s y l l a b l e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n i n English,

so t h a t i s a p o s i t i o n i n which we need t o p r a c t i c e i t f o r some
languages. In t h i s case we w i l l not be concerned with whether
or not t h e sound i s a pure v o i c e l e s s vowel or has the addition-
a l c o n s t r i c t i o n i n the larynx c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i n i t i a l / h / i n
English.
la. [mah] lb. [•mahso] l c [•mahsoh]
2a. [leh] 2b. [•lehkhu] 2c. f l e h l ^ u h ]
3a. [wo»h] 3b. [»wo»hmu] 3c [•wo»hmuh]
Ua. [vffih] Ub. [•vahdA] Uc. [•veehdAh]
5a. [r)«i] 5 b . [•rjihru.] 5c ['nihnz-h]
6a. [tii'h] 6b. [•tli'hna] 6 c. [•tu'hnah]
7a. [ge»h] 7b. [•ge«hbe] 7c [•ge»hbah]
8a. f o e h ] 8 b . [ ' ' oe h f A ] 8c. [,9oshrAh]
RE 28.9. Miinicryi P r e a s p i r a t i o n
Some languages have a s p i r a t i o n , or a short [h] which comes

before stops r a t h e r than a f t e r . Mimic the tape and follow t h e
t r a n s c r i p t i o n for [h] i n t h i s p o s i t i o n . In t h e t h i r d column be
careful not to s u b s t i t u t e a v o i c e l e s s n a s a l , l a t e r a l , e t c . ,
for [ h ] .
l a . [hpo] lb. [hpo 1 hpo] l c . [hpom'hpom]
2a. [hpii] 2b. [hpu'hpu] 2 c [hpul* 'hpuT ]
3a. [hta] 3b. [hta'hta] 3c. [htan'htan]
Ua. [ h t i ] Ub. [ h t i ' h t i ] Uc. [ h t i l A « h t i l * ]
5a. [hca] 5b. [hco'hce] 5c. [hcQn'hcan]

398 Lesson 28
6a. [hco] 6b. [hco'hco] 6c. [heol'hcol]

7a. [hkoe ] 7b. [hkoe'hkoe] 7c. [hkoen»hkoen]
8a. [hire] 8b. [hkse'hkse] 8c. [hkaen'hka-in]
Laryngealized Vowels
Several of the f e a t u r e s of a r t i c u l a t i o n which we have

worked with so f a r have originated i n the l a r y n x . These i n -
clude g l o t t a l s t o p , the source of t h e a i r stream i n implosives,
voicing, and p i t c h . We mentioned a l s o e a r l i e r i n t h i s chapter
t h a t English / h / has a q u a l i t y created i n the larynx which
makes i t more than a simple v o i c e l e s s vowel. A l l of t h e s e f e a -
t u r e s might be c a l l e d laryngeal f e a t u r e s , as they r e s u l t from
movements or c o n s t r i c t i o n s or configurations i n the larynx,
and some, i n f a c t , a r e occasionally r e f e r r e d t o as l a r y n g e a l
i n t h e l i n g u i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e . I n t h i s course, however, we a r e
going t o reserve t h e a d j e c t i v e laryngeal for a f e a t u r e of a r -
t i c u l a t i o n which we have not previously introduced, but which
may occur t o modify any vowel q u a l i t y . 1
RE 28.10. Demonstration! Laryngealized Vowels
Laryngealization does not occur as p a r t of the English

phonemic system, but does occur as an o v e r - a l l voice q u a l i t y
under c e r t a i n conditions and i n the speech of some people.
a. Stretch as though ready for bed, and say i n a sleepy,

raspy voicet I'm so sleepyi [ 'aym sow «sli>ypi>y]. Mimic
the tape.
b . Some c h i l d r e n use t h i s effect t o i m i t a t e a machine gun

or a s t i c k being rubbed along a picket fencei [a»]
c. Note t h e symbolization f o r l a r y n g e a l i z a t i o n . I t i s a
g l o t t a l stop w r i t t e n over the vowel. You can t h i n k of l a r y n -
g e a l i z a t i o n as being a kind of g l o t t a l t r i l l , and you see t h e
significance of using the g l o t t a l symbol. Here i s a s e l e c t i o n
of the vowels from t h e vowel c h a r t . Listen t o the tape demon-
s t r a t i o n and mimic i t . (See Table 28.2)
RE 28.11. D i f f e r e n t i a l LARYNGEALIZED or NO
1 . [m2] LA 2 . [mce] LA 3 . [ma] NO
Actually, - i t can probably occur with any voiced continu'

ant as w e l l , but we w i l l p r a c t i c e i t only on vowels.
Voiceless Vowelsj Laryngealization 399
Front Central Back
U. R. U. R. U. R.
9
High I u m
u
9
9
Lower-high
i
Mid •> I 9
e o
Lower-mid
9 9 9
Low ee CB
A o
9 9
Lower-low a a 13
Table 28.2. Some Laryngeallzed Vowels
1+. [mo] LA 7. [ s t ? e ] NO 10. prl A uv] NO
5. [ s t f a ] NO 8. [ s t r e ] NO n. p^l* 8v] NO
6. [ s t r a ] LA 9. [prr£.v] LA 12. prriiv] NO
RE 28.12. Mimicryt Laryngealization

la. bo..*] l b . [«ba«ba] lc. •ba»ba]
9
2a. 2b. [»nl«nl] 2c. 'ni«ni]
3a. roe.'] 3b. [ T o e • r o e ] 3c. Tee.l"oe]
Ua. be*'] lib. [«be.be] Uc. 'be»be]
5a. 5b. [Sb5«Eb2)] 5c • gb^'Sbfi]
6a. •!••] 6 b . ['ze»ze] 6c. »ze«ze]
7a. xv»<>] 7b. [»xv»xv] 7c 'xvxuj
8a. 8b. [ifi.fi] 8c. •fi-fi]
RE 28.13. Mimicry Reviewi Nasalization
la. sa»] l b . [sa«] l c . [saa] Id. [saa]
2a. 2b. [<&•] 2c. [ebt.] 2d. [dj,&]
3a. go»] 3b. [go*] 3 c . [goo] 3d. [goo]
Ua. lib. [ f e / ] Uc [fee] lid. [fee]

Uoo Lesson 28
5a. [§o»] 5b. [go.] 5c [|oo] 5d. [Soo]

6a. [Ws»] 6b. [Wae»] 6 c . [Wese] 6d. [Wffle]
I
7a. [ma»] 7b. [ma»] 7c. [maa] 7d. [maa]

8a. [n\i»] 8b. [nu»] 8c. [niiu] 8d. [nuu]
9a. [nA«] 9b. [ik*] 9c [SAA] 9d. [&AA]
10a. [np«] 10b. [nv«] 10c. [nt>v] lOd. [nt>v]
RE 28.llj.. Mimicry Reviewg Length
l a . [r£] l b . [ri»] Ic. [gorif] Id, [gori.f]
2a. [Ru] 2b. [Ru'] 2c [goRuf] 2d [goRu-f]
3a. [re] 3 b . [re«] 3c [gofef] 3d, [gofe«f]
i;a. [«.] Ub. [ & • ] Uc [gorif] Ud [«ofi-f]
5a. [Roe] 5b. [R»ce ] 5c [leRoeS] 5d [leR»oe§]

• • • •
6d.
6 a . [di] 6 b . [d-6] 6 c . [led^s - ] [led»0g]
7d
7a. [jo] 7b. [ j . o ] 7c [lejos] [lej»oS]
8d.
8a. [«,] 8b. [ 8 » t ] 8 c [iew.8] [lez»zJ]
RE 2 8 . 1 5 . Mimicry Review* Back Unrounded Vowels
la. ['texl"©*] l b . [»b*l v *»] lc. •braT'ni.]
2a. ['pogrom] 2b. ['p*»lv»rm] 2 c. «pni»lvmm]
3a. ['grorxh] 3 b . [»fxnxh] 3c. 'Smninh]

l*a. [«2iD»nx)h] kb. [»Sv»msh] Uc. •Sro»nnih]
•
5b. ['dymx»h] 5c. »dkmm>h]
5a. ['d*x>nto»h]
6b. [«6»ht»] 6c. 'fiahtm]
6a. ['orhto]
7b. [«jifht*»h] 7c i jinhtm»h]
7a. ['jbhte-h]
8b. [ • ^ • t » h p h ] 8c. •^•taihp 1 1 ]
1
8a. ['gViW ]
Voiceless Vowelsj Laryngealization HOI
RE 28.l6t Iiberian English. Mimicryi General Review
There is a wide variety of dialects of English spoken in

Liberia. The characteristics of some brands of Liberian Eng-
lish are in some cases due to speech habits which come from the
sound systems of African languages in the area. In this exer-
cise we have listed English words, classified according to my
pronunciation of the vowels, but read by a Liberian of the up-
per lower class. Mimic his pronunciation of these words.
You will notice several things about this brief sample of

Liberian English. Many of the glides characteristic of Ameri-
can English do not occur. Vowel qualities are sometimes dif-
ferent. The degree of aspiration is considerably less than in
American English, to the point where it is sometimes hard to
hear whether or not there is any aspiration. Our transcription
is doubtless quite inconsistent as a consequence of this dif-
ficulty. Another notable characteristic of this dialect is the
extremely lenis articulation of some consonants. These have
not been marked, but you should watch for them and mimic them.
Note also that final nasals are replaced by nasalized vowels
or glides. There is a slight tendency to laryngealize the
vowels IUUO.
a b
1. [sev»] say 1. [bo«y] b°y
2 . [me v »] majr 2. [t h o»y] toy
3. [fe^s] face 3. [kkp-yj coin
U. [lev»s] lace U. [c soys] choice
5. [be—] bay
6 . [be v »s] base

v
7. [de «] day
8. [p?"«] pain
9. [k*V« s] case
10. [ce v »s] chase
"T'he recording was made i n Monrovia, L i b e r i a . The voice

i s t h a t of Mr. Samncr Goe, then a houseboy i n t h e s e r v i c e of
Mr. and Mrs. Loren Nussbaum.
U02 Lesson 28
c d
! • [p a-y] pê L, [sp-] sin
2. [tha-y] tie 2. [•fc-8] is
3 . [tRa-y] try 3. [ht»s] his
U. [la-y] lie u. [pj.]/[ft] pin
5. [na-ys] nice 5. [mL-s] miss
6. [*a-ys] ice 6 . [wile*1] wick
7. [ l a - i ] line 7. [ r t p ] rib
8. [ma-i] mine 8. [rl8] rich
9. [ s a - i ] sign 9. [hx-] him

r^h. hi
10. fa«i] fine 10. LP i - g J Pig
e f
1. [si-] seen 1. [pAp] pup
2. [ b i - ] bean 2. [dek11] duck
3. [ni-j knee 3. [kV1 ] cup

k. [bi-] bee U. [hg-yt h ] hut
5. [hi-] he 5 . [k h o<-t h ] cut

6. [mi-] me 6. [tg-5] touch
6
7. [pi-s] peace 7. [ko-m] come

8. [ p i - s ] peas 8. [wo-n] one
h
9. [ b i - c ] beach 9. [na-ng] young
10. [ f r i - ] free 10. [net h ] nuts
1. [ 9 i s ] ear h* [die] dear

2. [ f i e ] fear 5. [nie ] near
3 . [bis] beer
V o i c e l e s s Vowelsj Laryngealization h03
h (not recorded) i 1( n o t r e c o r d e d )
1. [Ph»th] put 1. [phs-th] pet
2. [lAfd] could 2. [ns«th] net
3. [bvk*1] book 3. [tRek* 1 ] treck
U. [k^k11] cook U. [me*] men
5. [gu«d] good 5. [set* 1 ] cent
6, [wu»d] wood 6. [bz-e] bell
7. [sj-e] sell
8. [bee* 1 ] bench
9. [re«d] red
10. [ f c s ] / [ J ij s t ] guest
3 (not recorded) k (not recorded)
L. [bsth] bat 1. [p u s ] pole
2. [t h aep h ] tap 2. [boa] bowl
3 . [had] had 3. [ * o e ] / [ * .o»d] old
U. [*6«s]/[»a»8] as U. [ g r o 9 d ] / [ g r o•] grow
5. [»ffi»nd] and 5 . [no»] know
6. [kharth] can't 6. [go«s] goes
7. [bsyk* 1 ] bang 7. [chvkh] choke
8 . [bask11] back 8. [lôt* 1 ] coat
9. [nap 11 ] nap 9. [smok*1] smoke
10. [ t f e k ^ / t t ^ W 1 ] tack 10. [ro<«d] road
RE 2 8 . 1 7 . T r a n s c r i p t i o n
Use your Workbook Supplement, pp. 81-82, for t h i s e x e r -

c i s e , and f i l l i n the b l a n k s . Don't peek u n t i l you have t r a n s -
cribed t h e " f i r s t t r y " t o your s a t i s f a c t i o n .
1. [^bodSa'yAk 11 ] 1 1 . [n'Suhpego]
9
~ n
2. [bse»l A 'k h oI A i] 12.
[bzot^'la*]
3. [*srasipfu] 1 3 . [Oe^mi'gV]
U. [kâtnd'cfo] 3J4. [na'NnetO]

5. ['nrnr] onsets'] 15. [«hop«itttp]
6. fmjiH,r)'pvn;«th] 16. [n'tfeSde'n]
7. [«|osOfietU] 17. [hpek^'tAv]

9 •} k
8. ['fu-zirfvlfey] 18. [> poyRndi^ht]
9. ['sorefp^l] 19. [bv'gakU]

g
10. [Upu'fte'dir)] 20. [doe bo«sMap"]
Use RE 28.2-28.9, 28.11-28.15.

Uo5
LESSON TWENTY-NINE
G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants| More Consonant Clusters
Dental/
Alveopalatal
Double
Velar
Bilabial
Alveolar
STOPS
Lung a i r
VI. unaspirated *P P t c k
VI. a s p i r a t e d ^ th ch k*
Voiced §b b d j g
I n g r e s s i v e pharynx a i r
Voiceless H P £ tf £
Voiced gs 6 £ J sf
Egressive pharynx air
0
Voiceless t* 0° k'
p
Voiced (b°) (d°) (f) (g*)
FRICATIVES1
Lung a i r
Voiceless ? s S" X
Voiced fe z 2 g
Egressive pharynx a i r
0
Voiceless
p
s S' x*
Table 2 9 . l t Some G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants

I n Lesson 27 we worked with implosives, or i n g r e s s i v e
pharynx a i r sounds. Now we t u r n t o egressive pharynx a i r
Only a sampling of fricatives is given in this chart.

Others work in exactly the same way. See Lesson 33 for a more
complete representation (p.U56 ). Affricates may also be glot-
talized, but are not shown.
U06 Lesson 29
sounds, which we will often call glottalized. These sounds are

the exact reverse of the implosives. The larynx moves upward
with the vocal cords closed during the articulation of the con-
sonant, and this creates air pressure in the pharynx. When the
consonant articulation is released, the air rushes out, thus
creating an egressive air stream which originates in the
pharynx. Sammies 29.1 and 29.2 picture this for you.
Sammy 29.li Larynx Move- Samny 29.2i Egressive Air

ment to Create Pressure Stream after Labial Artic-
for [p ] ulation is Released
Egressive pharynx air sounds are called glottalized sounds

because of the action of the vocal cords (glottis) in creating
the pressure which makes possible the air stream. Actually the
glottis is involved with implosives as much as it is here, but
the term is convenient and we will use it. Our system of trans-
cription for these sounds helps to reinforce the term, as we
write glottalized consonants with a raised glottal stop [ ]
after the usual consonant symbol.
As you study Table 29.1 you will notice that voiced egres-
sive pharynx air sounds are included there for the record, but
that they are not to be drilled in this course. They are rela-
tively rare. In these sounds lung air builds up pressure be-
hind the larynx and is leaked through into the pharynx simul-
taneously with the upward movement of the larynx in similar man-
ner to that of voiced implosives.
G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants li07
Sammy 29.3i [b ] Before Sammy 29.Hi [b ] At Time of

Release. Note t h e a i r Release
stream leaked i n t o t h e
pharynx.
G l o t t a l i z e d consonants a r e n o t found q u i t e so frequently

as implosives, but t h e y are a major p a r t of the phonemic s y s -
tems of many American Indian and African languages, including
a language of such importance as Amharic, the n a t i o n a l language
of E t h i o p i a .
RE 2 9 . 1 . Demonstrations Production of G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants
Like t h e implosives, g l o t t a l i z e d consonants are not too

d i f f i c u l t once you get the combination. People who have dif-
f i c u l t y with them a t f i r s t find t h a t they work a l l of a sudden
when t h e proper coordination of muscle movements i s found.
Here a r e some suggestions t o help you. Mimic t h e t a p e .
a. Pretend you have a small piece of grass on the t i p of

your tongue. Pretend t o s p i t i t off by s t i c k i n g your tongue
t i p out between your l i p s and drawing i t back sharply, blowing
t h e grass off. When some people do t h i s they blow t h e grass
off with a puff of a i r from the larynx, g e t t i n g an i n t e r l a b i a l
g l o t t a l i z e d s t o p . Change t h i s now t o [p ] by doing t h e same
t h i n g without s t i c k i n g out your tongue t i p . Say [p* p ' p* p ] .
Then add a vowelt [ p a p a p a p a ] .
Uo8 Lesson 2°
b . Make a good, strong [*] a f t e r a vowel and hold i t i

[ a ° * ] . While you are holding i t , t r y t o make a [k] s e v e r a l
times i n a row. Don't r e l e a s e t h e [**•]] This may give you
[a?» k ' k ' k° k ° ] . I f you can do t h i s a s t h e tape does i t , t r y
t h e sane t h i n g with [ t ] » [a?» t t t t ] . Then [a?» p p p
p 9 ] and [a?* e* c* c" c ' ] .
Add vowels. When you do s o , of course, t h e [ ' ] is

r e l e a s e d i [a?* k ' a ] [a?» t ' a ] [a?» p 9 a ] [a'* c 9 a ] .
c . Try t h i s sequencet
1. [ ' o ' o ' o ' o •'o'o ' o ^ o ]
2. ['olCo 'ok*>o ' o k ' o ' o k ' o ]
3. Try to hold on tight to the [k] while you force out the
[']# ['okô 'ok*'© 'ok'ô *>ok*9o] or, if you do it with
the right timing and force* [*ok*9o 'ok0'© 'ok*',>o »ok*'o].
U. Follow the same sequence with [t p c ] .
d. Get the feeling of the upward and downward movement of

the larynx by singing from falsetto to base and back up again.
Put your fingers on the larynx as you do it. Try to duplicate
the movement without singing, simply by exercising the muscles
in your throat.
Get the same effect by swallowing. Then try to move

the larynx up and down rhythmically.
Get the feeling of the up and down movement by saying

[hi* ho* hi* ho* hi* ho*]. Try to reproduce it by simply mov-
ing your muscles.
e. If you can "rock" the larynx, raising and lowering it

in sequence, close your vocal cords in a ['], and make a [k]
repeatedly while you rock it. As the larynx goes up and down
this gives you [k* £ k* £ k 9 £ ] . Follow with [ f £ t* £ t* £]
and [p* p p" $ p* §].
f. "Rock" some fricatives like [f s 3 ] .
g. On any glottalized sound except [k'] be careful that

the back of your tongue is not up against your velum. If it
is, you are getting an egressive click instead, with mouth
air rather than pharynx air. Listen to the tape as it gives
you the correct sound and the much higher-pitched incorrect
mouth air sound'afterwards.
G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants h09
Correct Incorrect
l a . [p 9 p 9 p 9 p 9 ] l b . [ p - p-» p - p-»]
2a. [ t 9 t 9 t 9 t 9 ] 2b. [t-» t-» t-» t-»]
3 a . [c 9 c 9 c 9 c 9 ] 3 b . [c-» c-» c-» c-»]

h . I n producing g l o t t a l i z e d consonants you may find t h a t
you have a l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y with coordination between the r e -
l e a s e of t h e g l o t t a l and t h e onset of the vowel which follows.
G l o t t a l i z e d consonants a r e very much l i k e voiceless implosives
i n t h i s respect (see p . 3 8 3 ) . Because the g l o t t a l i z e d consonant
involves t h e closure of t h e vocal cords t h e r e i s a danger of
holding the [°] too long. Listen t o t h e tape as i t demonstrates
good t r a n s i t i o n from a g l o t t a l i z e d consonant t o a following
vowel, and poor t r a n s i t i o n .
Good T r a n s i t i o n Poor T r a n s i t i o n
la. [k9a] lb. [k9'a]
2a. [t9a] 2b. [t9'a]
3a. [p9a] 3b. [p9'a]
ha., [c a ] Ub. [c9'a]
5a„ [s9a] 5b. [sâ]
6a. [f a ] 6b. [f 9 , >a]
RE 2 9 . 2 . D i s c r i m i n a t i o n ! SAME o r DIFFERENT
1. [o'p'o o'p9o] S 7. TA«p9An A'pAT)] D
2. [e'k9e e'ice] D 8. [ a ' k a n a'k'an] D
3. [ae'As ae'c'se] D 9. [«k 9 9wiR '{rawift] D
h. [i't°i i«t9i] S 1 0 . ['(fswiS " c 9 swift] D
5. [u«f 9 vri v'f9vn] S 11. ['s 9 owift , 9

s awift] S
6. [oe'tcen ce T £oer)] s 1 2 . [ • p 9 awift • £awift] D
RE 2 9 . 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! IMPLOSIVE o r GLOTTALIZED
1. [ ' V W ] G 2 . Miami] I 3 . [«t9,umu] G

Uio Lesson 29
km [ 'feme ] I 9. ['e'p'oro] G Ik. [yono'&r] I
, A
5. [»S*imi] G 10. [»e«k%i »] G 15. [yono«t*ol ] G
6 . [»x umu] G 1 1 . f'e'lcAfA] I 16. [yono'Q'sO.*] G
A
7. [»e•&,&-] I 12. [•e'frrife] I 17. [yono«p*ul ] G
, A
8. [»e»-£9re] I 13. [yono c'ul ] G 18. [yono«tel A ] I
RE 29.U. Negative Practieet Glottalized Consonants

Practice the following English sentences and others like
them, substituting the glottalized consonants indicated. Mimic
the tape and follow the transcription.
1. k'ween k'atheryn k'issed her k'rotchety k'ousin.
2. t ake t ommy t o the t rain.
3 . p ' e t e r p 9 ip°er p'icked a p'eck of p'ickled p'epp'ers.
km f ' e f ' i f'o f' um
5. s i s t e r s ue s i t s s ewing s ocks.
RE 29.5. Mimicryi Glottalized Consonants
Follow the transcription as you mimic the tape.
l a . [p a] l b . [p'ap'a] l c . LP ap ap J
2a. [ t ° i ] 2b. [ t ' i t ' i ] 2c. [ t ' i t ' i t * ]
3a. [ c ' i ] 3 b . Lc ic *J 3c [c i c ic ]
Ua. [k%] lib. [ k W * ] ko. [k*0kW]
5a. [ts'z,] 5b. [ts t . t s V] 5c [ts z,.ts t-ts ]
6a. [ks 9] 6b. [ks e.ks' a] 6 c . [ks a.ks 9ks ]
7a. [f'oe] 7b. [f'cef'ce ] 7c [f*0Bf*0Bf*]
8a. [e'o] 8b. [e'oe'o] 8c. [Q'oe'oe']

r f . O. <>•,
9a. [ s ' i ] 9b. [ s ' i s ' i ] 9c.
[s i s i s J
r * ' * n
10a. [x'u] 10b. [x ux u] 10c
[x ux ux J
G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants Ull
RE 2 9 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l s I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Symbols
I n t h i s e x e r c i s e respond by w r i t i n g (or giving o r a l l y )

the name of t h e symbol by which t h e consonant i s w r i t t e n . Call
the symbols f o r implosives HOOKED p , HOOKED g, e t c . For t h e
g l o t t a l i z e d sounds c a l l the symbols p RAISED~GLOTTAL, g_ RAISED
GLOTTAL, e t c O
1. [ v ' o e ] HOOKED b 9o [ r i ' t o y ] HOOKED t

2 . [v'fre] HOOKED k 10. [ri'g'oy] HOOKED g
3 . [i>«t*e] t RAISED GL 11. [ r i ' c ' o y ] £ RAISED GL
u. [v'f'e] f RAISED GL 12. [ f i ' p o y ] HOOKED p

5. [v'<fe] HOOKED d 1 3 . [ r i ' k oy] k RAISED GL
,g
6. b ' p ' e ] p RAISED GL 3J+. [ r i b o y ] HOOKED jfb
7. [ p ' x ' e ] x RAISED GL 15. [ r i t < f 0 y ] 6 RAISED GL

9
8. [ p « t s e ] t s RAISED GL 16. [ & ' J o y ] HOOKED j
RE 29.7. Negative P r a c t i c e ! "Ten L i t t l e Indians"

The tape w i l l demonstrate. Practice i n odd moments t o
develop freedom and fluency i n t h e production of implosives
and g l o t t a l i z e d consonants.
a. [p'o] l i t t l e , [£o] l i t t l e , [DO] l i t t l e Indians,

[ t ' o ] l i t t l e , [io] l i t t l e , [do] l i t t l e Indians,
[k'o] l i t t l e , [feo] l i t t l e , [go] l i t t l e Indians,
[jo] l i t t l e Indian boys.
b . Follow t h e same sequence, using other vowels.
RE 29.8t Z u l u . 1 Mimicry» B i l a b i a l Stops
The tape reads down each column and then across t h e f i r s t

t h r e e l i n e s . Mimic and follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Each item i s
read once, b u t you can r e p l a y t h e tape for more p r a c t i c e .
"^fttlu m a t e r i a l s i n t h i s book are taken from recordings of

t h e Special Phonetics of the Wycliffe Language Course (England),
and used by permission.
k!2 Lesson 29
1. [ ' D ^ o a ] 'bitter' [«pg»pa] 'flutter

violently'
2. [«bu«l A a] ' t o peel o f f [«pu«l"a] ' t o divine'
3 . ['Do*«l"a] 'to rot' ['po*»l A a] ' t o bore'
ko [isii.'fii»6a] 'anti-snake [ukuj'pi»pa] ' t o flap"

"^— preparation'
5. ['Se» «pa] ' c a r r y on ['pev«ma] 'to smoke'
!
back'
6. [um'oe~*il*eA] ' t e a t of an [um'pe*»lAe*] 'a surname'
1
udder'
7. [um'fco" «<ni ] 'on-looker' [iiro»panko'o v l A o] 'donkey'
1. [ ' p h a « p V ] ' f l y gently' [im^Vma] 'slap'
2. [«p u»ma] ' g e t out' [im£p_,u»nzi] ' k i n d of d e e r '
3. [lp_o^»ra] ' t o cool' [imp urna'"!*a»nka] ' e a s t '
U. ['p i n t a ] 'repeat' •ni] ' a t war'
5. ['p h e»k a] ' t o cook' [im'p''&/>»il'-a] 'really'
6 . [p"u»mu«!za] 'relieve [trap u'mu^za] 'place name'

1
— him' i
7. [ i s i ^ p \ i « k u ] 'skLn- [p'o^mp'a] 'to blab'

>— blanket'
RE 29.9. Mimicry! Miscellaneous
1. [Hes'i] 2. ['kok'a] 3. p c W ]
More Consonant Clusters Ul3
k. [ H * ^ ] 7. [ t V z i « ] 10. [p'o'te]
5. ['p'oSte'] 8. [ ' t ' e ' n e ] 11. [tai'ak'e]
11
6. [nAif'i] 9. [s'ak ] 12. [ t a » " a t ' e ]
More Consonant Clusters
Up to the present we have emphasized consonant clusters
consisting of stop plus fricative (affricates), clusters in-
volving [ ' ] , clusters with voiceless and voiced nasals or voice-
less and voiced l a t e r a l s , e t c . In addition, there have been
many different clusters included i n more random fashion in the
d r i l l s from time to time, so that you have had considerable ex-
posure t o certain kinds of consonant clusters before. In t h i s
following section we are going to d r i l l some of these same kinds
of combinations and then go on to a sampling of some longer con-
sonant clusters,,
RE 29.108 Kuy. Mimicry* [?nk »nkl]
1. ['n'ka*'] 'coarse, rough' £. ['n'kow] 'husked r i c e '
2. ['n'ksn] 'tomatoes' 6. ['n'kl* a«n]'carry on pole be-
1
' tween people 1
A
3 . ['n'kat] ' t o press' 7. [•>n'kl r)«n] 'large red ants'
k. t'n'ksh] 'short' 8. p>ii'kl' , e'l A ] 'gnaw'
RE 29.lit Kuy. Mimicryt [^n?]

i
1. On " a n ] ' t o be angry' U. [*n"i»t] 'narrow'
i i
2. On«*a»p] 'to yawn' 5. [ ' n ' ^ ' l " ] 'large black
' ' ants'
3. ['n"^0] 'to lean against'
RE 29.12i Kuy. Mimicryt [^nh]
1. On'hat] ' t o be quiet' £. ['n'hc*''] ' t o cough'

2. [>r|«ha»lA] 'to be l i g h t ' 6. ['n'hu*'] ' t o snore'
3 . [^n'ha-m] 'blood' 7. ['rj'ha'n] 'bones'
i i
U. [*>n'ha»y] 'far'
i
RE 29.13* Kuy. Mimicryt Miscellaneous Clusters
1. [LISTS'] ' t o make (for curries)' 2. [Ll v a«] 'leaves'
Lesson 29
3 . [Ll v a«p] 'wings' 9. [ ' n ' N h a ' ] 'mattress'

10
U. ['m'Mmi.'] ' t o steam s t i c k y « ['n'Nna-m] 'scar'
' rice'
1 1 . ['n»Nna»p] ' f i r s t growth
5. ['m'Mmu'c] 'ants' ' of r i c e '
t
12. fn'Nnoh] 'nest'
6. ['m,Mmov»l"] 'chicken l i c e '
i
13. [*n'Nn*»] ' t o wake up, be-
7. ['m'Mmlân] 'fish net' 1
come conscious'
t
lU. ['n'Nfiuft] ' t o inhale,
8. ['n'Nne'n] ' t o aim' 1
sniff'
i
RE 2?.lUi Kuy. Mimicry* [6 mb]
1. [ S V ] ' t o launder' 6. [6A>t] 'to light fire'
2 . [6ui»n] 'can' 7. [Saf] •prick, wound'
3 . [Sum] 'suck' 8. [mi'bit,'-'] 'trouble'

1
U. [6u»l A ] 'be drunk ! 9. [m''bra']I ' t o bleach'

1
5. [ b y 0 ] ' t o open' 10. [m1>bvA'] 'bark of t r e e '

1
RE 29.15. Mimicryi Longer Clusters
la. ['am.spfl v a] l b . [«cun.spfl v ] lc. [m'spfl v a]
2a. ['on.zdvl v o] 2b. [ • o n . z d v r ] 2c. [ n ' z d v l v o ]

1
3a. [ep.tfc'xRe] 3b. [ep.tfc'xR] 3c [ptfc'xRe]

1
Ua. [ o g . d | ' b r o ] Ub. [og.dS'br] Uc. [gdz'brb]
5a. ['agx.tx.pfe] 5b. [•asc.txpf] 5c. ['x.tx.pfas]
6a. [»Ag.4m.dzA] 6b. ['Ag.&ndz] 6c. ['g.dradzA]

1 '
7a. [vvz.lr'nv] 7b. [ v v z . l r n ] 7c. [vz.lr'nv]
8a. [tfx£«Snz-] 8b. [tfxfc'Nn] 8c. [fxfc'Nnz,]
RE 29.16. Mimicry Reviewi Fronted and Backed Velar Consonants
l a . ['kîne] l b . [ •kûne] lc. [<k h une]
2a. ['kazj.] 2b. [tkazt] 2 c . ['kazi,]

• • A J
•
3a. [«gudo] 3b. fgudo] 3 c . [»gudo]
More Consonant Clusters
Ua. [ • n 6 t h t ] Ub. [»nethi] Uc. [«nethi]
5a. [ro •lûne] 5b. [ r o ' l ^ u n e ] 5 c [ru'k"une]

• • *
6a. [ fo'kazz,] 6 b . [ro'kazz-] 6 c . [ru'kazz.]
• •
7a. [ ro'gvdo] 7b. [ro'gvdo] 7 c [ru'gudo]
• A
• •
h h
8a. [ r o ' n e t i ] 8b. [ r o ' r j S t i ] 8c. [ r u ' n s t h i ]
• • •
RE 29 . 1 7 . Mimicry Reviewi R e l e a s e d and U n r e l e a s e d Consonants
la. [•2ep%iep h jne] lb. [»zep.mep.me]
2 a . ['kopsrnopemo] 2b. ['kop.mop.mo]
3 a. Ime' Sephmep11] 3 b . [me'z'ep.jnep]
Ua. [mo'kopamopa] Ub. [mo'kop.mop]
5a. [no'tephtek11] 5b. [no'tep.taek]
6a. [hu'lipatiks] 6b. [ h u ' l i p . t i k ]
7 a . [ycSsQdtfnQ'dift] 7 b . [ytfs.dein'd/i]
8a. [kôv^nota'ii^] 8b. [IcW.not.rioJ
9a. [doe ' y o e s e d c e n o ] 9 b . [doe ' y c e s . d o e n ]
10a. [no'k"ovsnota" 10b. [ n o ' l r ' o v . n o t ]

L
c c c
RE 29 . 1 8 . Mimicry Reviewi Implosives
la. [ •bgtaiu] lb. [•btaaSa] lc. [DV'Gjjmuoa]
2 a . [ 'dAnu] 2b. [•dAniidi] 2c. f&'dAnu&l
3a. [ •Jam] 3b. [•Janije] 3c. [Jb'jcmije]
Ua. [ • g^ceni] Ub. [ • f c e n i f o ] Uc. [^l«|benifo]
5 a . [ •pumtf] 5b. ['fiimsife] 5c. [p^'fumofie]
6a. [ •ivnee] 6b. [••funajto] 6 c . [£oe '-Euns-Eo]
7 a . [ • <?ofia] 7b [ • £ona&e] 7c [(fi'cfonacffi]
8 a . [ •icanu] 8b. ['Kaniiku] 8c [ti'JccaatiCu]

1+16 L e s s o n 29
1 . [ t a l ' k sk 'Mmovup i n ye2p ' t o n i ]
2. [ *refewo ]
3. [ 'yudlen ]
k. [ »SffilA ]
5". [ «cj6^c«5 ]
Use RE 29.2-29.3, 29.5-29.6, 29.8-29.18.
THCV SAV SHE'S 6REAT ON THt BILABIAL FLAP1.

kLi
LESSON THIRTY
Retroflexed Vowels} Breathy Vowelsj Voiced Aspirated Stops
Front Central Back

U. R. U. R, U. R.
High i u
• •
Lower-high • i V
« •
Mid e 0
• •
Lower-mid 3
*
•
Low ee A 0
Lower-low a a
Table 30,li Retroflexed Vowels
We introduced the [r] glide on pp. 179-181, and syllabic

[r] was included in the drills on syllabic consonants
(p. l$2ff,), The retroflexed vowels with which we are now
working involve exactly the same retroflexed articulation pic-
tured in Sammy 12,9, p. 180, In this lesson we simply expand
what we have done before to produce retroflexed quality on a
much wider variety of vowels. As a matter of fact, [r] glide
is to [%] as [y] is to [i] or [w] to [u]. In each case the
glide is a movement to the approximate position of the vowel,
[r] was introduced earlier because in English it is so impor-
tant and involves consonant function, as does [m n }.], etc.
Strictly speaking, however, [r] is the same as [i] or [e].
Our symbolization simply adds a dot diacritic under any

vowel which is said with tongue curled up. The symbolization,
therefore, is like that of retroflexed consonants. You identi-
fy the nearest vowel quality and write that with the dot under
it. We think of retroflexed quality as a modification super-
imposed on the basic vowel articulations, as was nasalization
in Lesson 2k»
RE 30*1. Demonstration! Table 30.1

so. Learn to read off the vowel chart with the tape. Get the
new sounds as best you can by mimicry.
U18 Lesson 30
Sammy 30. It [e] Sammy 30.2i [u]
RE 30.2. Discrimination! SAME or DIFFERENT
1. [pa»m pa»m] D 6 . [k±«f k±«f] D
2 . [pe«m pe«m] D 7. [ku«f ku»f] D

*
3. [po»m po»m] S
8. [fct«f kt«f] S
U. [po»m po«m] S
9 . [te*f kffi»f] S
5>. [pe*m pe»m] S
10. [kA.«f kA«f] D
RE 3 0 . 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! RETROFLEXED or NO
1. [ro»] RE 5. [xe»t h ] RE 9 . [ b l o c k s ] NO
2. [ra*] RE 6 . [xA»t h ] NO 10. [ble»nks] RE
•
7. [x»»t h ] NO 11. [ b l i n k s ] RE
3 . [ra«] NO
8. [xe»t h ] RE 12. [ b l i ' n k s ] RE
U. [ & . • ] RE
RE 3Q.U» Demonstration! Producing Retroflexed Vowels
Retroflexed vowels are not difficult to produce. You

have probably produced them perfectly well by mimicry already.
In case you are having difficulty, or are unsure of yourself,
Retroflexed Vowels k!9
t h e following suggestions may h e l p .
a. S t a r t with a r e t r o f l e x e d [ t ] and get the f e e l i n g of t h e
tongue contour of a r e t r o f l e x e d sound. Then say [ t a tap t e t i
t u t o ] followed by [ a e e i u o l .
b . D e l i b e r a t e l y p o i n t your tongue t i p upward, and e x p e r i -

ment saying a sound as close t o [a] as you can with t h e tongue
i n t h i s p o s i t i o n . Follow with other vowels, t r y i n g t o get as
close t o [A i o o n e E] as you can. These w i l l be r e t r o -
flexed vowels of these d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t i e s .
c . P r a c t i c e reading and t a l k i n g with your tongue kept i n

r e t r o f l e x e d p o s i t i o n . The tape demonstrates t h e reading of
t h i s paragraph i n r e t r o f l e x e d negative p r a c t i c e . P r a c t i c e
t a l k i n g t o your buddy with your tongue t i p curled up.
RE 3 0 . 5 . Mimicryi Retroflexed Vowels
Follow t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n as you mimic t h e t a p e .
la. [tete] l b . [keke] l c . [pepe]

.... . . . .
2a. [nAnA] 2b. [rjAriA] 2c. [mAma.]
3 a . [Xa2a] 3 b . [gaga] 3c [baba]
Ua. [dffidse] Ub. [gaegae] U c [baebee]
5a. [ A t h i ] 5b. [ A k \ ] 5 c [p\p h £]

RE 3 0 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l s Vowel Symbols
Respond with t h e name of t h e symbol or w r i t e t h e symbol
which corresponds t o the q u a l i t y of each of t h e following r e t -
roflexed vowels. Don't peek.
1. [yok*1] o 7. [Wif] i
2 . [yak 1 1 ] SCRIPT a 8 . [Wef] e
3 . [yik* 1 ] BARRED i 9 . [WAf ] CARET
U. [yok 1 1 ] BACKWARDS c 10. [Wof ] o
5 . [yak 1 1 ] PRINTED a 1 1 . [Wasf ] a DIGRAPH

11
6 . [yek ] EPSILON 1 2 . [ W i f ] IOTA
1+20 Lesson 30
RE 30.7* Negative Practice* "This is the House that Jack Built"
Refer to the text of RE lU.U, p. 205, if you need to.

Retroflex the vowels of each of the words which are constantly
repeated through this verse. The tape demonstrates how the
drill works but does not give the full exercise. The words in
which the retroflexed vowels are to be substituted aret house,
malt, rat, cat, dog, cow, maiden, man, priest, cock, farmer.
Breathy Vowels
Another modification of vowels we call breathiness. This

time the difference in sound is caused in the larynx by a dif-
ferent positioning of the vocal cords from that either of
voicing or of voicelessness. It sounds like a little bit of
both, as will be demonstrated on the tape.
Some languages have two vowel systems, one breathy and

the other non-breathy, just as others have two systems, one
nasalized and the other non-nasalized. Some other languages
have breathy vowels associated with particular tones or par-
ticular consonants.
We symbolize breathiness by a plus mark under the vowel

U«
Front Central Back
U. R. U. R. U. R.
••
High i u in u+
+ •
Lower-high V i V
4 +-
Mid e t
+ +- X ?
Lower-mid e e
•*
Low ae OS A. 0
4 +
Lower-low a if TO
+
Table 30,2# Some Breathy Vowels
RE 30o8. Demonstration! Table 30*2

so. Read off the vowel chart with the tape. Learn the breathy
quality by mimicry.
Breathy Vowels U21
RE 3 0 . 9 . Discrimination! SAME or DIFFERENT
1. [kra«m k a»m] D 6 . [si»w si«w] D
2. [kê-m kê-m] D 7. [sv»w sv»w] D
3 . [kÔ'm kô'm] S 8. [si«w si*w] S

+ +
9. [see^w ste*w] S
h. [kho»m kho»m] S
5. [kê'in kne»m] S 10. [SA»W SA»W] D
RE 3 0 . 1 0 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! BREATHY or NO
1. [vo»] BR 5. [xe»th] BR 9 . [ b l o c k s ] NO
2. [TO«] BR 6 . [xA»t h ] NO 10. [ b l e a k s ] BR
3 . [va»] NO 7. [ x v t h ] NO 11. [blinks] BR

h
U. [vz,»] BR 8. [xe«t ] BR 12. [bl±«nks] BR
RE 3 0 . 1 1 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! RETROFLEXED or BREATHY
1. [pa*nN] BR 5 . [gu«e h ] BR 9 . [vye«p'] BR
2. [pa»nN] RE 6 . [ga»c h ] RE 10. [vyA»p'] RE
3 . [pvnN] BR 7. [g-e'c11] BR 11. [vyvp'] RE
U. [pi»nN] RE 8. [go»c h ] BR 12. [vyse'p'] BR
RE 3 0 . 1 2 . Demonstration! Producing Breathy Vowels

Breathy vowels a r e not d i f f i c u l t t o produce. Here are
some s u g g e s t i o n s .
a. Breathy vowels a r e often associated with "spookiness'"

i n English, as i n t h i s simulated c a l l of t h e owl! [u« u» u « ] .
b . They a r e a l s o a s s o c i a t e d with s u l t r y glamor. Listen

t o t h e following anecdote read with b r e a t h y voice q u a l i t y .
P r a c t i c e reading and t a l k i n g yourself with breathy q u a l i t y .
"A l i n g u i s t who had experience with breathy vowels

through h i s knowledge of the Meo language was asked t o demon-
s t r a t e them. He r e p l i e d , 'Marilyn Monroe.' ' I s t h a t Meo?' he
was asked. ' N o , ' he r e p l i e d , ' s h e ' s f e m a l e . ' "
U22 Lesson 30
RE 3 0 . 1 3 . Mimicryt Breathy Vowels
l a . [set*] l b . [sa«sa«] lc. [sa»sa»sa*]
2a. [nu»] 2b. [nu»nu»] 2c. [nu-nu»nu*]

+
3b. [±*ee*l*&*] 3c [l*ee«l*8B'l*a8*]
3a. [l-a8«]
l+b. [tso»tso«] he. [tso»tso'tso«]
Ua. [tso«]
5b. [ti»ti»] 5c [ti«ti»ti»]
5a. [ t i « ]
6a. [ k ' i . ] 6b. [k'i»k*|»] 6 c . [k i«k i«k i » ]
RE 30.lU. Mimicryt Various Vowel Modifications

l a . [bgx] l b . [box] l c . [bex]
•» I d . [box]
•>
2a. [pjM-x] 2b. [ppr-x] 2c. [ppt-x] 2d. [ppuc]
«>
3 b . [Mmax] 3 c . [Mmax] 3d. [Mmax]
3 a . [Mmax]
J+b. [bvox] Uc. [bvox] ltd. [bvox]
Ua. [bvox]
5b. [pkix] 5c [pfcix] 5d. [p h ix]
5a. [phix]
6b. [Av] 6c. pêv] 6d. [lêv]
6a. [k^v]
7b. [gAv] 7c. [gAv] 7d. [gAv]
? a . [gAv]
8b. [gov] 8c. [nov] 8d. [qov]
8a. [nov]
9b. [Ijnav] 9 c . [goav] 9d. [Ifoccv]
9a. [JJQOV]
10b. [kxuv] 10c. [kxuv] 10c. [kxuv]
10a. [kxuv]
Voiced Aspirated Stops
Alveolar/ Alveo- Retro-
Bilabial dental palatal flexed Velar
VI. unasp. P t c t k
•
VI. a s p . P* th ch kh
•
Vd. unasp. b d i d g
•
Vd. a s p . 1ft d* £ g*
Table 30.3t Some Voiced Aspirated Stops

Voiced Aspirated Stops U23
In Lesson 28 we discussed the relationship between voice-
less vowels and aspiration of voiceless stops. Voiced stops
occur with aspiration also, but the aspiration is breathy. In
other words, the aspiration of a voiceless stop is to a voice-
less vowel as the aspiration of a voiced stop is to a breathy
vowel. Aspiration of voiced stops is extremely important in
India, Pakistan and Ceylon.
RE 30.15. Demonstration* Production of Voiced Aspirated Stops
The principal problem in the production of voiced aspira-

ted stops is keeping a very close transition between the stop
and the aspiration so that the breathy aspiration does not be-
come syllabic. Try these suggestions*
a. Start with a sequence like Tab Hunter and make the fol-
lowing adaptations in mimicry of the tape.
1. Tab Hunter
2. [t h ae»b'hAntr]
3. [t^'bÂntr]
b . Try the same procedure w i t h bad h a r v e s t , and big
hangar.
c . Mimic t h e t a p e on t h e following sequence. Be s u r e t h e

vowel coming a f t e r t h e a s p i r a t i o n i s not b r e a t h y .
1. [abaha]
2. [abaa]
3. [ab h a]
RE 30.16. Negative Practice* Voiced Aspirated Stops
Mimic the tape and follow the transcription as you sub-

stitute voiced aspirated stops in these English sequences.
la. baby lb. blfaby lc. bâb^y
2a. dodo 2 b . dfcodo 2 c . dSodô
3 a . gagging 3 b . gâgging 3c g£agg£ing
U. b+ig b*ad b+oy

k2k Lesson 30
5 . g v o o e y g v o o e y g+urodrops
6 . d h on»t djunk djonuts
RE 3 0 . 1 7 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VOICED or VOICELESS
The d i s t i n c t i o n between voiced and v o i c e l e s s a s p i r a t e d
stops i s not d i f f i c u l t t o h e a r . Respond with VOICED or
VOICELESS. Don't peeki
1. [p h o] VL 5. [t h ay] VL 9 . [n8«t h os] VL

2. [bjv] VD 6 . [d£,y] VD 10. [ne'jjess] VD
3 . [c h e] VL 7. [djiy] VD 1 1 . [ng'lfâs] VL
k. [ghas] VD 8 . [bhAy] VD 12. [ns'ghus] VD
RE 30.18. Differential* ASPIRATED or IMPLOSIVE

h
1. [dno] A 5. [»i'<$4] A 9. [rA'd afi] A
2. [&»] I 6. [ ' i « d i ] I 10. [rA'boft] I
3 . [b*?e] A 7. [•i'gfep] A 1 1 . [rA« <fi£] I
h, [jhoe] A 8. [ » i t j e ] I 12. [rA'guft] I
RE 30.19. Mimicryi Voiced Aspirated Stops
la. a»»b£a] l b . [a»'b£abl?a] l c . [ >bJab h abJa]
2a. o««djo] 2b. [o^'d&odjo] 2c. ( •djodjodjo]

h
3a. e««$e] 3b. [e»'j£e$e] 3 c [ 'j ejhejhe]
Ua. ee«'d&e] Ub. [ee»'d&ed&e] Uc. 'd^ffidteedJae]
5a. oe^'gâe] 5b. [oe •'gVosg.03 ] 5c "'gjoegjcegjde]
6a. 'bjeru] 6b. [bjebkeru] 6c. ['bjerubje]
7a. d^z-ru] 7b. [d&.'d'Mu] 7c •d&,rud*k]
8a. jhofu] 8b. [$o«$ofu] 8c. -jjoruô]

9a. djoru] 9b. [dJo'd h ofu] 9c [«dJofud h o]
10a. ghi.ru] ' 10b. [g£i.'gjir\i] 10c [tgjirugfc.]

Voiced A s p i r a t e d S t o p s h25
RE 3 0 . 2 0 » Kuy. Mimicryt [TJL»]
1. [cu»n] 'to send' 6. [imi«r ] 'to roll'

+
2. [cu«y] ' t o help1

7. [mu«t] 'to enter'
3. [kA'rlu*] ' t o push'
8. [ n t f ^ i ' n ] 'termites'
k> [kA'tu'q] 'to transplant 9. tplu*'] 'to fall (for
rice'
5. [klu*p] 'to cover a trees)'
plant with a 10. [tu«h] 'yonder'
basket'
RE 3 0 . 2 1 » Kuy. Mimicryt [u u u« u«]
The Kuy l a n g u a g e h a s a whole s e r i e s of b r e a t h y vowels

( b o t h l o n g and s h o r t ) which c o n t r a s t s w i t h n o n - b r e a t h y vowels
( b o t h l o n g and s h o r t ) . I n t h i s and t h e s u c c e e d i n g e x e r c i s e s
two of t h e Kuy b r e a t h y vowels a r e d r i l l e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h some
c o n t r a s t with non-breathy vowels. In order t o a c c e n t u a t e t h e
d i f f e r e n c e , Kuy n o n - b r e a t h y vowels a r e g e n e r a l l y more t e n s e
t h a n E n g l i s h v o w e l s , w i t h a g r e a t e r c o n s t r i c t i o n of t h e muscles
a t t h e opening of t h e t h r o a t ( f a u c a l p i l l a r s ) . This k i n d of
vowel m o d i f i c a t i o n ( f a u c a l i z a t i o n ) i s n o t b e i n g d r i l l e d i n t h i s
c o u r s e , b u t i m i t a t e i t as b e s t you c a n .
1. [dV] 'often' 3. [l'u*] 'to mix together
2. [kAya* 9 ] 'sorghum' Uo t p l t f ] 'to f a l l (for

+ trees)•
RE 3 0 . 2 2 i Kuy. Mimicryt [c/]
1. [ro»t] ' t o jump' 7. [ko«*] 'forest'
2. [mo«n] 'crazy' 8. [ko«n] 'trunk of t r e e '
3. [n'no«l~] ' t o be p u f f e d 9. [kA'po«k] 'firecracker'

up'
tu [n'tr'o'y] ' t o loosen s o i l ' 10. [lAo«h] ' t o escape'
5. [no«m] 'laymen' 11. [n'ko«p] ' a k i n d of frog'
6. [ko»] 'cow'
RE 3 0 . 2 3 * Kuy. Mimicry! [o v o v o» o«]
1. [klo'n] ' s o c k woven of 2. [kA'yo«lA] ' r e d "bud" of

leaves' banana'
h26 Lesson 3 0
3. [m'po'r)] 'brace' km [mo«q] 'crazy'
T r a n s c r i p t i o n and Reading
Use RE 3 0 . 2 - 3 0 . 3 , 3 0 . 5 - 3 0 . 6 , 3 0 . 9 ~ 3 0 . 1 1 , 3 0 . 1 3 ~ 3 0 . l l i ,
30.17-30.23.
U)ELL POCTOB, H£ U>AS TRVlMG TO PRONOUNCE

I, K
A RETROÎ-EXED SVLLABlC § fi,fJV GOT A KMOT

,KJ HIS TO|M<SUE!
U27
LESSON THIRTY-ONE
Clicks
Retrofli
Alveopa latal
Alveola
Dental
Bilabi?
H 4
K
CO
Central1
VI. unaspirated P* t* t«- c* t«-
•
VIo a s p i r a t e d ^ th* th*" c^*
Voiced b* d*- d«- d* d*

A
•
Nasalized m*- n<- n«- n* n*
A
•
Lateral
VI. unaspirated t&*
VI. aspirated tLh*
Voiced dL*
Nasalized Hi*-
Table 31.1* Some Clicks
Not only do we have the vast majority of speech sounds

made with air coming out of the lungs, and the smaller but
important number of pharynx air sounds, where the air stream
is drawn in or pushed out by the lowering or raising action
of the larynx (Lessons 27 and 29), but we also have speech
sounds in which the air stream is initiated in the mouth.
These are called clicks.
Central clicks (as opposed to lateral ones) have a re-

lease which is over the center and tip of the tongue. When
these are affricated (as most central clicks except retroflexed
ones are) the fricative quality is at the nearest point of ar-
ticulation to that of the stop feature of the click. (Even
nasalized clicks have a stop feature.) In lateral clicks, how-
ever, the fricative quality is [£] no matter what the point of
articulation of the stop feature of the click.
U28 Lesson 3 1
As non-speech sounds some c l i c k s occur everywhere, b u t as

f u l l - f l e d g e d consonants t h e y are r e s t r i c t e d t o South Africa.
The c l i c k s a r e not a t a l l d i f f i c u l t t o do i n i s o l a t i o n as we
have used them f o r a wide v a r i e t y of n o n - l i n g u i s t i c purposes
a l l of our l i v e s . These a c t i v i t i e s include k i s s i n g ( v o i c e l e s s
b i l a b i a l c l i c k ) , expressing mild reproval t " t s k t s k " ( v o i c e -
l e s s d e n t a l c l i c k ) , "giddeap" ( v o i c e l e s s l a t e r a l a f f r i c a t e d
click), etc.
I f you examine Sammy 3 1 . 1 you w i l l see t h a t t h e r e are two

closures i n the mouth, j u s t as f o r a double s t o p . However, i n
a c l i c k , which i s an i n g r e s s i v e mouth a i r sound,2 t h e back of
the tongue moves backward, creating a p a r t i a l vacuum i n t h e
mouth, and t h e sound i s created by the a i r going i n t o the
mouth a f t e r t h e r e l e a s e (Sammy 3 1 . 2 ) . Double stops d i f f e r i n
t h a t they involve lung a i r . Double stops sometimes have a
c l i c k a r t i c u l a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d with them as was shown i n Sammy
21.U, p . 300, but t h i s mouth a i r a r t i c u l a t i o n i s secondary.
The primary airstream comes from t h e l u n g s . Voiced and n a s a l -
ized c l i c k s introduced below involve lung a i r f o r the voicing
and n a s a l i z a t i o n , but t h i s i s simultaneous with the c l i c k and
does not a l t e r i t s mouth a i r a r t i c u l a t i o n .
Our symbolization does not show i t , but a l l c l i c k s except

r e t r o f l e x e d ones tend t o have a v o i c e l e s s a f f r i c a t e d r e l e a s e
which you w i l l hear on t h e t a p e . If you t e s t t h i s out with a
kLs3(a b i l a b i a l one) you w i l l see t h a t t h e b i l a b i a l a r t i c u l a t i o n
i s opened s l i g h t l y while t h e tongue i s s t i l l p u l l i n g backward
t o give what we could t r a n s c r i b e more p r e c i s e l y as [pp*-].
RE 3 1 . 1 . Demonstratiom Producing Voiceless Clicks
The simple v o i c e l e s s c l i c k s should not give you any

t r o u b l e once you have heard them demonstrated.
a. [p«-] i s nothing more than a k i s s . Mimic the tape i n

the following sequencet
1. [p<- p* p«- p* p*] 3 . [p*a p«-a p*a p«u p*a]
2. [ap*- ap* ap«- ap*- ap«-]
iou'11 get a bigger kick

From a quadrilabial click
With a bilabial chick.
2
Egressive mouth a i r i s a l s o p o s s i b l e , b u t w i l l not be
included h e r e .
Clicks ^29
Sammy 31,1.1 Voiceless Bi- Sammy 31.2t [p*-] After Release

labial Click [p*-] Before of Bilabial Closure
Release
b. ft*-] or [t«-] is simply the sign of mild reproach used

by speakers of English and represented by "tsk, tsk" in the
comic strips. The difference between [t*- t<-], of course, is
in the point of articulation, whether it is dental or alveolar.
la. [t*- t«- t*- %*• t*-] lb. [t*- t<- t«- t*- t*-]
2a. [at*- at*- at*- ai<*- at*-] 2b. [at*- at*- at*- at*- at*-]
3a. [t*-a t*-a t*-a t*-a t*-a] 3b. [t*-a t*-a t*-a t*-a t*-a]
c . [ t £ ] i s t h e "giddeap" c l i c k of the American farmer t o

his horse.
1. [tB*- t l > t&* t3b* tfcfr]
2 . [oti*- ati*- at£*- at£*- ati*-]
3 . [tL*-a t£*-a t£*a t&*-a t£*-a]
d. [c*-] can be easily made on the analogy of [t*-]. Just

keep the tongue tip down behind the lower teeth.
1. [c*- c*- c«- c*- c*-] 3. [c*-a c*-a c*-a c*-a c«-a]
2. [ac<- ac*- ac* ac*- ac*-]
h30 Lesson 31
e. [t*-] i s a f a m i l i a r sound often made i n p l a y .
1. [t*- t«- t*- t*- t*-] 3 . [t*-a t*-a t<-a t*-a t*-a]
2 . [at*- at*- atA at*- at*-]
Sammy 31.3« [t*-]
f. With a l i t t l e p r a c t i c e , a s p i r a t i o n can be added t o any

of t h e s e .
1. [ p ^ a p ^ a ph^-a p ^ a pk-a]
2. [ t ^ a t ^ a t ^ a t ^ a ijâ]
3 . [ t ^ a th*-a t ^ a t ^ a t h «-a]
k» [ c ^ a c ^ a c^t-a ch*-a c ^ a ]
5. [ t ^ a t ^ a t ^ a t ^ a t ^ a ]
6. [ t t ^ a t & ^ a t & ^ a tl£*-a tl£*-a]
RE 3 1 . 2 . D i f f e r e n t i a l s CENTRAL or LATERAL Release
I f t h e r e l e a s e of t h e c l i c k i s l a t e r a l respond with
LATERAL. Otherwise respond with CENTRAL.
Clicks U31
h
1. [a«tt<-a] L 5. [pw«t«-o] C 9. [mu«t *-Ay] C
2. [e«t«-o] C 6. [ t o ' t L ^ S t ] L 1 0 . [nA«t£«-z,y] L
3. [otcê] c ?. [ c i ' t h * - e ] C 11. [n^'tlNey] L
U. [e't^-v] c 8. [ k a e ' p m ] C 1 2 . [r)9'c*-ay] C
RE 3 1 . 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l * GLOTTALIZED or CLICK
The sound of a g l o t t a l l z e d consonant i s readily distinguish-

able from a c l i c k i f the two are pronounced i n exaggerated or
d e l i b e r a t e fashion. I f they are produced i n a more l e n i s way,
however, they sound somewhat more a l i k e , although there s t i l l
i s an appreciable d i f f e r e n c e . Don't peek.
1. [a't'a] G 6. [pp«k'o] G 11. [mu'tiÂy] C
2. [e't«-o] C 7. [ f o ' t ' i ] G 12. [nA»k\y] G
3. [o'c°e] G 8. [©i't*-ee] C 13. [ n j - ' p ' a y ] G
li. [e«p*-i>] C 9 . [sae'p*m] C Hi. [n9'c«-ay] C
5. [i'p'i] G 10. [ s i ' t « - i ] C 15. [ l a t t * - o y ] c

RE 3 1 . U . D i f f e r e n t i a l * LV.PLOSIVE or CLICK
When you make a v o i c e l e s s implosive, with the exception of

[R], there i s a temptation t o s u b s t i t u t e a mouth a i r sound -
a c l i c k without a f f r i c a t i o n , or a t l e a s t •with l e s s than what we
u s u a l l y p r a c t i c e . Implosives and clicks are both ingressive,
the one with pharynx a i r and the other with mouth a i r . The
implosives are lower-pitched than the c l i c k s . Respond with
IMPLOSIVE or CLICK. Don't peek.
1. [a«£a] I 6. [si«t«-i] C 11. [mu"t£<-Aw] C
2. [e«t«-o] C 7. [S8B«p«Tl] c 1 2 . [na'c*-aw] c

3. [o'<fe] I 8. [fo«£i] I 13. [nA'ftw] I
h. [i'fe] I 9. [«»1*B] c Hi. [nz,' c?sw] I
5. [e«p«-w] c 10. [pp'ko] I 1 5 . [la't*-aw] C
RE 3 1 . 5 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! ASPIRATED o r UNASPIRATED
1. [ s ' p ^ - u ] A 2. [i»p*i] U 3 . [o«c«-e] U

k32 Lesson 3 1
h. [e't h <-o] A 7. [ f o ' t h « - i ] A 10. [ n Y ' t ^ o H ] U
5. [pu't«-o] U 8. [ s i » t * d ] U 11. [nA'tt^tH] A
6. [9i't<-ss] U 9. [ i a ' c ^ o H ] A 1 2 . [r9't£*-aH] U
RE 3 1 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l i Point of A r t i c u l a t i o n
Respond t o t h e c l i c k s you hear with LABIAL, DENTAL, AL-

VEOLAR, ALVEOPAIATAL, or PALATAL ( f o r r e t r o f l e x e d c l i c k s ) .
Don't peek.
1 . [ a •t*-a] PA 6. [pu'cô] AP 11. [mu •tI, h «-Ar] AL
2 . [e 'P*-o] LA 7. [fo«tk-±] AL 1 2 . [nA • c*-z,r~ AP
3. [o •M DE 8. [ei«th-u] PA 13. [nz- •p«-9r] LA
k. [e «ti*-v] AL 9. [see'pû] IA Ik. fae ' t ^ a r ] AL
5. [ i «tHr] AL 10. [Si'tî] DE 15. [ l a »t«-or PA
RE 3 1. 7 . Mimicry* V o i c e l e s s C l i c k s
la. [p*x] lb. [jk-a] lc. [p«-xa] Id. [p«-ka]
2 a . tap*-] 2 b . [ahp*-] 2 c . [cap*] 2d. [akp-]
3a. [t«-0] 3b. [th-0] 3c. [t+a/5] 3d. [*•**>]

Ua. [eS-b*-] Ub. [rfht*-] Uc. [0xt«-] Ud. [ibkt*-]
5a. [t*-a] 5b. [ t ^ a ] 5 c [t*-xa] 5d. [t«-ka]

6 a . [at*-] 6b. [aht«-] 6 c . [axt«-] 6d. [akt*-]
11
7a. [c«"ffi] 7 b . [c -^] 7 c [cwcee] 7d. [c*-kse]
8 a . [sec*-] 8 b . [aehc*-] 8c. [ffiXC*] 8d. [skc*-]
9a. [tt-i] 9b. [ t ^ i ] 9 c [t*oci] 9 d . [t*-ki]

•
10a. [ i t * ] 10b. [iht*] 1 0 c . [ixt«-] lOd. [ i k t * ]
11a. [t**1i] lib. [ttVi] lie. [t£*xu] lid. [tfi*-ku]
1 2 a . [utfc*-] 12b. [uht£«-] 1 2 c . [uxt£*>] 12d. [uktt*-]

Clicks U33
Nasalized Clicks
If you will experiment a little bit and "pucker up" for

a bilabial click without releasing it, you can say a simulta-
neous [m] with it, Sammy 31.U shows you why. The click mech-
anism is completely in the mouth, and does not obstruct the
passage from the lungs out through the velic opening and nose
which makes possible a nasal consonant, A nasalized click is
one in which there is a nasal articulation preceding and simul-
taneous with a click, as in Sammy 31.5, or in the following
segmental diagram.
[a i#- o]
B i l a b i a l closure
Velar c l o s u r e
Mouth a i r
Lung a i r
Velic open
Voicing
Sammy 31.U* Voiced Nasal- Sammy 3 1 . 5i [m«-] After

ized B i l a b i a l Click [m*-] Release of B i l a b i a l Closure
Before Release
2i3U Lesson 3 1
Don't let the symbolization fool you. [m*-] is a [p<-] with
a simultaneous nasal quality. Or, you can think of it as [n]
and [p«-] at the same time ([n] because the back of the tongue
is articulated against the velum to move backwards and produce
the ingressive mouth air stream). In the same manner, [n*-] is
[t«-] with a simultaneous [13], etc.
RE 31.8. Demonstrations Nasalized Clicks
a. Make a long [n»«] and without releasing it say several

clicks in a row simultaneously with it.
1. With [p*-]t [n» m4- m*- m*- n& m*-]
2. With [t*-]t [n» n*- n*- n*- n«- n*-]
3 . With [c*-]i [n« n«- n«- rfr n*- n*-]
k. With [t*-]i [ri" n«- n*- n* n<- itf-]
5. With [tib 4 -]! [13 • n i * n£<- nL* n£<- n&<-]
b. Isolate the nasalized clicks you have been producing

and say them in sequence with vowels.
1 . [isf- m*- m*-a m«-a am*-a am*-a]
2 . [n«- n*- n«-a n*-a an«-a an«-a]
3 . [£•• n*- n«-a n*-a an*-a an*-a]
U. [n«- n*- n*-a n*-a an«-a an*-a]
5 . [ni* - n L v n L ^ a n£«-a a n L ^ a anL*-a]
RE 3 1 . 9 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VOICELESS o r NASALIZED
1. [a't«-a] V 6. [pu'nVo] N 1 1 . [mu'niÂR] N
2 . [e»m*-o] N 7 . [fo»c«-i] V 12. [nA'c^R] V
3. [o«n*-e] N 8. [9±«n-ae] N 1 3 . [&»m<-9R] N
U. [e'n£«-v] N 9. [see'p«-u] V lU. [n8<n<-aft] N
5. [i»t*-i] V 10. [si»tL«-i] V I S . [la«t*-oS] V
RE 31.10. Mimicry! Nasalized Clicks
l a . [z,n»m*-e] l b . [z.«m«-e] l c . [m*-e]

Clicks ll35
2a. [6n«n*-8] 2b. [e'nê] 2c. [n«-8]
3a. [gn'n*-u] 3b. [9"nHi] 3 c . [n*-ii]
Ua. [un'n*-o] Ub. [u'n<-o] Uc. [n«-o]
5a. [on'n*-e] 5b. [o»n«-e] 5c. [nfce]
6a. [en'nBÂ] 6b. [e'n£ v A] 6 c . [n£*-A]
RE 3 1 . 1 1 . Mimicry. Voiceless and Nasalized Clicks
l a . [rtf'pA-oz] l b . [r#»m*-oz] l c . [r0p*-om«-]
2a. [fee »t«-i>z] 2b. [roe'rit-vz] 2c. [roe t*-vn«-]
3a. [ r a ' t * i z ] 3 b . [ra»n*-iz] 3c [ra'tîn*-]
Ua. [ru'c*-Az] Ub. [ru'n*-Az] Uc. [ru'c«-An«-]
5a. [fz.'t*-oz] 5b. [rz.«n*oz] 5c [rY't*on*-]

• • • •
6a. [ r s ' t i f e z ] 6b. [ r e ' n i ^ e z ] 6c. [ro'tI.*-enB*-]
Voiced Clicks
Voiced c l i c k s are produced i n a way analogous t o nasalized

ones, except t h a t t h e v e l i c i s closed (Sammies 31.6 and 3 1 . 7 ) .
Lung a i r causes voicing by moving i n t o t h e pharynx preceding
and simultaneous with the c l i c k . A segmental diagram would
d i f f e r from the one shown on p . U33 only by removal of the
open v e l i c
The symbolization follows t h e same logic as t h a t of na-

s a l i z e d c l i c k s , [b*-] i s a [p*-] with simultaneous v o i c i n g . Or,
you can t h i n k of i t as [g] and [p«-] a t the same time, because
the back of t h e tongue i s up simultaneously with the v o i c i n g .
RE 31.12 Demonstration! Voiced Clicks
a. S t a r t with the sequence [ga ga ga ga] and then con-

t i n u e , making simultaneous c l i c k s with i t .
1. With [p*-]i [ga ga ga ga b«-a b«-a b«-a b*-a]
2 . With [t«-]i [ga ga ga ga d*-a d«-a d*-a d*-a]
3 . With [c«-]t [ga ga ga ga j«-a j*-a j*-a j<-a]
U. With [t«-]i [ga ga ga ga d*-a a>a a>a dt-a]

1*36 Lesson 31
Sammy 31.6* [b<-] Before Sammy 31.7 » [b<-] After Re-

Release lease
5. With [ti«-]i [ga ga ga ga diâ d£*-a dt*"a diâ]
b . Make a long vowel, and then a r t i c t i l a t e a [g] and t h e

proper c l i c k simultaneously.
1. With [p-]$ [a»«b«-a a««b«-a]
2. With [t«-]t [a«'d+-a a»'d*-a]
3 . With [c«-]» [a«»j«-a a»'j>a]
h. With [%*-]t [a»«d*-a a««d*-a]
5. With [tt*-]i [a«'di*-a a«»d&«"a]
RE 3 1 . 1 3 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VOICED or VOICELESS
1. [e'd«-o] VD 5. [xa»t«-oe] VL 9 . [g4't*-anM] VL

2 . [o«c*-as] VL 6 . [xoe«b*-u] VD 1 0 . [ga»dHinM] VD
3 . [ffi'jm] VD 7 . [xu«d£*-o] VD 11. [gu't£*-inM] VL
k. [u»p«-a] VL 8 : [xo'ck-i] VD 1 2 . [gi«d*-tmM] VD

Clicks 1437
RE 3 1 . Hi*. D i f f e r e n t i a l ! VOICED o r NASALIZED
1. [u'b*-a] V 6. [xo«n*-i] N 11. [g4'd*-anM] V
•
2. [ae«n<-u] N 7. [xa«d«-ce] V 12. [gu'dlîrrM] V
3 . [o«j*^] V 8. [xoe'bni] ? 13. [ga«n«-iinM] N
k. [ e ' d f ^ s ] V 9. [xv«n£«-e] N lU. [gi*n*-viiM] N
5. [e'n*-o] N 10. [xce'm^v] N 1 5 . [gv«d«-oenM] V
RE 3 1 . 1 5 . D i f f e r e n t i a l ! CLICK or IMPLOSIVE
1. [e«d«-o] C 5. [xa»cfoe] I 9 . [gi'dlai*!] I
2. [o'jffi] I 6. [xoe«b*-i7] C 10. [ga'cHirM] C
3 . [ee«j*-u] C 7. [xv«d£*-o] C 1 1 . [gu'dt*imM] I
h. [u»6a] I 8. [xo'cfe] I 12. [gi'd*vnM] C

e
RE 3 1 . 1 6 . Mimicry! Voiced Clicks
l a . [&g«b*-6] l b . [t'b«-e] l c . [b*-e]
2a. [eg«d*9] 2b. [e'o>9] 2 c . [d.«-s]
3 a . [9g'd«-u] 3b. O'dHi] 3 c . [d*u]
Ua. [ug«j*-o] lib. [ u ' j * o ] Uc. | > o ]
5a. [og"d«-e] 5b. [o«d*-e] 5c [d*e]

• • •
6a. [eg'dLÂ] 6b. [e»d£*A] 6 c . [d&*A]
RE 3 1 . 1 7 . Mimicryi Voiced and Nasalized Clicks
l a . [nVs'nôc11] l b . [5)6«b«-och] l c . [n0»m*-ob*-]
2a. [noe'n^pc 11 ] 2b. [noe'd^vc 11 ] 2 c . [fice «n*-vd<-]
3 a . [na'nt-ic*1] 3 b . [na»d«-ic h ] 3c [na'n*-id<-]
lia. [nu'nVAc11] Hb. [nu'j«-Ac h ] Uc. [nu'n*-Aj<-]
5a. [rk'nt-oc* 1 ] 5b. [nV'dôc*1] 5c [nz,«n*-od<-]

• • • •
6a. [n9«nt*-ec h ] 6 b . [He»difec11] 6 c . [ns>«n£«-ed£*]
1)38 Lesson 3 1
RE 31.18, Negative Practices Clicks
Make the indicated substitutions in the following English

sentences.
1. p«-eter p*-ip«-er pricked a p*-eck of p«-ickled p*-epp«-ers
2. b«-ig c*-ad b«-oy
3 . m*-other intake m*-e mVuch m*-ore m*-ush
U. t*-ake t^-omray t<-o t h e t*-rain
5. d«-oes d«-otty d<-ream
6. nfed n*-ever kn«-ew n«-ancy's n«-ew n«-umber
7. t*-ake t«-ommy t<ro the t*-rain

• • • •
8. d*-oes d*-otty d«-ream
• . .
9. n*-ed rrf-ever n«-ew n*ancy's n*-ew n*uraber
« • * • • •
RE 31.191 Zulu. Mimicryt Click Song
Listen t o t h i s song r e p e a t e d l y and l e a r n t o sing i t . Mien
you can do i t w e l l with [ t % s u b s t i t u t e other c l i c k s .
[«t«ma 't«-awa »t*-ua 't*-a] (Repeat)

v
• • • •
['tVua 't*-awa ' t f i p i l i t«-i't«-o v ] (Repeat)
A
• • • • •
[t«d.'t<-o v l A iam t^-i'tô-lMam t ^ i ' t ^ o ^ i a m t<-i'tô^] (Repeat)
• * • • • • • *
RE 31.20i Zulu. Mimicryt Clicks
Mimic the tape as i t reads down each column. Each item

i s given only once, so you may want t o repeat each column sev-
e r a l times.
Set 1 Set 2
1. [»t«-i*raa] 'extinguish' [«t*-i«|na] 'too clean'
2. [i't*-i».t«-i] « ear ring' [ii'tâ't^q] 'polecat'
3 . [isit*-o!'thu«lAo] 'shoe' [uml't«-a«r a] 'neck'

Clicks U39
Set 1 Set 2
U. ['t*-ov»lAa] 'setting the [i«t*-b-X*t«-o] 'to bully'

' hair'
5. [ama'~t«-'u«lAo] 'they are [ugu>'t*-ov«nta] ' t o under-

1
hymns' stand'
Set 3 Set It
1. [ugu|'tB'*"i»na] 'urge t o [•t"«-i»ns , a] 'sprinkle'

' hurry' i
2. [t£<-Q!'tfc<'s»;ia] 'relate' ['tâ't^q] 'clean'
3 . [u't&a'mu] 'frog' [«t^-o v »ma] ' t o stick up'
U. [ i ' t i r o \ t f c * " o ] 'toad' [u'tû^ku] 'trouble'
£. fuj'thi-t&'-o] 'God'
Set 5 Set 6
1. [tn*-q«th«-a] •to t e a r [tLh*-tLn<-i*'raa] 'be e x c i t e d '

apart'
2. [itûHtLâ'ne] ' i t i s a [i l t£ 1 *-i , |ba] 'cookhouse'

* ' hut'
3 . [ugu'tûima] 'to burst' [ugu'tifo^ma] ' t o join1
U. [ugu'th*Vth»-a] 'to [«tLh<-u»tLh*-a] 'boil some-

shiver' ! thing thick'
5. [t£n*-u«tLn<-u«1ma] 'to be
restless'
Set 7 Set 8
1. [i,(n*-wa»ti] 'it is a book' [i['n<-i»na] 'the hunt'

liUo Lesson 31
2 . [ka«n*-cx»]ne*] 'little" [ w e l l f i y ^ k i ] 'God'
3 . [ijln*wi»n*'wi] 'honeybird' [,n*>fe^na] 'lazy'
h, [i'«n"wa»n«'wa] ' p a s t e ' [i'si*n«-e] ' s m a l l of back'
5. [nô^nk a] ' p i l e up'
6. [i | n*-o v «l / l a] 'wagon'
Set 9 Set 10
1. [i!"n£*l«wa] 'abandoned [d*-i«na] ' t o end'

site'
2. [ m f a ] »if [dt-ajba] 'to incise'
3 . ['n&â-pari (exclamation) [d*wy,ra] 'to f i l l '
lu [ni*"uruj'pe«ni] 'place' [d*-o^«na] 'to tease'
Set 11 Set 12
1. [d«-inj's 3>l*a] 'slam down' [»di*"i»l*_a] 'sink into'
2. ['d*-i«za] 'ankle decora- r'd&*"a»2a1 ' t o ooze out'

!
~ tion'
3 . [ , d«-i»ba] 'cover' ['dJAo^ba] 'smash'
• i
U. ['d«-u«jia] ' t o groan' [dfc*"uf me^ga] 'plunge i n t o
1 ground'
5. ['diû'ma] ' t o jump'

Mil
LESSON THIRTY-TTO
Pharyngealized Sounds
Front Central. Back

U. R. U. R. 0. R,
High i u
Lower-high v i V
r-J
Mid e 0
Lower-mid 6
Low ffi A 0
Lower-low
Table 32. lj Pharyngealized Vowels
Pharyngealization is a modification of articulation such

that the pharyngeal cavity is constricted, usually by drawing
the root of the tongue back into it as in Sammies 32.1 and
32.2o Any vowel or consonant may be pharyngealized, but the
pharyngealization is not heard as easily on consonants as on
vowels. In those languages where pharyngealized consonants
occur some of the pharyngealized consonants are detected pri-
marily by the fact that the surrounding vowels are colored by
the pharyngealization as well. On some consonants pharyngeali-
zation is more easily heard than others, and we will emphasize
them.
Pharyngealized consonants are symbolized in the same way

as pharyngealized vowels, by a wavy line under the usual sym-
bol for the basic articulation. This gives us [f s 1 n ] , etc.
Sammies 32.3 and 32.h give the articulations for two pharyn-
gealized consonants.
Pharyngeal!zation is extremely important in Arabic and

some related languages of the Middle East and North and East
Africa. It is to be found in some other languages as well.
RE 32.1. Demonstration! Producing Pharyngealized Vowels
a. Start with the vowel [a] and pull the root of the
tongue downwards (opening up a larger cavity in the back of
the mouth) and backwards (pushing into the pharyngeal cavity
hh2 Lesson 32
Sammy 32.It [ej. The pha- Sammy 32.2t [g]. The solid
ryngealized vowel is shown line shows the pharyngealized
by the solid line. A non- vowel and the broken one
pharyngealized [e] is the corresponding non-
shown by the broken line. pharyngealized vowel.
Sammy 32.3i [1] Sammy 32.Ut [£3

Pharyngealized Vowels UU3
and making i t s m a l l e r ) . This gives you [a» a » ] . Move t h e root

of t h e tongue backwards and forwards t o get [a»a»a»a«a»a»a»],
b . I f you have d i f f i c u l t y doing t h i s , p r e s s t h e back of

your tongue down and back with t h e handle of a spoon or w i t h a
p e n c i l and say [a»] as you do i n t h e d o c t o r ' s o f f i c e . By
moving t h e spoon or p e n c i l , h e l p yourself get t h e f e e l of
[a» a« a* a* a* <$•]•
c. With your thumb and forefinger on your throat just un-

der the chin and above the larynx, push inward and downward
on your throat gently as you say [a*]. Then push in and out
to get [ a» a* a* a* a* ].
d. Stand in front of a mirror and watch the back of your

tongue as you practice going from [a«] to [a*].
e. Practice talking English with the root of your tongue

way down and back. Read this paragraph in this style in the
same manner the tape does.
f. Follow these same procedures on other vowels to give

you sequences like these*
1. [o» o« o* o» o» o»] 3. [o» o» o* o« o* o«]
2. [as* ae» «• »• se» as»] h. [e« e* e* e* e« e»]
g. Listen repeatedly to the tape demonstration of the

vowels in Table 32.1. Learn to read off the vowel chart with
the tape.
HE 32.2. Differential LARYNGEALIZED or PHARYNGEALIZED
You may have noticed in the demonstrations above that the

pharyngealized vowels had something of the same rasping quality
as the laryngealized vowels of Lesson 28. This may have been
due in part to actual laryngealization along with the pharyn-
gealization, but not entirely. The constriction in the pharynx
caused by the pulling back of the root of the tongue can create
a rasping quality reminiscent of laryngealization.
Regardless of the similarity, however, laryngealized and

pharyngealized vowels can be distinguished because of the
other differences of quality. The more open mouth cavity and
the more constricted pharyngeal cavity in pharyngealization
produces a sound quite different from the laryngealized vowel.
Listen to the tape and decide whether the vowel is LARYNGEAL-
IZED or PHARYNGEALIZED. Don't peekj
Lesson 32
1. [a.] P 6 . [zo»] L 1 1 . [nu'vu*] L
2 . [a»] L 7 . [zi«] L 12. [nu've»] P
3 . [8«] L 8. [zg«] P 13. [nu'vz,*] L
U. [«•] P 9. [ZA«] P m. r
Lnu'vA.]
9
-,
L
5. [o.] P 10. [zo«] P 15. [nu'va*] P
RE 3 2 . 3 . Mimicryt Pharyngealized Vowels
l a . [g»] l b . [lva»] lc. [yo'â*
2a. [s»] 2b. [I'SB*] 2c. [yo'tV
3 a . [o«] 3b. [r2.] 3 c . [yo't h o«
Ua. [ A « ] Ub. [1VA«] Uc. [yo't h A»
5a. [o»] 5b. [l"o«] 5 c . [yo't"o*
6a. [e»] 6b. [ l v e « ] 6 c . [yo't h &«
7a. [e»] 7b. [ l v e « ] 7c. [yo«t h e»
8a. [i»] 8b. [ l v i . ] 8c. [ y o ' t h i »
Pharyngealized Glides
The Arabic languages have two sounds which are a c t u a l l y
pharyngealized vowel g l i d e s , although they are used as conso-
nants i n t h e phonemic system. This should not be s u r p r i s i n g ,
since English g l i d e s such as [y w r ] are used as consonants
a l s o . I n Arabic t h e s e pharyngealized g l i d e s are c a l l e d ayin
and ha, and are voiced and v o i c e l e s s r e s p e c t i v e l y . They are
d i s t i n g u i s h e d from pharyngealized vowels by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y
are n o n - s y l l a b i c , t h a t they do not carry the s y l l a b l e b e a t .
They move i n t o , or out of, roughly an [a] p o s i t i o n .
The symbols which we w i l l use for t h e s e two g l i d e s are

[£] f o r t h e voiced one and [h] for the v o i c e l e s s . I n t h e l a t -
t e r case a "pharyngealized h" makes a good d e s c r i p t i o n of the
sound, so the symbol i s a p p r o p r i a t e . The symbol 9, however,
i s a r b i t r a r y . I t does have t h e advantage t h a t the English
word nine sounds something l i k e t h e Arabic word ayin f o r any-
one who happens t o remember i t .
Hiaryngealized Vowels kkS
RE 32.U. Demonstrationt Pharyngealized Glides
a. [g] i s a movement i n t o or out of [a] p o s i t i o n . Mimic

t h e demonstration i n various p o s i t i o n s *
1. [a9a a9a 9a 9a a9 a9] 3 . [e9e e9e 9e 9e e9 e9]
2 . [o9o o9o 9o 9o o9 o9] U. [u9u u9u 9u 9u u9 u9]
b . To produce [h] say [h] and p u l l t h e r o o t of the tongue

back and down. The s t r i c t u r e i n the pharynx does not need t o
be q u i t e so great as f o r [ 9 j . Use the same devices as i n
RE 3 2 . 1 t o help you get t h e pharyngeal c o n s t r i c t i o n . Or, say
[9] without v o i c i n g . P r a c t i c e t h e s e sequences*
1. [aha aha ha ha ah ah] 3 . [ehe ehe he he eh eh]
2* [oho oho ho ho oh oh]

L
M ft A/ (V A/ A» J
h. [tihu uhu hu hu uh uh]
*• «M A/ A* /V /V ^ J
RE 3 2 . 5 . D i f f e r e n t i a l * GLOTTAL or PHARYNGEALIZED
[ £ ] , when pronounced r a p i d l y , may be confused with [*].

Respond with GLOTTAL or PHARYNGEALIZED.
1. [«za'a] G 5. ['figal'u] P 9. [»'unoven] G
2 . [»zaga] P 6. [tfi9al*u] P 10. [«9unoven] P
3 . [«za9a] P 7. [ > f i ' a l A u ] G 1 1 . [«9unoven] P
k. [«za?a] G 8. [»fi9al A u] P 12. [»*unoven] G
RE 3 2 . 6 . D i f f e r e n t i a l * [h] or PHARYNGEALIZED
1. ['zona] h 5. [»fihal A u] P 9. ['hunoven] h
2 . [«zaha] P 6. [»fihal A u] P 10. [»hunoven] P
3 . ['zaha] h 7. [«fihal A u] h 1 1 . ['hunoven] P
h. t'zaha] P 8. [»fihal A u] P 12. ['hunoverj] h
RE 3 2 . 7 . Mimicry* [2]
l a . [si'^vnffi] l b . [9p«nsesi] lc. ['n6esi9]
2a. [sA'9onz,] 2b. [9o>nz,sA] 2c. ['ntsA9]
3 a . [so«9«5n8] 3 b . [9«$'n9so] 3c. ['nsso9]

UU6 L e s s o n 32
Ua. [se'9ani] Ub. [ ^ a t q i s e ] Uc. [ » n i s e 9 ]

5a. [su«9cenu] 5b. [9oe »nusu] 5 c [»nusug]
6a. [si'gana] 6b. [99'nasi] 6c. [«nasi9]
7a. [sz,«2ono] 7 b . [9o'nosz-] 7 c [«qo8fcg]

8a. [se'9senv] 8 b . [9aB»nus6] 8c. [ ' n v s e 9 ]
RE 3 2 . 8 . Mimicryi [h]
la. [î'hunee] lb. [hv'naaSi] lc. [•ittSih]
2a. [SA'honz,] 2 b . [ho'nz-SA] 2 c . [«nz-SAh]

V *
3a. [so'heSna] 3 b . [htf'nas'o] 3 c PnoSoh]

Ua. [ge'hoenu] Ub. [hce ' n u S e ] Uc. ["nuêh]
5a. [&u'hani] 5b. [ h a ' n i s ' u ] 5 c [•nis'tih]
6a. [Si'hona] 6b. [he1 n a s i ] 6c. ['noiih]
7a. [s&'hono] 7 b . [ho'noSt.] 7c [•noSth]
8a. [Se'hfflnv] 8 b . [hee'nvs'e] 8 c . [•nvs'eh]
RE 3 2 . 9 . Mimicryi [9]1
la. [»ta9a] lb. [9u»d] lc. [be«ra9]
f4
2a. [»za9alA] 2b. [ 9 a . l A ] 2 c . [bA«l A z,9]
3a. [mAl A «9ab] 3b. [ » • * ] 3 c [dA'fctf]

^
Ua. ['zum9a] Ub. [ ' 9 a b i ] Uc. [xA«l A a9j
5a. [ma9»mu«l A ] 5 b . [•9i»#A] 5 c [tx,»S&9]
6a. [ta9'kss«n] 6b. [«9a»lAi] 6 c . [l A A'ma9]
P h a r y n g e a l i z e d Consonants
Pharyngealized consonants are made by lowering the back

of the tongue and constricting the pharyngeal cavity, just as
•Êxamples from Robert E. Maston, Lebanese Spoken Arabic.

Recording is simulated from the transcripti on.
P h a r y n g e a l i z e d Vowels UU7
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Velar Glide
VI. stops
$ t k
Vd. stops b d g
VI. fricatives f s X
Vd. fricatives V z 8
Nasals m n
Lateral 1
V
Flap r
Voiceless
Voiced 9
AT
Table 32.2t Some Pharyngealized Consonants and

Glides. Theoretically nearly any consonant can
be pharyngealized, but these are presented as a
sample.
are pharyngealized vowels. The regular consonant articulation

is otherwise maintained as nearly as possible (Sammies 32.3
and 32.U). In the case of a continuant like a fricative or
nasal, it is sometimes possible to hear the actual pharyngeal
quality during the articulation of the consonant, but in any
case pharyngealized consonants are more readily recognizable
by the resulting pharyngealization on an adjacent vowel. The
pharyngealization of the vowel may be non-phonemic, but it may
provide the necessary clue to the pharyngealized consonant.
RE 32.10. Producing Pharyngealized Consonants
a0 Follow this sequence in mimicry of the tape*
1. [a*9*a"9*a,,9*a»l 3. [z»z»z«z»z»z«z»]
2. [m»m«m*m«m«m»m«] U. [1#1»1*1»1»1»1#]
*V *w *V ^ *v «v
TPhis is not an unusual phenomenon. In fact, the acoustic

clues of most sounds overlap. Since voiceless stops, for ex-
ample, are completely noiseless, we cannot distinguish them on
the sounds of the stops themselves, but on the basis of the
different quality they give adjacent sounds.
UU8 Lesson 32
5. [v»v»v»v»v«v»v«1
b . Place the pharyngealized consonants between pharyn-

g e a l ! zed vowelst
1. [ama. eme umu seme imi omo]
2. [aza eze uzu eezs i z j 052]
3c [ala, ele ulu aslg i l i olo]
U. [aya eve uyu asvse i y i pyo]

c . Continue t o p r a c t i c e t a l k i n g with the back of your
tongue down and the base pulled back i n t o the pharyngeal
cavity.
RE 3 2 . l i p Mimicry. Non-pharyngealized and Pharyngealized

Sequences
l a . [aza aza aza aza] l b . [az za az za]

2a0 [ama ama ama ama] 2b. [am ma am ma]
3 a. [eebbe eeba; aeba ebae] 3b. [asb bse eb bae]
Ua. [ales sis; el£E aslas] Ub. [ael l a aal lee]
5a. [ofo ofo orb ofo] 5b. [of ro or' r8]
6a. [oko oko oko oko] 6b. [ok ko ok ko]
7a. [ete ete ete ete] 7b. [et te et te]
8a. [eve eve eve eve] 8b. [ev ve ev ve]
RE 32.12. Negative Practicet "Old MacDonald Had a Farm"
Get a thorough review of some of the vowel qualities and

the modifications of vowel quality by singing "Old MacDonald"
with the following progressions. The tape demonstrates some of
them.
a. Back unrounded* "With a [*ui 'in] here..." Continue

with [fo],
b. Front rounded* [u <t> oe]
c. Central unrounded! [ A Q i]
Pharyngealized Vowels hh9
d. Nasalizedi [ a e e e e z - i o o y u a A g i oe j6 u » y ra] J
'•l T i l l i X i l i . T C l t I i 1 i I i
e . Voiceless/ [I E /E A 0 0 U]
f. Laryngealized* [ I e ! o 1 o o u]
g. Pharyngealized* [§ e i a A o o ij]
h . Breathyi [se e i a A o o u]
i . With o f f - g l i d e s [ywrH°YWhh]
j . With on-glides [y w r 9 Y W h h ]
k. Clusters [ea e i ©o OA iee]
1» Longi [a» as* e» e» t« i« o* o» v u« a* A» 8« i» CE •
g* u» o» *• ra»]
RE 32»13l Gola. Revlewi P i t c h , Consonants, Vowels, Nasalization
The t e x t of t h i s exercise w i l l be found as RE 8.18

(pp. 131-135)• There was not time t o include i t i n t h e tape
f o r t h a t l e s s o n , so i t i s being included here on t h e tape f o r
t h i s lesson as a review, without repeating t h e t e x t from Les-
son 8. Mimic consonants, vowels, and tone very c a r e f u l l y .
RE 32.1-Ui Mano. Revlewi P i t c h , Consonants, Vowels, Nasalization
Mimic the following exercise c l o s e l y . As you go over i t

s e v e r a l t i m e s , study t h e difference i n tone on [yi] (the l a s t
s y l l a b l e ) i n Nos. 1, k, and 5» This shows t h e effect of i n -
t o n a t i o n on the inherent tone of the s y l l a b l e . In phrase f i n a l
p o s i t i o n t h e mid tone f a l l s f o r s t a t e m e n t s , negative impera-
t i v e s , and questions containing question words. I t i s l e v e l
f o r affirmative commands, and r i s i n g (or s l i g h t l y higher l e v e l )
f o r questions without question words.
1. [afeeyij a ge y i 'He saw i t t h e r e . '

i_ti
2 . [6a«igE^] baa g t y i j •Don't look a t i t

L a
- " there]'
3 . [me*'pele %eS&J mss pe l e a gs yi? 'When did he see i t
<<<•<• i_ii there?'
U. [agsjyi] a gt ylJ 'Look a t i t t h e r e . '

WO Lesson 32
— i *
5. [agejyi] a ,gS_yi? 'Did he see i t there?»
6 . fagejyXi a gg y i »He saw i t t h e r e . '
7. [agsjyl] a ge yif 'Look a t i t t h e r e . '
8. [atgeiyi] a ge yi'> 'Did he see i t there?"

r
I_il
RE 32.1j?i Mano. Reviewi Longer Sequences
In this exercise mimic closely, watching for the differ-
ences of tone in the initial syllables, and reproducing
accurately the vowel qualities and nasalization.
r r 9
1. [ tyt.fi t wa|'yi] y i l i wa y i
'Trees are not t h e r e . '
2. [tzpfutwal'yi] zulu wa y i
"Driver ants a r e not t h e r e . '
3 . [twill»wa|'yi] w >>
i i wa* y i
—i 'Animals are not t h e r e . '
km [,ko'ka .geya'fa] ko ka gg yala
j—' 'We saw a house y e s t e r d a y . •
5. [,ko»go* , geya'fa] ko goo gZ yala

j—' 'We saw a canoe yesterday.•
6 . [,ko>'di» ,geya f fa] ko d i i gg yala,
i ;—' 'We saw a cow y e s t e r d a y . '
7. [*si» ,e«yz,Hlejtebe> ,ke>Jru.] s i i e y i a le gbekeni
r
• X 'That hawk i s f a r away.'
,
8. [ ' z i ' fe yoHle; l g be> ,ke>_«nz.] zi e y i a le gbekeni
I ' "\ 'That road i s f a r away.'
9. [tmene e*yz.Hle|igbe> t k e > ' n t ] meng e y i a l e gbekeni
l_i i I~\ "That t s e t s e f l y i s f a r away.'
RE 3 2 . 1 6 . Transcription
Use the s p e c i a l t r a n s c r i p t i o n form f o r RE 32.16 i n t h e

Pharyngealized Vowels USl
Workbook Supplement, pp. 101-102. Listen to the tape, and fill
in the blanks in the Supplement.
1. [pVii>'za«*i] 11. [p h e'm*-invk°]
2. [VA» «1* okhedu] 12. [ k posi»d"aga]
3. [ , mircepo»ja] 13. [ki's'e'noli]

U. [y^du»c h u'gi] lit. [batheva»£e]
5. [s&'wj6noM] 15. [p^dA'wof*]
6. [to«'t h ip/.l*/E«] 16. [nab»9ffiT^ssy]
7. [sA'bvzvk 1 ^.] 17. [hz.Tohabhi]
8. [wenshA'ye] 18. [«fiAjh e n.ot' ? ]
9. [roxA.«wu«mI] 19. [gggi'Snafci]

10. [«he»fAyaphu] 20. ['tL*-othAZ«ffiC9]
Reading
Use RE 2 3 . 2 - 3 2 . 3 , 32.5~32.9, 32.ll4-32.l6.
PSi P h o n e t i c i a n ' s Theme Song

As the l a s t recorded item i n t h i s , the l a s t r e g u l a r l e s -
son of t h i s Manual, we present a song composed by Ray William-
son, and performed by Joe Karcher, Nancy Karcher, and Hank
Schaftsmaa a t the Missionary Training Conference, Meadville,
P a . , J u l y , 1958.
I was a simple soul with j u s t one language g r i d j

I spoke the English tongue - 'twas a l l I ever did,
But a t phonetics school my tongue began t o s k i d .
Now I say, [u* i» u a a
t V n t V r i wala wala bz,n been
u # i» u a a
t i.i] t HQ wala wala buj bsq]
You've been makin1 sounds a t us

Just l i k e you were a chicken.
U52 Lesson 32
For g l o t t a l stops we never had t o beg.
Now you do very well a t t h i s ,
But t h e r e ' s one t h i n g we wonder -
We'd r e a l l y l i k e t o see you lay an egg.
The only witch doctors are not i n Timbuctoo.
For t h e r e are s e v e r a l here who s i t r i g h t t h e r e with you.
And they w i l l teach you how t o gargle, t r i l l , and coo,
And y o u ' l l say, [u» i* u a a
t z.»q t 6e»n wala wala bz,rj baa]
u* i* u a a
t z,n t esq wala wala bz,rj ban]
(Repeat t h e chorus nasalized and then whispered.)
v5\V
•e* <u.y
?UA "O-^
HEAVENS MO, OLDCHAP! NOT Y O O - POO !

IT'S Atf ART(Ci>i-/(rDRV PHoMETKS PRILL.'
US3
LESSON THIRTY-THREE
Review and Summary
Previous review l e s s o n s have not involved recorded m a t e r i -

a l s , but i n t h i s l e s s o n we give a tape summary of much of the
course, a s w e l l a s t h e usual content of review l e s s o n s . S t u -
dents who have completed t h e course would not want t o have a
complete s e t of t h i r t y - t w o t a p e s but may f i n d t h a t by owning
t h e one t a p e for t h i s l e s s o n they have something t o r e f e r t o
and t o review by i n the f u t u r e . 1
Consonants
In Table 33.1 you have all of the types of consonants of

the course symbolized, plus an additional number in parentheses
which have not been drilled, although in some cases they may be
as common as some which were drilled. We cannot emphasize
strongly enough that you must not assume that this table is
complete in any sense of the word. The best we can say is that
is is representative of most of the general types of consonan-
tal speech sounds (as defined in terms of articulation) to be
found in natural languages of the world.
Almost all of these consonant types can be modified in a

variety of ways, of which some are included below and some are
not. It would have been possible to devise a chart with more
points of articulation, and more varieties of manner. It would
have been possible to fill in some of the blanks on the chart
we now have. Theoretically the number of possible consonant
sounds is ever so much larger than this. Our chart simply gives
us some of the major types around which most of the others can
be grouped as modifications.
RE 33.1. Mimicryt Table 33.1
In this exercise we demonstrate all of the consonants of

Table 33.1 except for those in parentheses. The tape reads
across each line, using the frame [...a ...a ...a a...a a...a
] for each consonant. On the first few
sounds you are given the labels as well to help you orient
yourself until you get in the rhythm of the thing. The vowel
is occasionally changed for variety. Follow along in Table 33.1
as you mimic the tape.
A notice of where tapes are obtainable is included else-

where in this book.
k$i Lesson
Double
Dental
Bilabial
Labio-Dental
EGRESSIVE LUNG AIR
STOPS
VI. unaspirated *P P t
^ A
Vl. aspirated P* (P ) 11 t"

A A
Vd. unaspirated gb b Q>) d
Vd. aspirated b* (bb) dU

A
VI. flap (1)

Vd. flap (D
FRICATIVES
VI. flat P f 9
Vd. flat b V A
VI. grooved s
Vd. grooved z
VI. lateral (£)

Vd. lateral (|)
AFFRICATES2
VI. flat unaspirated PP pf te
VI. flat aspirated PPh pf h
to11
Vd. flat bb bv dd
VI. grooved unaspirated ts

A"
Vl. grooved aspirated tsh
Vd. grooved 45
VI. lateral unaspirated C1ft)
VI. lateral aspirated (tLh)
Review and Summary U55
Alveolar
Alveopalatal
Mid Velar
Retroflexed
Backed Velar
Glottal
Palatal
Uvular
t c t k k k •>
A
• •
th ch th kh kh kh
A
* •
d J' d g g g
• •
h
d jh dh gh gh gh
• A
•
I ({) (?)
I
(9) (•e) X X X h
A
•
(A) (5) g g g
A
•
s S
• (? X x)1
•
z 2
• (g g g)1
•
L (£) <%> 03)
•
1 (i) (1) (%) (%)
•
kx kx kx
-v A
••
kxh kx11 k^
••
gg gg gg
A A
ts s t§
••
ts h 6h t2 h
••
dz 5 d2
••
ti (cl) (t&) (ft) m
h h
t£ (cjh) (t£ ) (k|h) ( k % h)
h%
a i*
a- t»
H a"
(D H-
S»
H
Vd. l a t e r a l
Nfl.SALS
Voiceless M
Voiced 5m m
Vd. f l a p
LATERALS3
Voiceless
Vd. high tongue
Vd. low tongue

Vd. f l a p
TRILLS
Voiceless (p)
Voiced (b)
FIAPS (cupped tongue)**

Voiceless
Voiced
EGRESSIVE PHARYNX AIR

(GLOTTALIZEDl
STOPS
VI. unaspirated p
Vd. unaspirated (b
FRICATIVES
Voiceless p
INGRESSIVE PHARYNX AIR

MLdSTVE)
STOPS
VI. unaspirated *£ £
Vd. unaspirated So b
!»
H
>
H
W
CD
•Tj
P
S
H- $ a
<i <D c+ I-1 a o H
CD C 4 Cll
?r O
O O O c+ CO c+
H -a Hj
fu <
CD p. d-
ft) pj H H H P
H H CD ru <
CD
!->
p X 4
c+ CD H
P &
H
S
di (jl) (dl) (g%) (g%)
N N N N
• 3 »
n n n 3*
3 q
V
•
n •
L (L) a) (*)
•
r 1 (D (1)
v
l (1)
V •
1 (i)
R
R
v
r (r)
t C t* k* k^ k'
(d") (g') (g") (g')
k k
cf J d"
U58 Lesson 33
Dental
Labio-Dental
Bilabial
I
FRICATIVES
Voiceless (£) if) (§)
Voiced <*> (•) (<0
DIGRESSIVE MOUTH AIR (CLICK)
CENTRAL
VI. unaspirated p*- t«-
VI. a s p i r a t e d p^ ^
Voiced b*
Nasalized rtf- n<-
LATERAL
VI. unaspirated
VI. a s p i r a t e d
Voiced
Nasalized
Table 3 3 . l i Consonants Studied
•TTe have not d i s t i n g u i s h e d between f l a t and grooved f r i c -

a t i v e s i n v e l a r p o s i t i o n , although both a r e p o s s i b l e . We have
used e i t h e r , i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y .
TTor a f f r i c a t e s with d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s of a r t i c u l a t i o n on
the s t o p and f r i c a t i v e , see p . 138.
-'Lateral f r i c a t i v e s and a f f r i c a t e s a r e shown under f r i c a -

t i v e s and a f f r i c a t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Tfesal f l a p s a r e shown under n a s a l s , l a t e r a l f l a p s under

l a t e r a l s , and f l a t tongue flaps under s t o p s .
Review and Summary lô
a tfl
P P
• j d c + H P p. - oo p o
CD CD 4 fn fV H c+
O O O c t - > = 3 t D er P ) c +
l | .1 £ P. 5
•»•
H a^ 4 fl
*H
P ffi 0,
4 <
CD
ePl - M
CD H
Pi * I?
(*) (« (*) (ft) (ft) (&)

(2) (ST) (ST) (£) (rf) (i)
t«- cf t«-
tJ1*- ch*- t11*-
d<- j<- d*-

•
n* n** n**
t£h*"
<&+
in This Course, And Some Others
RE 33.2. Mimicryi Additional Modifications to Consonants
Each of the consonants in Table 33.1 can be modified in

many ways, some of which are reviewed in this exercise. Each
modification is demonstrated with a small number of consonants.
When possible, the same frame will be used as in the preceding
drill. Mimic the tape and follow along in the Manual. The
pages where these modifications are discussed are indicated in
parentheses. The modifications will often carry over the vowels
as well.
a. Long (p. 269)i [m* 1« k« j» v ]
b . S y l l a b i c ( p . 152)» [np l p zp xp rp] and [pn p i pz px p r ] .
c . Riaryngealized ( p . kh6)t [33 1 p d b]

U6o Lesson 33
d. Unreleased (p. 3h5)t [b- n- k- t-]
e. With voiced release (p. 3h$)t [be na ks ts]
f. With voiced open transition (p. 3U8)t [ban tsl sek nad]
Vi \\ \\
g. With v o i c e l e s s open t r a n s i t i o n ( p . 3U8)» [ t n p d c z]
h . With close t r a n s i t i o n ( p . 3U8)» [bn sk pd t l ]
i . F o r t i s ( p . 387)* [p s p* t*-]
n « it •
j . Lenis ( p . 387)t [p s p ' t«-]
k. Nasalized ( p . 333)i [1 z v g]
The following modifications have not been s p e c i f i c a l l y d i s -

cussed i n connection with consonants i n t h i s Manual, but t h e y
are a l s o p o s s i b l e . These a r e not recorded.
r*> O ' «? D n
1. Laryngealizedt [m n 1 z b]
m. Breathy* [m n 1 z v]
n. Roundedi [ t m f t s ]
o. Unrounded* [2 r s z]
p . Fronted* [n< 1' t* x<]
q. Backedt [n> 1> t* x>]

r . Faucalized (muscles a t the opening t o the t h r o a t drawn
t o g e t h e r t o c o n s t r i c t the opening).
Vowels
In Table 26.1 (p. 363) you have all of the basic vowel
symbols of this course. They represent a variety of vowel pro-
nunciations even more difficult to specify unambiguously than
the consonants. The same cautions which were made concerning
absolutizing the table of consonants apply here even mare
strongly.
RE 33*3* Mimicryt Table 26.1
The vowel sounds represented in the table are given you

in a "buildup" frame* [t... t...t... t...t...t...]. Mimic the
tape and follow the chart on p. 363.
Review and Summary 1+61
RB 33 .U. Mimicryt Modification of Vowels

The first six modifications will be given on the tape in
the form of a "bracketing drill" (see p. 371). It is the third
vowel in each series which is the one indicated in the modified
transcription below.
a. Raised (p. 371)* [as* o" o* i A ]
b . Lowered ( p . 371 )i [v u v uv asv]
c. Fronted ( p . 371)i [A' o< i< a ' ]
d. Backed ( p . 371)* [i» e> ii> 9>]
e. Rounded ( p . 371)* [ i e g a]
f. Unrounded ( p . 371)* [u u a »]
/\ f\ A *\
The following are placed i n the same kind of frame as f o r

RE 3 3 . 3 .
g. Long ( p . 269)t [e* v* o» w]
h . Voiceless ( p . 392)« [/E 0 U A]
i . Nasalized ( p . 333)* [op a a L]
j . Retroflexed ( p . Ul7)* [a A o 0]
• • • •
k . Breathy ( p . k20)t [«5 t v E]
1. Laryngealized ( p . 398)* [u x a a]
m. Pharyngealized ( p . hhl)t [o v a A]
Glides
High High Retro- Central- Laryn- Fharyn-
Front Back flex izing geal geal
Voiced w y r H 9
Voiceless W T h h
Table 33.2i Glides Studied i n This Course
RE 3 3 . 5 . Mindcry1 Table 33.2
For t h i s d r i l l the glides are placed i n t h e sarae frair.e as

U62 Lesson 33
that used for RE 33.1. [K] is not given in initial position.
Mimic the tape as you follow along on the chart.
Pitch
For a review of p i t c h we include one exercise from Thai,

where the pitches are often g l i d e s , and one from Hausa, where
the pitches are generally l e v e l .
RE 33.6t Thai, t-imicryi Pitch
1. [ma«] 'come' 1 1 . [ma«] ' t o pickle'
2. [mAn] 'greasy' 12. [mAn] 'industrious'
3 . [fArj] 'to listen' 1 3 . [dAn] 'similar t o '
k* [nay] 'in' lU. [mAy] 'new'
5. [ l i n ] 'monkey' 15. [ r i n ] ' s p e c i e s of r a t '
6. [na«m] 'name' 16. [">a»n] 'read'
7. [me*w] 'cat' 17. [ce*w] »a condiment 1
3. [p s^n] 'expensive' 18. [ k e ' n ] 'to race'
2 1 . [nHl 'face' 3 1 . [ma*] 'horse'
22. [ffi)kn] 'engaged' 32. [nA] 'that'
23. [riAn] 'sit' 33. [rjfa] 'haul, pull'
2U. [hâv] 'to let' 3h. [ma«y] 'tree'

25. [pz-n] 'to roast' 3 5 . [t^Cnl 'throw away'
26. [ha^m] 'to forbid' 3 6 . [na>irj 'water'
27. [ k ^ w ] 'glass' 3 7 . [lA£»,w] 'already'
28. [ h ^ n ] 'dry' 3 8 . [r^»xj] ' d r y (weather)'
Ul. [ma*] 'dog' ' t o warm by f i r e '
U2. [m/ifi] 'sterile' U6. [na^m] 'thorns'
U3. [nyvjg] ' h i d e , skin' U7. [t h e/w] 'row, l i n e '
W+. [hpy] 'pickling jug' U8. [pk&^n] 'bamboo p a r t i t i o n '
RE 3 3 . 7t Hausa. Mimicryi Pitch
1. [ a ^ u T i ] ' a l l o t t e d time' Eh--

8. [d^tajc^] 'wood
2. [ijdanu] 'eyes' 9. [dAnjgaJna] 'resignation'
3 . [ajla}iia] 'sign' 10. [tasoSi] 'dishes'
h. [fArytâJna] ' h o e ' 11. [alûha] 'slates'
5. [amfaST] 'usefulness' 12. (^FuTjfa] 'needle'
6. [w^haliha] 'trouble' 13. [asalAi] 'origin'
7. [talâka] 'poor person' lk. [awgwaajgwa] 'duck'

U61 ( Lesson 33
15. [al'jheyi] •goodness" 23. [saulrayi] 'young man'
16. [sa«ibuTu] 'soap' 2U. [dapL* i'l* i ] 'reason'
17. [a£i»ri«] 'secret' 25. [gaysuwa*] 'greetings'
• ^
18. [ mu,t a • riej ' pe o p l e ' 26. [ga»fara] 'forgiveness'

fr L
i 1J
19. [UyoJâ] 'limit' 27. [aTjkari] 'judge'

i i
20. [bujk^rtâ] 'need' 28. [jawabi] 'reply'
21. [ajijê] 'put ( i t ) 29. [dugrajts u ] 'stones'

downj'
22. [jai'hiri] 'ignorant' 30. [T tjtatl] 'book'
RE 33.8. Negative Practicei Miscellaneous
Practice talking with the various articulation styles

listed below and demonstrated on the tape. The tape uses the
following three sentences for this negative practice.
1. We spared the rod for all these years, and look what we
wound up with — the beat generation.
2. All men are not homeless, but some are home less than
others.
3. A woman may be taken for granted, but she never goes

without saying.
a. Nasalized f. Breathy
b. Fronted g. Rounded lips
c. Retroflexed h. Spread lips
d. pharyngealized i. Even syllable timing
e. Laryngealized j. Even pitch

Review and Summary U6S
k. Rising p i t c h m. Rising and f a l l i n g pitch
1. F a l l i n g p i t c h
TE 3 3 . 1 . Matching Symbols
This exercise i s t o be found i n the Workbook Supplement,

pp. 103-106. I t i s t o help you remember t h e symbols and t h e i r
values.
T r a n s c r i p t i o n Review
a. For any sounds which you have d i f f i c u l t y recognizing,

use t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l d r i l l s i n t h e lessons where they were i n -
troduced as t r a n s c r i p t i o n d r i l l s . Check your answers with t h e
Manual.
b. Transcribe drills containing longer sequences. Redo

some of the "fill in" transcription exercises in the Workbook
Supplement.
In all of your transcription, study your mistakes in com-

parison with the correct form and see the reason for your errors
if you can. Keep track of any mistakes on the Transcription
Tally form in your Workbook Supplement.
Reading Review

check your production against the tape. Work with your buddy
so that you will have someone to check your production.
Sammies
Be sure you can draw the Sammies for all articulations

represented in this review lesson. Pay special attention to
clicks, implosives, and glottalized consonants.
k66
PlRECToR OF M|SSlOdARV PLACEMENT
I LEARNED "nOOLLESE SO u ) £ j . L
IM LINGUISTICS S T U P I E S TH/VT I
U>ANT TO TRANSFER To "/HOLLAND"/
U67
Appendix
LESSON A
English Consonant Phonemes1
Here are three objectives for this lessont
1. To begin to make you conscious of the consonant phonemes

(sound distinctions) of English as over against the spelling a£
English, which is often very misleading.
2. To help you get used to some consonant symbols which

you 'will need throughout the course, as quickly and as painless-
ly as possible. This will be done by using them for the trans-
cription of English.
3. To help you begin to get the habit of transcribing what

you hear in a consistent way, using one symbol for each differ-
ent sound you distinguish, in other words, to transcribe both
cable and Kate with the same initial symbol,,
Chart of English Consonant Hionemes
In Table A.l there is a chart of all of the consonant

phonemes in the author's English speech. These phonemes are
symbolized by letters of the English alphabet, plus modified
letters since there is need for more than the regular alphabet
provides us. The symbols will be used to transcribe similar
sounds in other languages as well.
The phoneme symbols are enclosed in slant lines / / (which

are also spoken of sometimes as diagonals). The majority of
the phoneme symbols have English spelling values, except where
they are complicated by English spelling inconsistencies. For
example /k/ is no problem to read because of associations in
English spelling with key, kind, kill, etc., but in phonemic
transcription the student has to be careful also to use it in
ache, cat, etc. The remainder of the symbols will have to be
learned outright. Exercises in this lesson will give you an
opportunity to make the necessary sound-symbol associations.
Names of the Symbols
In spelling transcriptions aloud, or in talking of the
This lesson should be prepared before Lesson 3.

1*68 Lesson A
Table A.It English Consonant Phonemes
Labio- Tip- Alveo- Back-

Bilabial dental dental Alveolar palatal velar
/ ? / £ea / t / tea A / key

a£e ate ache
A / buy / d / die /%/ guy

ebb Ed egg
1
/m/ mit / n / knit A/
Tim tin sing
chick
pitch
Jill
Tudge
A/ fie / e / thigh / s / sigh / s / shy

if pith Tess Assher
M vie / d / thy A/z / z / Zsa Zsa

live withe wise azure
A/nt
fill
/w/ wit / y / you

throw May
/W/^when /l/Vge
A / writ A/Ahit
Tear
A / a ^ / ? / do n ° t occur a t t h e beginning of normal Eng-

l i s h words. A / does not occur a t t h e beginning of any English
s y l l a b l e , / h / , /ff/, and /j/ do not occur a t the end of any
English s y l l a b l e .
The dividing l i n e s on the c h a r t separate groups of conso-

nants whose manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n (formation i n the mouth) a r e
quite different.
English Consonant Phonemes U69
symbols, it is convenient to have names for them. 'Wherever
possible, the names are those which the symbols are given in
regular English spelling, as kay for the symbol /k/, and em for
/m/. inhere the symbol does not occur in traditional English
spelling, however, new names have to be learned through use.
Table A.2 lists the names of such symbols as occur in this
lesson.
Fhonemic
transcription
Symbol NameJ of name^ Notes
hi eng /en/ analogy of m and n /em/ and

/en/ ~ ~
velar n /'vz,ylr ,en/
/*/ c wedge /*sz-y ,wej/

wedge is the term for the
IV j_ wedge / ' j e y ,wej/ diacritic *•' wherever it is
found
l§l s wedge / ' e s ,we5/
esh /&s/ analogy of f /ef/ and s /ss/
IV _z wedge /'zt-y ,wej/
lei theta /'©eytA/ name of the corresponding let-

ter of the Greek alphabet
Ml b a r r e d d / baHrd t d&y/ i.e., d with a bar
Table A.2t Names of Some Consonant Symbols
We now give you some written exercises to help you get

facility in the transcription of English consonant phonemes.
These transcription exercises are not recorded on tape. It is
the purpose of this lesson to help you learn to transcribe your
own speech, not someone else's. In this lesson the transcrip-
tion exercises (TE) will be limited to transcribing the initial
consonant (if there is only one) or consonants (i£ there are
more than one) in English words, as you pronounce them (not as
they are written). That is, you will transcribe all of the
consonants in a word until you come to the first vowel. You
will not transcribe the vowel, or any of the remaining
Alternative names are given in some cases.
"Ignore this column for now if it is confusing to you.

U70 Lesson A
consonants in the word. Remember that we are not concerned
with the written consonants or vowels, but with spoken ones.
This should become clear as you try the exercises.
In any phonemic (or phonetic) transcription please ob-

serve the following conventions!
1. Print with separate symbols rather than joining them
together. You will accumulate a variety of symbols in time,
and some of them will be confusing if you do not develop the
habit of printing each one separate from the ones preceding
and following it.
2. Do not use capital letters unless the capitals are

themselves the symbols for the sound you want. For example,
in Table A.l you find / Y / and /W/ as distinguished from /y/
and /w/ (representing a distinction in my speech and in that
of many other speakers of English). You will later learn values
for other capitals for use in other languages. If the symbol
given you is a lower-case letter, then do not make it a capital,
not even for a proper name or the beginning of a sentence. Re-
member that you are transcribing speech, and your speech does
not "capitalize" names or anything else.
3. Be careful of the wedge (-"J on/c jf s z/. Do not get

it upside down. Think of it as a pair of horns. We will have
use for the upside down variety later.
U. In some cases there may be a slight problem because of

differences between your English and mine. Dialect differences
inevitably occur in any group of English-speaking people. This
means that transcriptions of my speech will differ from yours,
sometimes only at a few points, and sometimes at many points,
depending on the speech differences between us. These differ-
ences are not as great in the consonants as they would be in
the vowels. There tend also to be more of them in combinations
of consonants (consonant clusters) than there are in single in-
itial consonants in English. These differences will come out
when you compare your transcription of your own speech with
your classmates' and with that of this book or of your instruc-
tor. Remember that differences do not mean that your speech is
any more or less "correct". They are simply objective, obser-
vable differences such as occur in all languages, and which are
inevitably part of the problem in any language learning.
5>. Be sure to use a normal pronunciation as a basis of

your transcription. Say the word or phrase which you are trans-
cribing to yourself several times, and write what you hear. Do
not strive for some artificial "correct" or over-precise pro-
nunciation, but write what you normally say. Do not say the
English Consonant Phonemes kn
word too slowly. This may distort your pronunciation. Say it
naturally and easily. Do not look up any words in a dictionary.
If you never use a given word which is listed f o r your trans-
cription, leave it blank. If you do use the word, transcribe
the pronunciation you use.
The transcription exercises which follow have two parts.

The first consists of the directions and examples, which are
incorporated in the text of the chapter. The second consists
of the exercises proper with blanks to be filled out by the
student. These will be found in the Workbook Supplement.
Transcription Exercise A.l« Initial /s €> d c j /
Study the following five lists of examples, with trans-

cription of the initial consonant as it occurs in my speech.
Read dovm the lists carefully to see whether or not the initial
sounds are all alike in each list in your pronunciation. It is
possible that at a few points your pronunciation may differ
from mine. If you think you find a word which does not "fit"
as you pronounce i t , mark it in some way. What symbol would
you use to transcribe it?
/<?/ /©/ w
la. she /*/ lb. thin M lc. then /d/
2a. shape /*/ 2b. think /e/ 2c. this /d/
3a. Schaeffer'/*/ 3b. thigh /e/ 3 c thy /d/
Ua. ship /*/ lib. thousand /©/ kc. thou /d/
5a. shot IV 5b. thistle /«/ 5c. there /d/
/V 75/
Id. chain /$/ le. Jane /J/
2d. cheap /c/ 2e. jeep /J/
3d. chest /c/ 3e. jest /j7
Ud. chosen /c/ he. Joseph /J/
5d. chin /£/ 5e. gin /5/
Now transcribe the initial consonant of each of the words of

TE A.l (Workbook Supplement, p. 5 ) in the same w a y that they
1*72 Lesson A
are transcribed between the diagonals above. All of the initial
consonants of these words in my speech are transcribed with one
of the above five symbols. However, you may find that in your
speech one or more of the words needs some other symbol. In
that case see if you can find what you need in Table A.l.
Transcription Exercise A.2< initial /h ¥ w /
At this point we have some marked dialect differences in

English. Some speakers have no distinction between /W w / such
and I have. In that case they have only /h w / instead of the
three phonemes illustrated here. Other speakers have all three,
but differ from me in the words which begin with /w/ and those
which begin with /W/. Other speakers may differ occasionally
between words beginning with /h/ and those beginning with /ff/.
This is not a question of right and wrong, but a question of
usage.
Study the following columns, which are listed as the words

occur in my speech. That is, inrayspeech all of the words in
Column a begin with /h/, those in Column b with /W/, and those
in Column c with /w/. Notice that the words rhyme across.
Except for the differing initial phonemes, the words in a line
across are exactly alike in my speech.
Read down each list several times to see whether or not

all the words in a given column begin with the same sound in
your speech. Mark any which do not, and indicate the symbol
for your pronunciation in the space provided (when it differs
from mine).
Then read across each line. Do you make a difference in

the initial sounds across? Do you have a three-way difference
or a two-way difference! Wherever your speech differs from
mine, transcribe the difference in the initial consonant pho-
neme. Do not bother to make a transcription if your speech is
the same as that indicated by the columns. Some of you may
notice a fluctuation in your speech. On which of these words
does it occur?
M A/ A/
la. hitch / / lb. which / / lc. witch / /
2a. heather / / 2b. whether / / 2c. weather / /
3a. hither / / 3b. whither / / 3c. wither / /
lia. hen / / ' Ub. when / / Uc. wen / /
English Consonant Fhonemes U73
M W A/
5a. heel / / 5b. wheel / / 5c. weal / /
6a. hack / / 6b. whack / / 6c. WAC / /
7a. hey.' / / 7b. whey / / 7 c way / /
8a. hail / / 8b. whale / / 8c. wail / /
After you have followed the directions above, determining

whether or not your transcription should be the same as mine
and filling in the differences, then go on to transcribe the
initial consonants in TE A.2 (Workbook Supplement, p. 5) as you
pronounce them. They are in random order.
Transcription Exercise A.3t Initial /y Y/

Pronounce you and hue. Are the initial consonants dif-
ferent in your speech? If so, you would transcribe them with
/y/ and /Y/ respectively. If not, you have /y/.
Transcribe the initial consonant of each of the words of

TE A.3 as you say it. Do not let the initial written vowels
confuse you. Write what you say. (Workbook Supplement, p. 5)
Transcription Exercise A.Ut Some Initial Consonant Clusters
Transcribe the initial consonant clusters of the words of

TE A.U. In other words, transcribe all of the consonants up to
the first vowel phoneme (the first pronounced vowel). Some ex-
amples are given here, from my speech. Go back to Table A.l
for any symbols you need. (Workbook Supplement, p. 6)
please /pi/ tray /tr/ Sphinx /sf/
clean /kl/ scratch /skr/ smash /sm/
split /spl/ three /Or/ shrewd /ir/
Transcription Exercise A.5« Some initial Clusters with /w y/
Compare the words in Column a with those in Column b, and

those in Column c with those in Column d. In my speech they
differ only by the presence or absence of /y/ (in the first
pair) or of /w/ (in the second pair). Note the importance of
the /y/ to distinguish between booty and beauty, for example.
The /y/ or the /w/, as the case may be, forms a part of the
initial consonant cluster. Mark any cases where your pronun-
ciation differs from mine. You can determine this by reading
U7U Lesson A
down the column to see whether there are any words which you
pronounce with or without the /w/ or /y/ in a contrary way to
what I have indicated for my pronunciation.
With /y/ Without /y/
la. beauty /by/ lb. booty N

2 a. pure /py/ 2b. poor /p/
3a. few /fy/ 3 b. foo /£/
Ua. fjord /fy/ kb. Ford A/
5a. mute /my/ 5b. moot N
With / w / Without M
lc twinge /tw/ Id. tinge N
2c. quick /kw/ 2d. kick N
3c. thwack /9w/ 3d. Thackeray / e /
Uc. sway /sw/ Ud. say hi

5c square /skw/ 5d. scare M/
After you have studied the words above to determine whether
or not your speech differs from mine on any of them, transcribe
the initial clusters (including the /w/ or /y/, if any) of the
words in TE A.5. Expect some dialect difference between your
speech and that of your classmates. (Supplement, p. 6 )
Suggested Readings
The following readings are selected because they discuss
English consonant phonemes from one standpoint or another. They
inevitably introduce also material which we have not yet covered.
This should provide excellent background for your further
study.
Charles F. Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics,

PP. 15-32.
H. A. Gleason, An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics,

PP. 1U-26.
One further caution may be helpful to you as you do reading
about English consonant phonemes in other books, either the ones
English Consonant Phonemes U75
suggested here or ones which you may run across. Most of the
consonant symbols in any modern work in linguistics written in
the United States will differ very little from the symbols used
in this lesson. You will find a few such differences, however.
In Table A.3 we tabulate the differences which you are most
likely to meet in your reading. Blanks in the chart indicate
that the symbol used is the same as ours. The last column shows
you other representations by a variety of authors whose works
you may find. Although this table may not give the equivalence
for the author you are reading, you should easily figure out the
values of his English phoneme symbols from the range of possi-
bilities presented here.
Hockett, Gleason, Trager

Ours Nida Pike Bloomfield ELI and Smith Others
4
c c ts, t
5 i dz, d
s
2
y i
w hw,W w hw hw hw JL
Y hy,Y y hj hy hy c
i
Table A.3« Equivalent English Consonant Hioneme Symbols-*-
hn addition to the suggested readings listed above, the

following works are specifically covered in this table. The
last column represents a wide variety of works which we will
not list.
Eugene A. Nida, Morphology (first column) and Learning a
Foreign Language (second column).
Kenneth L. Pike, Phonemics
Leonard Bloomfield, Language
English Language Institute (ELl), English Pronunciation
George L. Trager and Henry Lee Smith, Jr., An Outline of

English Structure
U76
LESSON B
English Vowel Phonemes^
In Lesson A we gave you a chart of English consonant pho-

nemes with illustrations of English words containing them, and
you were able on the basis of this information to learn to
transcribe the consonants of your speech with relatively little
difficulty. Since then you have learned that these phonemes
were phonetically far more complex than you dreamed at the
time, many of them consisting of several different allophones
(different kinds of sounds comprising /l/, different kinds of
sounds comprising /t/, etc.), but this does not affect the val-
idity of the phonemic contrasts which you symbolized in Lesson
A. Phonemes are often made up of more than one sound.
When we come now to English vowel phonemes, however, our

approach ' mot be as simple and direct because the analysis of
English vowel phonemes is quite complicated. The complications
arise both from the fact that the vowel system of any one speak-
er of English is complex, and from the fact that speakers of
English vary tremendously from region to region and from social
dialect to social dialect in their vowel systems. We cannot,
therefore, present a ready-made system with ready-made examples
and expect it to fit your speech. Rather, you will have to
figure out your own vowel system.
There are really three goals in this lessom
1. Working on your vowel system and comparing it with that

of your classmates will help you gain in phonetic perceptive-
ness, and thus contribute directly to the purpose of this text-
book and course.
2. An understanding of your phonemic system is a help

toward understanding the learning problems which you face in
another langua.ce.
"This lesson may begin as early as Lesson 11, with TE B.l-

3, but the reaainder is intended to come after Lesson 20, when
the phonetic vowel distinctions needed have been covered. Un-
like the other lessons in this book, it is not intended for a
single classroom period, but should be stretched out over sev-
eral periods interspersed with the remaining phonetics lessons.
Also unlike the phonetics lessons, the exercises of this lesson
are designed to be worked out before being discussed in class,
•with the exception of TE B.l. For further suggestions to the
instructor see the Teacher's Guide.
English Vowel Phonemes U77
3. Working toward a preliminary analysis of one kind of
complicated phonemic problem (your vowel system) -will give you
a greater understanding of the phonemic structure of language
in general, and thus contribute to your sophistication in ap-
proaching language learning.
Reading
Several valuable and relatively readable discussions of

English vowel phonemes are available, and you should read them
in connection with this chapter. Perhaps if you keep returning
to them as you go through this chapter, step by step, it will
help you understand -what, you are doing, and help you perform
the steps. There is no point in repeating this excellent mate-
rial here.
H. A. Gleason, Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics

(either edition), pp. 21-39.
Charles F. Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics, pp.
Archibald A. Hill, Introduction to Linguistic Structures,

pp. 62-67.
As you do this reading, bear in mind that the phonemic

symbols used /i e ae i 8 a u o 0/ do not necessarily have ex-
actly the same phonetic qualities which we have assigned them
in this course. Phonetic qualities in English vary from one
dialect to another, and more important yet, different qualities
may be united in the same phoneme. I have [i» ] and [z,] as two
of my English vowel sounds. However, both of these belong to
the same phoneme, the difference between them being conditioned
by the sound environment. ([i> ] occurs before [y], [z-] does
not, etc.) I therefore write them phonemically the same way.
In this book I have written the phoneme as /v/ as in /btt/ bit
and /bvyt/ beat. The books which you read will write this same
phoneme /i/, giving them /bit/ bit and /biyt/ beat. The choice
of symbol is arbitrary, except that I wanted to make the phone-
mi cs coincide more closely with the phonetic symbolization, and
the other authors you will be reading wanted to use the more
commonly used letter i. So far as the phonemic principles are
concerned, they are exactly equivalent.
It might be well to make an explanation of some other sys-

tems of analyzing or transcribing English which you may find
commonly. Some, like that of Leonard Bloomfield's Language,
date from an earlier stage in linguistics. One very important
one, that of Kenneth L. Pike's Phonemics stems from a slightly
different approach to phonemics, and ignores some of the
U78 Lesson B
contrasts of lower functional load which we include. The Eng-

lish teaching materials of the English Language Institute fol-
low Pike, and Pike's system does have some advantages for teach-
ing English, as the contrasts omitted vary tremendously among
speakers of English and do not carry a high functional load.
TE B.1. Sorting Words by Vowel Nuclei
The first step toward an analysis of the vowel phonemes of

your speech is to make a preliminary sorting -" wording to the
pronunciation of the stressed vowel nuclei in jour English
words. Ey "vowel nuclei" we refer for the time being to what
is traditionally considered to be the spoken vowel of the syl-
lable (not the written symbol). For example, here are some
vowel nuclei in my speech.
Spelling Nucleus
bid pronunciation symbolized by i
bead pronunciation symbolized by ea
yes pronunciation symbolized by e
queen pronunciation symbolized by _ee
To do this exercise use the list of words which follows

these instructions, sorting them into groups on scrap paper by
use of the following procedure.
a. Read any two words aloud together, one after the other.
If the vowel nuclei have the same sound (the spelling is totally
irrelevant) list the two words together in the same list. If
the vowel nucleus of one word is different from that of the
other use them to start two separate lists. Your only con-
sideration is that of the sameness or difference in the sound
of the vowel nuclei.
b. Try the third word in comparison with the two previous

words. If the two previous words went into the same list read
the new word aloud with those two words. Preferably place it
between them as you read, pronouncing the words in the order
of first word, new word, second word. Putting it in the middle
Note that the pronunciation symbolized by u was covered

under the /w/ consonant of Appendix A. Note also" that in my
speech the vowel nucleus of bead and that of queen are the
same, although they are spelled differently.
English Vowel Phonemes k!9
makes comparison easier than in initial or final position where
the intonation is likely to affect it. If the vowel nucleus
sounds the same as the nucleus of the two words, list it with
them. If it sounds different, put it in a different list.
Or, if the original two words went into different lists try
the new word with each of the original two separately. If it is
the same as either one list it with that one. If it is differ-
ent from both of them use it to start a new list.
c. Continue with each succeeding word. Include it with

any previous list if the vowel nucleus sounds the same as the
nuclei already in the list. Start a new list if it is not the
same as the nucleus in any list. When there is a list of two
or more items with which you are comparing it say the new word
in the middle of the list. Say the whole list aloud.
d. As you work along you will occasionally realize that a

word which you had previously classified in a given list really
does not belong there with the others because it sounds differ-
ent, a difference which you had not detected before. I n that
case take it out and reclassify it where it belongs.
Your lists will not necessarily be the same as those pre-

pared by anyone else because there are wide dialect differences
in English vowel nuclei. We are not concerned with any notion
you may have about English "correctness." List the words as
you normally say them. If you find that you fluctuate in any
word, pronouncing it sometimes one way and sometimes another,
put it in both lists.
Here are the words to use.
boy Ben hate hop lard loud
bow mine heft bite foot sound
boa bound hat buy boot nut

bean boon hot height lew ton
bin bond hut bad year us
bone spa hoot bat yea hit
ban spill hoof bid cow in
bun heat roof bead bout ink
bane hit hope led now sift

k80 Lesson B
stop too pun prow bond many
cod kit buck bed shreek penny
balm cat nook bait shrink end

ten pin neck fuss shrank and
tin pen Hoyt fuzz shrunk greasy
two pan pry thank any soft
TE B.2. Checking f<3r Additional Nuclei and Examples
During and after class discussion of the results of the

previous exercise, you will need to take another look and see
if you can find other nuclei which you have missed.
a. As a result of class discussion you may have recognized

that you combined two phonetically different nuclei into the
same list. Revise your work to separate them.
b. In the class discussion new words may have come up

which give you new nuclei, or examples for lists where you do
not have enough examples. Incorporate this material. Make
sure you incorporate it only as you pronounce it. You may not
list it with the same words another person does, because his
pronunciation may be different from yours.
c. Check the following words against your lists. Where

necessary because you find new nuclei, start new lists. Fill
out lists for which you do not have enough examples. Some of
these words contain more than one syllable. You are concerned
with the stressed syllable only.
alcohol pot about starry
lawn cash cot mourning
garage louse our oral
thank tomorrow gregarious caught
loin horrible Jewry board
out Shaw ferry pill
look warrant Erie wiggle
whole light coarse balm

waffle ice flour Oz
end try Mary portion
fine bomb Gary dear
off tugs sorry balk
joint bond door vary
bird bask fairy Pa
tune his coal father
flute stop welter poor
sister pony miracle merry
proud boat bah bard
TE B.3. Looking for More Nuclei and Examples
In this exercise you should add at least fifty new words

to the lists you are collecting, or to new lists you may have
to start because new nuclei come to light. The words may be of
more than one syllable, but you are concerned only with the
stressed syllable.
Continue to expand your lists on paper, finding as many

different groups as you can - that is, as many different stres-
sed vowel nuclei as you can. You may notice certain problems,
and perhaps these suggestions will help yout
a. For some vowel nuclei you will immediately think of

many words. Ten words or so are enough for any one list, but
be sure to make the words as varied as possible. A list like
hit, sit, fit, bit, wit is not as useful for later stages of
this work as hit, in, ink, sift, interest.
b. For other vowel nuclei you may be able to think of only

one example. Try to find more, but if you cannot, keep the one
as a separate list. Do not discard it or combine it with an-
other list simply because it is small.
c. You will likely find your pronunciation of many words

to be different in different contexts, or when spoken at dif-
ferent speeds. As you say your words, try to keep a uniform
natural pronunciation, not an overly "precise" one. But when
you find fluctuation in pronunciation anyhow, or different pro-
nunciations in different contexts, put the ward in each of the
U82 Lesson B
appropriate columns. For example, I say Can I [ ' k % n a y ] , but
I can [ j a y ' k ^ H n ] . Thus the word i l l u s t r a t e s [as] and [asfi], but
I must keep t r a c k of t h e difference of context. Make a nota-
t i o n beside each pronunciation of t h e d i f f e r e n t context i n which
you found i t .
d. You may find a difference in length. In my speech, for
example, I have hot, stop, cot with [a] and bar, balm, spa with
[a»>]. These should be kept in separate lists although you are
not yet concerned with the pn^netic transcription of your lists.
e. To save time and give you ideas you may use a diction-
ary or any other source to remind you of words, but list them
as you pronounce them, not as the dictionary says they should
be pronounced. Use only words which are natural to you. If
the list is alphabetical, skip through it in order not to have
your words all begin with the same few letters of the alphabet.
TE B.[t. Preliminary Charting of Vowel Nuclei
Up to now you have been collecting data and sorting it

into groups of words which have the same vowel nuclei. The
next step is to make up a set of vowel charts for what you have
been finding. You will need one chart for unglided nuclei, one
for nuclei with [y], one for nuclei with [w], and one for nuclei
with [H]. If you have found some nuclei with long vowels and
others with short, these should be charted separately.
As the first step in making these charts, make a phonetic

notation of the nucleus for each list. In my speech, for ex-
ample, I would write [L] beside a list consisting of sit, in,
ink, spit, sprinkle, etc. Similarly, the appropriate notation
would be made beside each other list.
At this point the phonetic nature of what we have labeled

"vowel nuclei" becomes a little more apparent. We refer to
pure vowels which are not followed by glides, and to vowels
plus [w y H ] . For example, here are some illustrations of vowel
nuclei in various words in my speech.
Word Vowel Nucleus
bid [bz-d] U]
bead [bi> yd] [i> y]
led [led] [e]
laid [le-yd] 0*y]

English Vowel Phonemes W3
foot [fv«t] [»<]
boot [biwt] [iw]
low [low] [ow]
period [«phz.ri-Hd] [v] [ivH]
yeah [y5H] [eH]

Note that the [r] off-glide does not enter into English
phonemic vowel nuclei in the same way that do [w y H]. We
simply tell you this to make the exercises easier. Handle
English /r/ even after vowels as a full consonant, as you did
in Lesson A, although you are handling other post-vocalic
glides as parts of vowel nuclei.
After you decide upon the phonetic notation for the nucleus
of each list, then these nuclei should be entered in the blank
vowel charts in the Workbook Supplement, p. 53-81;. It would be
wise to use pencil, as you may make changes. Thus, for my list
in the previous paragraph, I would enter [;,] in the lower-high
front unrounded position of Blank Vowel Chart 1. [ow] would be
entered in the mid back rounded position of Chart 3, writing in
both vowel and glide. [i>y] I would enter in the high front
unrounded position of Chart U. The diacritic [*] shows the
fact that it is slightly backed from this position.
The phonetic transcription of the nucleus of every one of

your lists should be entered somewhere on one of these charts.
Do not expect all of the charts to be filled out. No dialect
of English has that great a variety of vowel nuclei. However,
where there are gaps keep on the lookout for words you have
overlooked which might have nuclei to fill them.
TE B.$. Looking for Minimal Pairs Within Chart 1
At this point you begin to make a phonemic analysis of

your vowel system based on the data which you have been col-
lecting and sorting. The first step is to find minimal pairs
between as many of the phonetic entries in the five charts of
the previous exercise as you can. For the purposes of our work
now, a minimal pair is any pair of words in your speech which
differ in their vowel, and only in their vowel. The remainder
of the word is the same. The words must have different mean-
ings. For example, in my speech tin and ten are a minimal
pair. The vowels [L] and [e] constitute the only difference
between these words for me. The words are otherwise the same.
For some speakers of English, however, these two words are not
U8U Lesson B
minimal pairs, because they are pronounced the same way. There
is no difference between them for these speakers.
Kit and cat are minimal pairs in my speech. The distinc-
tion is in [v\ and [se]. Do not let the fact that the consonant
phonemes are spelled differently fool you. From a pronuncia-
tion standpoint the only difference is in the nucleus.
Two and too are not minimal pairs in my speech. They are
pronounced the same way. Neither are rim and ran, for there is
a consonant difference as well as a vowel difference. Ram and
ran are, of course, minimal pairs, but are of no use to us here,
because we want minimal pairs which differ by vowel nucleus.
First of all, you want to look for minimal pairs within

Chart 1 of TE B.3. For example, Blank Vowel Chart 1 (p. 83)
may look like this (which is one possibility, but not the only
one among English dialects)i
If this is what your chart looks like, you will now look for
minimal pairs between [v e ] , [z. ae], [v A ] , [L a ] , [z, w<],
[v o ] , [e ae], [e A ] , etc. It helps a great deal if you can
find a minimal series like pin, pen, pan, pun, taking care of
[L S ] , [t as], [v A ] , [S as], U A ] , and [as Aj all at once.
When you cannot find a series like this you have to work by
individual pairs like book, buck [v< A ] , nook, neck [v< e ] ,
e t c around the chart.
This step is a very important step, for when you find min-
imal pairs, they prove that the sounds which make the differ-
ence between the words do not belong to the same phoneme but
to different phonemes. If you can find minimal pairs separat-
ing all of your sounds in Chart 1, these sounds are all differ-
ent phonemes. You do not yet know the full story about these
phonemes, but you have established these particular phonetic
qualities as belonging to separate phonemes in your dialect of
English.
Page 85 in the Workbook Supplement will help you in re-

cording your minimal pairs for Chart 1. Enter each pair of
phonetic nuclei on the left betvreen the slant lines. Slant
lines are used because if you have a minimal pair for the two
sounds, you have proved a phonemic difference. Then write in
t h e English words which are a minimal p a i r separating these
vowels i n your speech. You do not have t o r e s t r i c t yourself t o
words already i n your preliminary l i s t s . Any woids i n your
n a t u r a l speech may be used as minimal p a i r s .
TE B.6. Looking for Minimal Pairs Within Charts 2-5
Continue t h e procedure of t h e preceding exercise w i t h i n

each of t h e remaining c h a r t s . Blanks for t h e recording of min-
imal p a i r s f o r each chart are t o be found on pp. 87-88 of t h e
Workbook Supplement. On Chart h, f o r example, i n my d i a l e c t
h e a t , h a t e , h e i g h t , Hoyt would provide p a i r s for phonetic nuclei
Li* 7 e'vyj, L'i»y Ay], |.i>y o y ] , [e*y Ay], [e«y o y ] , [Ay o y ] .
Be sure t o keep t r a c k of p a i r s of sounds for which you

cannot find any minimal p a i r s .
TE B.7. Looking for Minimal Pairs Between Charts 3-5

In turning t o look for minimal p a i r s between charts we keep
t h e same p r i n c i p l e i n mind, t h a t we want t o find words which
have only one difference between them. For example, i n my
speech boy [boy] and bow [bow] are a minimal p a i r . The nucleus
of boy i s i n Chart h '(Workbook Supplement, p . 8U) and t h a t of
bow i s i n Chart 3 ([oyj and low J r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . The minimal
difference l i e s i n the g l i d e p a r t of t h e nucleus, the difference
between [w] and [ y ] . For my speech, then, t h e [w] off-gli.de
and t h e [y] o f f - g l i d e belong t o separate phonemes.
I f I go on t o compare Chart 5, I find t h a t I have the vrord

boa [boH] i n minimal c o n t r a s t with boy and bow, giving me a
t h i r d phoneme / H / .
By way of i n t e r e s t we might mention t h a t t h e phonemes / y

w/ i n English p a t t e r n as consonants i n English when they are
on-glides (see Lesson A) and as p a r t s of English vowel nuclei
when they are o f f - g l i d e s . The same phonemes, then, sometimes
have a consonant function and sometimes a function as p a r t of
t h e vowel nucleus phonemic a l l y although they are both vowel
g l i d e s p h o n e t i c a l l y ! The reasons for such an a n a l y s i s go
beyond t h e scope of t h i s book. / H / p r e s e n t s some subject of
controversy among l i n g u i s t s . Some combine i t with t h e phoneme
/ h / on t h e b a s i s of complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n , while others
do not, f e e l i n g t h a t t h e r e i s not enough phonetic s i m i l a r i t y .
/ r / p a t t e r n s as a consonant whether i t i s an on-glide or an
o f f - g l i d e , which i s why we did not bring i t i n t o our discussion
of n u c l e i .
U86 Lesson B
Study your Charts 3-£ and look for minimal pairs between
•them, in the manner just illustrated. Record this information
on p. 89 of the Vforkbook Supplement.
TE B.3. Looking for Minimal Pairs Between All the Charts
Continue the process which you began in the previous exer-

cise by adding the charts which do not have off-glides as part
of the nucleus. Make your comparisons for minimal pairs between
Charts 1 and 2, and then between these charts and Charts 3_f>,
comparing Chart 1 with Chart 3, Chart 1 with Chart It, etc. Re-
member that for there to be a minimal pair there must be only
one difference in sound. For example, nut and night are a mini-
mal pair in my speech, [nAt] and [nAyt] respectively. They are
the same except for the presence and absence of [y]. However,
for me bit [bi-t] and beat [bi>yt] are not a minimal pair. They
differ in" vowel qualify" as well as in glide.
Record your minimal pairs in the Workbook Supplement, p.

89, as you did before. ~~~ —
Theoretically you should search for a pair to represent

eveiy possible pair of nuclei between all of the charts, but
this becomes a pretty large task. Instead look for pairs where
the vowels are the same or very similar, and compare these.
TE B»9» Looking for Complementary Distribution
In our search for minimal pairs we have been finding evi-

dence for separating sounds into different phonemes, or separat-
ing nuclei. Bit and bet in my dialect separate [v e] into sepa-
rate phonemes. The minimal pairs prove that they contrast pho-
nemically. Bit and beat separate the two nuclei [v i'y], but
the second nucleus is not a single sound, but a vowel plus a
glide. Is there any relationship between the vowels of the
two? Certainly they are very close phonetically, but what is
their phonemic relationship? Are [t] and [i>] different pho-
nemes in my dialect? And what about [i*] as in [ivH]? (See
my "front unrounded" column reproduced in the preceding
exercise.)
TShen I look at my charts, however, or the parts of them

reproduced above, I notice immediately that I never get [±>]
except with a following [y], never get [iv] except with a fol-
lowing [H], and never get [t] with either glide. These three
vowels are very similar. Their slight differences are associ-
ated with the presence or absence of particular glides. I
notice that there is a similar relationship between [e e»y]
except that it is simpler in that there is not a third variety
before [H]» These shades of difference in vowel are in com-
English Vowel Fhonemes U87
plementary distribution-1- according to the presence or absence
of the glide.
These similar vowels in complementary distribution belong

to the same phoneme. In the examples above [v ±> i v ] all be-
long to one phoneme /v/ (or / i / if you prefer), and they take
these different phonetic forms when found in these different
complementary environments.
It is not evident from my charts, but in my dialect [e e*]

are also in complementary distribution. I cannot find any
minimal pairs to separate them, so I look at the words in which
they occur. I find that the long vowel occurs before voiced
consonants, and the short vowel occurs in other environments.
This shows up in pairs like bet, bedj fuss, fuzz; etc. The
vowel in the first word is short and that in the second is
long. This would not mean anything if I found minimal pairs
to separate them, but it is impossible to find minimal pairs to
separate sounds which are in complementary distribution. The
fact that they are in complementary distribution means that
they have no sound environment which is identical, and in mini-
mal pairs the sound environment must be identical.
In the Workbook Supplement (p. 91) there is a form to help

you work out the complementation of similar sounds. Take up
first the charts, and the complementation which they show, and
then turn to other similar vowels for which you have not been
able to find minimal pairs.
In working out the complementary distribution deal with

the sounds which would go together to make up one phoneme, and
work out the rules for them. Then turn to those which would
make up another phoneme, etc.
Enter the sounds in complementary distribution in the ap-

propriate place, and for each one give the environment (the
distribution) which is peculiar to it.
It is quite likely that you will need occasional help

from an experienced person when you are working with comple-
mentary distribution. If you do not get enough help in class,
ask for it from your instructor on the side.
h ounds are distributed through words. The sounds

[v i> i v ] complement each other in their distribution in re-
lation to glides. They together have a distribution with and
without glides, but no one of them has the same distribution
as any other.
U88 Lesson B
TE B.3Q. Analyzing Free Fluctuation
TOien you were collecting your lists you found some words
in which your pronunciation fluctuated, and you listed the
words in more than one list. Now you want to study the pho-
nemic significance of that fluctuation.
Pick out the words which fluctuated, and on the basis of

what you have so far discovered about your phonemes, try to de-
termine for each word whether your fluctuation was between two
phonemes or not. Was the fluctuation between two sounds proved
to be separate phonemes because you have minimal pairs for
them? Or was the fluctuation between sounds which are not in
contrast, for which you cannot find minimal pairs?
If the sounds are separate phonemes, you recognize that

on some words you fluctuate between these phonemes (though not
on all words). You can record this information concerning
these words on p. 93 of the Workbook Supplement.
If the sounds are not separate phonemes, your fluctuation

is within the allophones (sounds which comprise a phoneme).
There is place for you to record this on p. 9k of the Workbook
Supplement.
Sometimes the fluctuation will be between an unglided

vowel and a glided one, particularly one glided with [H]. For
the purposes of this exercise, handle the presence and absence
of [H] as phonemic. That is, consider the fluctuation between
[ae eeH], if you have it, to be a phonemic one.
TE B Jl. Making a Tentative ihonemic Vowel Chart
Charts 1-5 which you made before in the Workbook Supple-

ment were phonetic charts. You have now been working with
them to see which of these sounds are separate phonemes, and
which belong to the same phoneme as allophones either because
of complementary distribution or because of free fluctuation.
For this purpose you do not include the glides in the chart,
but the vowels alone. You choose one symbol for each phoneme,
no matter how many allophones it has. This you can do in the
Workbook Supplement, p. 9$.
Under the chart, list the allophones which go with each

phoneme. All of the vowel qualities in your previous charts
should be included among these allophones.
You may find a problem in that you still have vowel sounds
for which you do not ha.ve minimal pairs, and for which you
cannot find complementary distribution or free fluctuation.
For the purposes of this exercise consider them separate
phonemes.1
TE B.12. Phonemic Transcription
Your analysis of your English phonemes is not technically

complete, but this is as far as we are going to take it. With
this much knowledge of your vowel phonemes, plus what you know
about your consonant phonemes, you should be able to make an
approximate phonemic transcription of your consonants and
vowels. Try this out with the words in the Workbook Supple-
ment, p. 96. Write the full word phonemically. Remember that
this means you will not write aspiration because aspirated and
unaspirated stops belong to the same phoneme. If in doubt,
review Lesson A.
TE B.13.. Phonemic Transcription
Transcribe phonemically the sentences on pp. 99, 100 of

the Workbook Supplement in the space provided.
There are other phonemic techniques to help in the anal-

ysis of such residual problems, but they are beyond the scope
of this course, which is one in phonetics, and where the pres-
ent phonemics exercise is introduced because of the strong
phonetic reinforcement which it provides.
h90 Lesson C
LESSON C
Descriptive Summary of Speech Articulation
In the preceding chapters our approach to understanding

articulatory phonetics has been guided by pedagogical consider-
ations rather than descriptive ones. We introduced new infor-
mation piecemeal, and in the order which we had found by ex-
perience was the easiest to teach to North American students.
Considerations of what students are able to hear and produce in
the most efficient order were paramount. With the myriad detail
and variety in speech sounds, however, some students may not
have seen the over-all picture. For that reason we append this
brief chapter to give a systematic though brief summary of
human speech articulation. There will be little new information
here. Nor w i n there be as much detail as can be found in some
of the lessons which constitute the main part of this book, and
to 7#iich cross-reference will be made. This will be strictly a
descriptive overview, a reorganization of the facts of articu-
lation into a more "logical" pattern of presentation.
The Air Stream
A movement of air out of, or into the human head is a

fundamental requisite of normal human speech sounds. The move-
ment of this air stream sets up vibrations which are those
sounds. The air stream is modified (its sound frequencies are
modified) by variations in the shape of the parts of the head
and throat through which it travels. In the most general terms
this is a full description of what articulatory phonetics is all
about. The rest is a matter of filling in the detail (and
learning the skills) of specific features of articulation.
The most important organs for originating airstreams used

in speech are the lungs. All languages use lung air (pp. 378-
379) for a substantial number of speech sounds. None of the
other airstream mechanisms to be described below are as univer-
sal. The most important direction of movement for the lung air
stream is egressive (going out of the body), moving from the
lungs through the throat and then the mouth or nose or both.
Ingressive lung air, with the lungs pulling the air in rather
than pushing it out, is fully possible but very rare as a part
of normal speech. Children at play, or anyone else who wants
to try it, can say short sentences in English with continuous
ingressive lung air. They simply draw in the air as they talk
rather than expelling it.
The egressive lung air stream of normal speech does not

Descriptive Summary of Articulation 1*91
come out with the same even flow which is characteristic of quiet
breathing. Rather it comes out in pulses of varying lengths.
This pulsation is caused by movement of the muscle system in the
chest and abdomen. These pulses of air are integrated with ar-
ticulations in the throat and mouth to produce syllables (pp.
150-15U), differences of degree of stress (pp. 1;>U-1!?8) and
loudness, breath groups, and other modifications in the stream
of speech. These modifications stemming from the chest pulsa-
tions usually cover a sequence of sounds rather than isolated
individual sounds.
A second initiator of speech air streams is the pharynx, or

the cavity in the throat above the larynx and below the faucal
pillars (muscles at the entrance to the throat from the mouth),
uvula, etc. By closing (or nearly closing) the vocal cords and
pushing the larynx upward air is expelled from the pharyngeal
cavity, making an egressive air stream (pp. UoS>_l4ll). By pul-
ling the larynx downward an ingressive pharynx air stream (pp.
378-387) is produced. Pharynx air streams are never the only
basis of speech sounds in any language, nor are they to be found
in every language, but they are very commonly found in African,
Asian, and American Indian languages, and are occasionally heard
as alternate forms in English.
A third place where speech air streams begin is in the

mouth. The mouth air stream (pp. k27~hkO) is created by form-
ing a cup with the tongue against the roof of the mouth in
various positions. By releasing one point of the cup and by
pushing the air out with the tongue an egressive mouth air
stream can be formed. More commonly, however, the tongue lowers
to create a partial vacuum in the cup just as the one point is
released, and an ingressive air stream results. "Clicks" which
mouth-air sounds are called, form a functioning part of speech
only in Africa (especially southern Africa), but are widely used
elsewhere in play, verbal gesture, exclamation, and communica-
tion with animals.
The various air streams occur in combination in some speech

sounds. Pharynx and lung air are both involved in voiced
pharynx air sounds (p. 38l), for voicing requires lung air.
Mouth and lung air are used together in voiced and nasalized
clicks (pp. U33~U37) and in some varieties of double stops (pp.
299 - 300). Oîer combinations are theoretically possible but
probably do not enter into the speech sounds of actual languages.
Effect of the Larynx on Lung Air
Various positions of the vocal cords in the larynx modify

an air strain originating in the lungs in different ways. They
naturally do not have this same effect on other airstreams be-
192 Lesson C
cause these do not pass through the larynx.
One extremely important pair of modifications created in

the larynx is the contrast between voicing and voicelessness
(pp. U3~U8 and many others). Voicing is created by a narrowed
passage between the vocal cords such that the air stream passing
through develops a buzz as it causes these membranes to vibrate.
With a wider, more relaxed position the vocal cords do not im-
pede the air stream as much, nor do they set up the vibration of
voicing.
A second extremely important modification created by the

larynx is that of pitch (pp. 26-U2, and others). All voiced
speech has the possibility of a variation in pitch frequency,
and all languages use this possibility, though in varying ways.
Tone systems and intonation systems are in large part based on
this kind of modification, although pitch is probably never the
only ingredient in them.
The vocal cords may close momentarily to stop the air stream
and produce a glottal stop (pp. 102-108). In another configura-
tion they modify the air stream to provide the basis for the
various forms of [h] (pp. 392, 396-398).
Two other modifications, laryngealization (pp. 398-399) and

breathiness (pp. U20-U26), do not have the same universality as
the preceding, but they are nevertheless extremely important
modifications of the air stream caused by changes of configura-
tion within the larynx. Falsetto and whisper are also modifica-
tions made there.
The Cavities and their Modifications
The three principal cavities (pp. 1-2) through which air

streams may pass are the pharyngeal cavity, the oral cavity, and
the nasal cavity. All lung air must pass through the pharyngeal
cavity, but then may pass through the oral cavity (without the
nasal) to produce oral sounds, through the nasal cavity (without
the oral) to produce nasal sounds, or through both (the oral
being predominant, but the nasal cavity also open) to produce
nasalized sounds.
When the oral cavity is closed off the closure may be at

different points in the mouth, as described in the next section.
If the closure is velar (to produce [n]) the oral cavity figures
very little in the formation of the nasal sound, but if the
closure is farther front in the mouth (to produce [n] or [m],
for example) there is an oral cavity behind the tongue which
provides a resonance chamber off of the direct line of the air
stream going out the nose (pp. 10-17).
Descriptive Summary of Articulation U93
If the oral cavity is open the nasal cavity may or may not
be closed off. There is only one position at which this closure
can take place. It is articulated only by the velic. However,
various degrees of closure are possible ranging from a wide-open
access to the nasal cavity to a very slight aperture. The
degree of opening affects the degree of nasalization (pp. 333~
3U0).
Modifications in the pharyngeal cavity consist of various

degrees of enlargement and constriction of the cavity by move-
ment of the tongue root forward or back. Extreme constriction
produces pharyngealization (pp. hhl-Uh9)- Extreme openness
produces a deep, hollow sound. At the mouth of the pharyngeal
cavity lie the faucal pillars. These may be narrowed to produce
a tense, strained, or "bright" modification of speech.
Modifications in the oral cavity (the articulations of

speech) will be discussed in the next section.
Other air streams than the lung air stream use fewer
cavities because any air stream uses only cavities between its
origin and its point of egress or ingress. Mouth air uses only
the oral cavity (p. U29). Pharynx air theoretically can use
both oral and nasal cavities but in actual practice is almost
always restricted to oral (pp. 380-381). The simultaneous
nasalization or voicing which occurs with clicks (mouth air
sounds) is produced by lung air, and not by mouth air (pp. h33~
1*36).
Articulators and Points of Articulation (pp. 3-11)
The mouth contains the greatest potential for variety in

the modification of the air stream primarily because of the
great flexibility and agility of the tongue. The root of the
tongue may move back to or near the pharyngeal wall, as was
mentioned under modifications in the pharyngeal cavity (p. UU2).
The back of the tongue may articulate at or near the uvula, the
lower rim of the velum, or any upper surface of the mouth as
far forward as the palate (pp. 322-329). It normally articulates
as far forward as the front edge of the velum.
The tongue mid is capable of articulating from the uvula

to the upper lip, but for languages it is found typically ar-
ticulating in the area of the palate which lies above it (p.
32U).
For people with a bit of agility the tongue blade and tip
likewise are capable of articulating from the uvula to the upper
lip. In actual languages the blade normally articulates against
the palate, alveopalatal region (pp. 193-19U, 275~28l), or the
h9h Lesson C
alveolar ridge (pp. 20-22). The tip articulates anywhere from

the palate to the teeth (pp. 16U-171). Tip-palatal and some
tip-alveopalatal articulations are retroflexed.
The lower lip is capable of articulating from the alveo-

palatal region to the upper lip. It is actually found articu-
lating against the upper teeth and upper lip (pp. 1+8—^2).
Various degrees of distance from articulator to point of

articulation are possible, giving the manners of articulation
which will be discussed in the next section. Different configu-
rations of the tongue as articulator are also possible, as will
be seen under the section on manners of articulation and under
the one on vowels.
Manners of Articulation
Various relative positions of articulator and point of ar-

ticulation, various uses of the cavities, and various configura-
tions of the tongue produce modifications of the air stream
which are called manners of articulation. Fig. C.l portrays
the classification of these manners of articulation which we
will follow in the discussion. Many of these manners of articu-
lation may be produced with any or most of the combinations of
articulator and point of articulation listed above.
Non-continuant sounds are ones in which the air stream is

interrupted by the articulation, or in which the "sound" itself
consists of such an interruption. Stops are the most widespread
form of non-continuant (pp. 12-13, 79-83, 108-116). A stop
consists of a closure between articulator and point of articu-
lation such that the airstream is fully cut off. It requires a
simultaneous closure of the velic so that air does not escape
through the nose. A stop may be voiced, which requires that an
air stream move through the larynx to create a vibration there,
but it may not pass through the point of articulation in the
mouth during the brief duration of the stop.
Stops occur single or double (pp. 298-305). That is, in

addition to the velic closure there may be a single stop articu-
lation or two. If there are two, one of these is a back-velar
articulation. The other is commonly bilabial, but may be articu-
lated with the tongue tip against the teeth, alveolar ridge, or
alveopalatal region.
Flaps are very brief stops in which the articulator flips
Nasal and lateral flaps are continuants (p. 2U6).

rFlaps
•Non- -Single
continu- r
ant Stops —I
LDouble
-Trills
S
o
u
n
d
s
Single
rNasals
i •Double
Lateral
Continu- •-Fricatives •
ant Grooved
^ Flat
LOrals
r-Glides
rCentral—
Lvowels
-Resonants —
•Lateral
Fig. C.l: Manners of Articulation
against the point of articulation (pp. 2U6-250). Trills consist

of a very rapid series of flaps (pp. 250-255). It would be pos-
sible to classify a trill as a continuant ecause the sound
continues through a series of several such rapidly articulated
flaps. If so classified, however, it would be a continuant which
stops repeatedly! Both flaps and trills are typically articu-
lated with the tongue tip in the alveolar or alveopalatal region,
or with the uvula against the back of the tongue.
Continuants are sounds which are not interrupted during the
Schematic classification modified from Kenneth L. Pike,

Phonetics, p. lU2 and classroom presentations at the Summer
Institute of Linguistics.
h96 Lesson C
course of their articulation. The articulator never fully

touches the point of articulation. Continuants divide conve-
niently into orals and nasals according to whether the air stream
goes out the nose or mouth. If the velic is open and some ar-
ticulator in the mouth closes off the air stream the sound is
nasal. Otherwise it is oral. It is oral if the articulations
in the mouth permit egress or ingress whether the velic is open
or not.
Nasals (pp. 16-17, 192-199) are not modified within the

nasal cavity in actual languages (although a nasal fricative and
nasal trill articulated with the velic are fully possible) but
they are modified by articulations in the mouth. These modifi-
cations provide different sizes and shapes of oral cavity which
constitute resonance chambers off from the main column of air.
The same articulations, single and double, which are possible
for stops as described above are possible for nasals (pp. 298-
306).
Oral continuants, or continuants in which the articulations

in the mouth permit movement of the airstream, may in turn be
classified into resonants and fricatives. In the latter case
the articulation provides only a small aperture for the air to
escape (pp. 13-17, U3 - 6o). In the former the space is larger.
The small aperture of the fricative creates a turbulance in the
air stream which produces a hissing or buzzing effect. It is
analogous to air going through the crack around a door.
Fricatives, in turn may be central or lateral. Central

fricatives are ones in which the air stream goes out from back
to front (or vice versa) over the center of the tongue. In
lateral fricatives the center of the tongue touches the point
of articulation and air movement through this articulation is
impossible. However, one or both sides of the tongue leave an
opening permitting the air stream to move (pp. 217, 221-225).
Central fricatives maybe flat or grooved (pp. 167-168).

Flat fricatives have a flat or convex configuration of the top
surface of the tongue when seen from the front. Grooved frica-
tives have a concave configuration.
Resonant orals, or oral sounds with a large aperture be-

tween articulator and point of articulation may likewise be
central or lateral. That is, the airstream may go out over the
center of the tongue or over the side, as described for frica-
tives. Laterals vary according to the configuration of the
tongue behind the point of articulation, or according to the
point itself (pp. 217-229).
Each of the manners of articulation mentioned above is

classified as a consonant articulation. Central resonant orals
are vowel and vowel glide articulations. Because of their com-
plexity they will be handled separately in the following section.
Vowels and Vowel Glides
Central resonant oral continuants are vowels and vowel

glides. The distinguishing feature of glides lies in their
audible movement (pp. 175~l87). Most typically this change in
position is a movement toward or away from the upper front of
the mouth, the upper back of the mouth (with a simultaneous
lip rounding), the center of the mouth, or retroflexed tongue po-
sition. Glides may be on-glides in which case the movement is
array from the general area indicated into the position of the
vowel which follows. Or they may be off-glides, in which they
move from the position of the vowel in the direction of the
glide.
Vowels are less easily classified and described than con-

sonants because of their complexity. Differences of vowel
sound are created by subtle differences of configuration on the
surface of the tongue without any points of articulation against
which reference may be made. All sounds are fomed by the shape
of the cavities through v/hich the air stream passes, but with
vowels there is nothing as readily definable as the articulators
and points of articulation of the consonants (pp. 17U-175, 201-
202).
Vowels are classified according to the degree of lip round-

ing (rounded or unrounded), the general part of the tongue which
is highest in the formation of the vowel (front, central, back),
and the relative height of that part of the tongue (high, lower-
high, mid, lower-mid, low, lower-low). Further modifications
include the degree of bunching, cupping, curling (retroflex, pp.
1+17-U20), etc. of the tongue. Vowels are most commonly voiced.
In many languages they sometimes occur voiceless, however (pp.
392-396). All vowel articulations may be combined with such
features as nasalization (pp. 333 - 3Uo), breathiness (pp. U20-
U26), laryngeal!zation (pp. 398-399).
Other Features
There are many other ways in which the air stream can be
modified, a few of which will be mentioned now. Rounded or
spread lips, with various degrees between may be characteristic
of consonants as well as of vowels and glides.
Sounds may be articulated with varying degrees of length

(pp. 269-27U). They can be held for extremely brief periods, or
longer ones. Articulation can be smooth and unbroken, or there
U?8 Lesson C
[d w r]
i
Lung a i r
Voicing
Air goes
thru phar.
Air goes
thru mouth
Air goes
thru nose
Tip a r t i c .
Lower l i p
Upper l i p
point
Alveolar
Stop
Nasal
Fricative
Lateral
Glide
Front
Center
Back
High
Low
Lower-low
Retroflex
Hounding
Fig. C.2» Segmentation Diagram
maybe a juncture (pp. 158-159), a slight hesitation or pause
between sounds. Sounds may be forcibly articulated (fortis)
because of extra lung pressure and/or extra tenseness of the
articulator, or the articulation may be lenis (pp. 387 - 389).
Sounds are often grouped together into syllables by chest

pulses and other factors of articulation. Each syllable has one
sound which is syllabic, and the others are non-syllabic. The
syllabic is most typically a vowel, but may often be a consonant
(pp. 35o-l53). Nasal and lateral consonants (except lateral
fricatives) most readily lend themselves to syllabic articula-
tion.
Some syllables are stressed more heavily than others, the

stress being created by a more forceful pump of the airstream
associated with additional length, change in pitch and vowel
quality (pp. l£lrU>8).
Combining the Features of Articulation} Segmentation
The miracle of speech articulation is that the enormous

complexity which we have been describing is coordinated and
intertwined into a code system with enormous rapidity, and that
people who know the code (the language) can decipher the meaning
of the stream of sounds which come at such a great rate. Some
of the interplay of the various elements of articulation can be
seen in the vastly oversimplified schematic diagram in Fig. C.2.
Articulations do not start and stop with the abrupt precision
pictured here, and there are many more factors than are listed,
but the diagram serves to show some of the complexity involved
in the simple expression drowsy slumber. Note that although
the various aspects of speech production are intertwined, and
turned off and on at various rates and positions, each sound
shows various features in different combinations, and it is this
which gives us the distinction between sounds as well as the
impression of segmentation, the impression that one discreet
sound succeeds another.
Suggested Reading
Kenneth L. Pike, Phonetics, pp. 83-156.
H. A. Gleason, An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics,

pp. 239-256. ~ ™"~~
Charles F. Hockett, A Course in Modem Linguistics, pp.

62-83.
Charles F. Hockett, A Manual of Phonology, pp. 23~h2.

5oo
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blooh, Bernard, and George L. Trager, Outline of Linguistic
Analysis. L. S. A. Waver ly Press, Inc., Baltimore, kd., 19^2.
Bloomfield, Leonard, Language. Henry Holt and Co., New-

York, 1933.
Canonge, Elliott D., "Voiceless Vowels in Comanche,"

International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 23, No. 2
(April, 1957), PP. 63-67.
English Pronunciation. English Language Institute, Uni-

versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Francis, W. Nelson, The Structure of American English.

The Ronald Press Co., New York, 1958.
Gleason, H. A., An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics.

Henry Holt and Co., New York, 1951', revised 1961.
Heffner, R. M. S., General Phonetics. University of Wis-

consin Press, Madison, Wise., 1952.
Hill, Archibald A., Introduction to Linguistic Structures.

Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1950. ~
Hockett, Charles F., A Course in Modern Linguistics.

Macmillan, New York, 1958.
Hockett, Charles F., Manual of Phonology. Waver 3y Press,

Baltimore, Md., 1955 (Memoir 11 of the International Journal of
American Linguistics).
Kaiser, L. (ed.), Manual of Phonetics. North Holland
Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1957.
L^-van-Ly, Le Parler Vietnamien. Huong Ann Press, Paris,
19U8.
Maston, Robert E., Lebanese Spoken Arabic (reproduced by

ditto process). Beirut, 1955.
Nida, Eugene A., Learning a Foreign Language. Friendship
Press, New York, 1957.
Bibliography 501
Osborn, Henry, and William A. Smalley, "Formulae for Co-

manche Stem and Word Formation," I n t e r n a t i o n a l Journal of Amer-
ican L i n g u i s t i c s , Vol. l £ , No. 2 ( A p r i l , 1^9), pp. 9J-92.
Park, C. H., An Intensive Course i n Korean, Book I .

Yonsei University P r e s s , Seoul, Korea, 1961.
Pike, Kenneth L . , The Intonation of American English.

University of Michigan P u b l i c a t i o n s , L i n g u i s t i c s , Vol. 1.
University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Mich., 19^7.
Pike, Kenneth L . , Tone Languages. University of Michigan

P r e s s , Ann Arbor, Mich., 19UB.
Pike, Kenneth L . , Phonemics| A Technique for Reducing

Languages t o Writing. University of Michigan Publications,
L i n g u i s t i c s , Vol. I I I . University of Michigan Press, Ann
Arbor, Mich. 19U7.
Pike, Kenneth L . , Phonetics. University of Michigan Press,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, 19U3.
Riggs, Venda, "Alternate Phonemic Analyses of Comanche,"

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Journal of American L i n g u i s t i c s , Vol. 15, No. h
(October, "192+9), pp. 229-231.
Smalley, William A., Outline of Khmu'' S t r u c t u r e . American

Oriental Society, New Haven, Conn., 1961.
Smalley, William A., "Phonemic Rhythm i n Comanche," I n t e r -

n a t i o n a l Journal of American L i n g u i s t i c s , Vol. 19, No. hf
October, 19^3. pp. 29?-301.
Smalley, William A., and Nguyen-Van-Van, Vietnamese for

Missionariesj A Course i n t h e Spoken and Written Language of
Central Vietnam^ T r i a l E d i t i o n . Imprimerie Evangelique,
D a l a t , Vietnam, 19 5U.
Trager, George, and Henry Lee Smith, An Outline of English

S t r u c t u r e . American Council of Learned S o c i e t i e s , Washington,
D. C , 1956.
Westerman, D., and Ida C. Ward, P r a c t i c a l Phonetics f o r

Students of African Languages. Oxford University Press,
London, 1933.
Wise, Claude Merton, Applied Phonetics. Prentice-Hall,

I n c . , Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . , 1957
502
INDEX
Phonetic symbols not a part of the usual English alphabet

are combined with it in the index below. The order in which
they appear follows. Other symbols, not shown in this listing
are included in the index as subheadings under the basic symbol
they most resemble, with [o] under [o], [b] under [b], etc.
a a B f f i b b c i S d d e e e f g ^ b g h i i i j J k ^ l l m i i n n
n $m o p o re p p q r r f s S t u u v v A w x y z z ' 9 e r .
[a] lower-low f r o n t unrounded I87ff, 263ff, 335. [a-] long

o r a l vowel 26lff. [a«] long 269ff. [gt] nasalized* Sammy
269ff. [a] nasalized 333ff. 33Uf} 333ff. [&] l a r y n g e a l -
[a] laryngealized 3°8f. [a] ized 398f. [a] retroflexed
retroflexed Ul7ff. [f] Ul7ff. [a] breathy U20ff.
breathy U20ff. [a] pharyn- [a] pharyngealized UUlff. [a.*]
gealized Hblff. [a A ] r a i s e d raised 370ff. [a»] lowered
370ff. [a v ] lowered 370ff. 370ff. [a<] fronted 370ff.
[a<] fronted 370ff. [a>] [a>] backed 370ff. [g] with
backed 370ff. [§] with very s l i g h t rounding 370ff. [00
s l i g h t rounding 37Off. [A] v o i c e l e s s 392ff.
voiceless 3°2ff.
Affricates 136ff, lb 8, 229f, [x>] lower-low back unrounded
277, U!&ffj a s p i r a t e d and un- o r a l vowel: Sammy 26U; 26lff.
a s p i r a t e d 13°ff} d e n t a l l66f; [v] long 269ff. [T?] n a s a l -
f l a t end grooved 167} l a t e r a l ized 333ff. [&] laryngealized
25°ii} l a t e r a l l y released 228fj 398f. [x>] retroflexed Ul7ff.
retroflexed 1685 v e l a r 1^3} [ig] breathy U20ff. [v] pharyn-
voiced 139f• gealized UUlff. [ B A ] r a i s e d
Air streamt Sammy 78, 379ff, 370ff. [» v ] lowered 370ff.
Uo6f, U29f, U33, li36; 77ff, [x><] fronted 370ff. [»>]
378ff, Uo5ff, U27ff, U90ff. backed 370ff. [S] with s l i g h t
Alveolar 3ff, 20, 85ff, lli8, rounding 37Off. [V] v o i c e l e s s
l66f, 170, 278. 392ff.
Alveopalatal 3ff, 20ff, 75f,
85ff, 1U8, 161+, 170, 193ff, [ffl] low front unrounded o r a l
196, 218, 225f, 275ff. voweli Samrny 235} 232, 23Hff,
Amoy 3Off, 6lf. 263ff. [«•] long 269ff. [f]
A r t i c u l a t i o n 3ff, l*90ff} man- nasalized 333ff. [m] l a r y n -
ners of l l f f , U90ff} points of gealized 398f. [ae] r e t r o f l e x e d
3ff, U93ff. Ul7ff. [f] breathy U20ff. [g]
A r t i c u l a t o r s 9ff, U93ff. pharyngealized Uhlff. [m*]
Aspiration 108ff, 113ff, 2293 r a i s e d 370ff. [a>v] lowered
277, 396f. 370ff. [se<] fronted 370ff.
[ee>] backed 37Off. [§] s l i g h t -
[a] lower-low c e n t r a l unrounded l y rounded 370ff. [/E] v o i c e -
o r a l voweli Sammy 175} 17Uf, l e s s 392ff.
5o3
[b] voiced b i l a b i a l stop with U59. [c *•] a s p i r a t e d with i n -
egressive lung a i r 79ff, 8U. gressive mouth a i r U27, U59'
[b*1] with v o i c e l e s s r e l e a s e [c] f o r t i s 388f. [c] l e n i s
3hl. [b+] with voiced a s p i r a - 388f.
t i o n U22, hSk. [b«] long 269ff. "C wedge" I4.69. see [ c ] .
[b] pharyngealized Ui|6ff. [b] "*Capital h» l82ff. see [H].
laryngealized U60. [be] with "Capital ]m" 192. see [M].
voiced r e l e a s e 3U6f. [bb bv] "Caret" 201. see [ A ] .
a f f r i c a t e d 138ff, II48, U5H. Cavities 17k, U92.
[b ] with egressive pharynx C e n t r a l , see Mouth, Vowels.
a i r Ho5, U07, U56. [6] with "Clear 1" 218. see [ 1 A ] .
i n g r e s s i v e pharynx a i r 378, Clicks E27ff, U58f, U91$ song
386, U56. [b«-] with i n g r e s s - (Zulu) ii38.
ive mouth a i r t Sammy U36j U27ffj C l u s t e r s , consonant 136, 3U9ff.
U58. Ul3fj vowel 293ff, 285,
Back, see Mouth, Tongue, Vowels. 320, 372, Finnish 329ffj glide
Back-velar a r t i c u l a t i o n 20ff, 309, 319f, 372.
U8, 57f, 85ff, UU8. Comanche 158, 39Uf.
Backed v e l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n s Sammy Complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n U86ff.
32U. Consonant c l u s t e r s , see c l u s t e r s .
"Backwards c " 201. see [ o ] , Consonants U9l|ff, a l l odd-num-
"Barred d" H69. see [ d ] . bered l e s s o n s | c h a r t s lii8,
"Barred I " 285. see [ £ ] . 257ff, 357ff, U53ffj English
Beat, se"e s y l l a b l e . phonemes lj67ff} length 269,
B i l a b i a l 19f, 22f, U8ff, 52, 272fj modifications U59f j n a s a l -
57f, 85ff, 110, 1I48, 192. ized 333ff1 pharyngealized UU6fj
Black Bobo 199- preceding on-glides l86fj r e -
Blade, see Tongue leased and unreleased 3U5f,
Blade-alveolar a r t i c u l a t i o n Ul5j s y l l a b i c l52ff, continuant
20ff. ItfUff.
"Boston a" 261. see [ a ] . Contours; see P i t c h .
Boundaries, see S y l l a b l e s . "Crossed £" 309. see also [0]
"Bracketing technique" 371.
B r a z i l i a n 228. [£] v o i c e l e s s groved unaspirated
Breathy vowels U2Qff. a l v e o p a l a t a l a f f r i c a t e with
egressive lung a i r 138ff, li+8,
[b] voiced f l a t b i l a b i a l f r i c a - h$S. [6 ] a s p i r a t e d 138ff,
t i v e with egressive lung a ir» U+8, U55.
Sammy k9; U8ff, 5lf, 56, H18,
U5H. [bb] a f f r i c a t e 138ff, [d] voiced a l v e o l a r stop with
XI4.8, U5U. egressive lung a i r 79ff, ~lW,
1*55. [d] d e n t a l 161», hSh.
[c] v o i c e l e s s a l v e o p a l a t a l s t o p [d] r e t r o f l e x e 1 Sammy l68j
with egressive lung a i r 275ff, 16U, 169, k5$. [d h ] with
307, U55. [<T] a s p i r a t e d , v o i c e l e s s r e l e a s e 3U7. [d§]
275f, 279f, 307, hSS. [c ] with voiced a s p i r a t i o n 1+22,
w i t h egressive pharynx a i r U55. [3] flapped 2U6f, 2U8f,
Uo5, U57. [cf] with i n g r e s s i v e h$5. [ d ' ] long 269ff. [d]
pharynx a i r 378ff, U57. [e*] pharyngealized lU*6ff. [da]
with i n g r e s s i v e mouth a i r 1*27 with voiced r e l e a s e 3h6£. [d]
$6k Index
with ingressive pharynx a i r vowel 232ff. [e«] long 269ff.

378, 387, 1+57. [*•] with i n - [e] nasalized 333ff. [&]
gressive mouth a i r 1+27, k%9> laryngealized 398f. [e] r e t -
[dd dz] a f f r i c a t e s 138ff, li|.85 roflexed.- Sammy 1+18} l+l7ff.
16U, k$k. [&X dz] a f f r i c a t e s [g] breathy U20ff. [e] pha-
16k, 169, k$$. 'l<&] a f f r i c a t e , ryngealized Ulilff. [e A ] r a i s e d
l a t e r a l 217, kSl. [dz] see 370ff. [e»] lowered 370ff.
[jf]. [d£*3 a f f r i c a t e with i n - [e< e>] fronted and backed
gressive mouth a i r 1+27, 1+59. 37Off. [g] with s l i g h t round-
"Dark 1" 218/ see [ l v ] . ing 370ff. [E] v o i c e l e s s
Dental gff, l6Uff, 218, 226f. 392ff.
"Dental n" 192/ see [ n j . Egressive lung a i r t Sammy 379j
Diacritic's [~] a l v e o p a l a t a l 379, U90f, U5Uf.
218. [ J backing 161+, 322f. Egressive mouth a i r U91.
[ + ] breathines§ 1+20. [A] Egressive pharynx a i r t Sammy
d e n t a l 218. [ ] egressive U06f/ Uo5f, U91f, k$6.
pharynx a i r Uo5ff• [\] "Eng" U69. see [ r j .
f a l l i n g p i t c h 90. [ v ] f l a p English, a f f r i c a t e s 136ff/
2U7£f. [„] f o r t i s 387/ [J American 102, 2l8f, 225, 33kf
fronting 16U, 322f. [*] Brooklynese 102/ consonant
higher than normal 218, 3 7 1 . c l u s t e r s 1+70, U73ff/ consonant
[*•] i n g r e s s i v e mouth a i r phonemes k6jffj contour range
U27ff. f ] laryngealized 90ff/ controlled i n t o n a t i o n
398f. [•] length 269. [J l l 8 f f } dentals I6£fj "eng" [13]
l e n i s 387. [ v ] lower than 192/ f o r t i s 388j f r i c a t i v e s l+3f,
normal 3 7 1 . [>] backed 3 7 1 . U6f, U8j [H] 182, U82ff5 junc-
[<] fronted 3 7 1 . U ] more t u r e 159| l a t e r a l s 17, 217ff,
rounded 3 7 1 . U,] pharyn- 222ff} l e n i s 388/ o f f - g l i d e s
gealized )|)|1. / / phonemic 176fj on-glides 183, 185n/
t r a n s c r i p t i o n 12,1*67. t ] 89ff, l l 8 f f j [ r ] l80f/ stops
phonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n 12. 12f, 102, 108fj s t r e s s l%t,
[ ] retroflexed 218. [/] 1$9?% s y l l a b l e boundary l$kj
r i s i n g p i t c h 90. [J"L] s t e p s y l l a b i c l52fj voicing 8lff,
up and step down i n p i t c h 90. l l l j vowel phonemes U76ff}
[~] t r i l l 2li6ff. [-] unre- [w] 179, U82ff.
leased 3kS» "Enya" 192. see [ n ] .
Diagrams, f a c i a l If, 7l+ff, 79j Erakor 282.
see under various phonetic "Esh" I469. see [S].
symbols} segmental 111, 137,
181+f, 223, 33$, 3U8, U98. [9] lower-mid c e n t r a l unrounded
"Double-dotted u" 309i see [ u ] . o r a l vowelt Sammy 2885 28£ff,
Double n a s a l s , "see Nasals. 368} open t r a n s i t i o n , voiced
Double s t o p s , see Stops. r e l e a s e 3U6ff. [9*] long
269ff. [e] nasalized 333ff.
[d] voiced, f l a t , dental f r i c a - [8] laryngealized 398f. [9]
t i v e with egressive lung a i r : retroflexed ltf.7ff. [?] breathy
Sammy lit, k$% l+3ff, U8, 5k, U20ff. [g] pharyngealized
U18, 1+51+. UUlff. [9" 9* 9< 9 ' ] r a i s e d ,
lowered, fronted, brcked 370ff.
[e] mid front unrounded o r a l [g] s l i g h t l y rounded 370ff,
5o5
consonant r e l e a s e 3U7. l e a s e 3U6f. [gl with i n g r e s s -
ive pharynx a i r t Sammy 3 8 l j
[e] lower-mid f r o n t unrounded 378, k5l.
o r a l voweli Sammy 175j 17U, "Gamma" 363. see [ T ] .
I87f, 190, 201. [e«] long German 320f.
269ff. [e] nasalized 333ff. Glides, see Pitch, Vowels.
[I] laryngealized 398f. [f] G l o t t a l s t o p , see S t o p s : [ ' ] .
Ul7ff. [|] breathy lt20ff. G l o t t a l i z e d consonants h56ff.
[e] pharyngealizeds Sammy Utf-2; G l o t t i s , see Vocal Cords.
ijUlff. [e» e" s< e' e] r a i s e d , Gola 131ff, hh9.
lowered, fronted, backed, and
with s l i g h t rounding 370ff. [%>] voiced double stop with e~
gressive lung airt Sammy 299 j
[f] v o i c e l e s s f l a t l a b i o - 298ff, 306, U5h. [86] with in-
d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e with e g r e s s - gressive pharynx air 378, h56.
ive lung a i r : Sammy lU, 1*9$
U3ff, U8, 87, 1U8, k5h. [f-] [g] voiced flat velar fricative
long 269ff. [f] rounded U60. with egressive lung airt Sammy
[f ] pharyngealizedt Sammy hh2; 531 U8, 52ff, %, IkQ, 200, U5S.
hh6ft. [f ] with egressive [g §] fronted, backed, 322ff,
pharynx a i r U56. U55. [§•] long 269ft. [§]
F a u c a l i z a t i o n , Faucal p i l l a r s nasalized 333f. [g] pharyn-
U25, k93. gealized hk6tt. [gg] affricate
F a l l , F a l l i n g , see Pitch, 138ff, U48, U55.
Glides.
Finnish 272ff, 329ff.
Flaps 2U6ff. 2U9, 253f, 2 # , [h] voiceless glottal fricative
281, U56, k9hf. 182f, 396f, hhS, U92.
Foe 282. [H] voiced centralizing glide*
F o r t i s 388. Sammy l8l| l8lf.
Free f l u c t u a t i o n U88ff. [h] voiceless pharyngeal glide
French 27, 221, 219, 3U6f. khhtt.
F r i c a t i v e s ! Sammy U9j 13ff, [h] aspiration 108ff, iho, l82f,
U3ff, U8ff, &ftt 55tf, I5t, 229, 277, 396f, U22ff.
80f, 87f, l l 6 f , 11*3, 1U8, 366, [ ] voiced aspiration (breathy)
172, U5Uff,- f l a t 167, k5k, U22ff, h5Ut.
U96j grooved 167, h5hf, U965 "Hat with the Bird" 93f, l l 8 f f ,
l a t e r a l 217, 223ff, U96. 271.
Front, see Mouth, Vowels. Hausa33ff, l 6 l f , lj63f.
Fronted v e l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n ? "House t h a t Jack B u i l t " 205,
Sammy 32U. 23 8f.
"Hook," "Hooked" 333, U l l .
[g] voiced v e l a r stop with e- Hull lh3
gressive lung a i r t Sammy 78%
High, see P i t c h , Tongue.
79ff, 3ii8, U55, [g] fronted
322ff, h$5. [g] backed 322, "High tongue 1" 218. see [ 1 * ] .
U55. [g*] witft voiced a s p i - [ i ] high f r o n t unrounded o r a l
ration C22, U55. [g'1 long vowelt Sammy 235; 232ff. [i«]
269ff. [g] pharyngealized long 269ff. [i] nasalized
l\h6f£. [go] with voiced r e - 333ff. [I] laryngealized 398f.
5o6 Index
[ i ] retroflexed Ul7ff. [i] [j] voiced grooved a l v e o p a l a t a l
breathy U20ff. [i] pharyn- a f f r i c a t e with egressive lung
gealized UHlff. [i A i v i* i* a i r 138ff, 1^8, U55, U68.
i ] r a i s e d , lowered, fronted,
backed, s l i g h t l y rounded 37Off. [k] voiceless v e l a r stop with
[ I ] voiceless 392ff. egressive lung a i r 75, lll+f,
Implosives 378ff, 386, Ul6f, U55. [k] fronted 322ff, U£5.
U2U, k3l, U56ff. [k] backed 322, h$S. [k11]
I n g r e s s i v e , a i r streamt Saiftny a s p i r a t e d 109f, 113f, lli8, k$$.
380,- l;90fj lung a i r 379, U90f j [k«] long 269ff. [kj pharyn-
mouth a i r U2?ff, l£8f, Ltflf j gealized UU6ff. [k] f o r t i s
pharynx a i r 379ff, U56ff, 388f. [k] l e n i s 3ol8f. [ k - ]
U91f. unreleesed 3U£f. [kx] a f f r i -
I n t o n a t i o n , see P i t c h . c a t e 138ff, 1U8, 322ff, hSS.
"Inverted m" 363. see [ui]. [-k ] with egressive pharynx a i r
I t a l i a n 223, 227. U03>, U57. [&] with i n g r e s s i v e
pharynx a i n Sammy 3 8 l j 373,
[ i ] lower-high c e n t r a l un- U57.
rounded o r a l vowelt Sammy Kaka 30gf, 3U2, 386f.
288fj 285, 287ff, 290, 3&1£. Khmu? 159, 198f, 22Uf, 2kkf, 25Uf.
[*•] long 269ff. [i] n a s a l - Korean 388.
ized 333ff. [*] laryngealized Kpelle 72.
398f. [ i ] retroflexed Ul7ff• Kuy 280, U25f, Ul3ff.
[i] breathy U20ff. [£] pha-
A
ryngealized UUlff. [i i * i ' [ p] v o i c e l e s s unaspirated double
I ' i ] r a i s e d , lowered, fronted, stop with egressive lung air»
backed, with s l i g h t rounding Sammy 299fJ 298ff, 30$f, hSh.
370ff. [f] v o i c e l e s s 392ff. [ ]?] with i n g r e s s i v e pharynx
a i r 378, U56.
[z,] lower-high front unrounded
o r a l vowel 232ff. [v] long [1] voiced a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l with
269ff. [^] nasalized 333ff. egressive lung a i r 17f, lU8.
[v] pharyngealized 398f. [$-] [1 A ] high tonguet Sammy 219/
retroflexed Ul7ff. [?(.] 217ff, 226, 230, U57. [1 Y ] low
breathy U20ff. [&] pharyn- tonguej Sammy 219} 217ff, 226,
gealized liiilff. [z,A t v t ' v> 230, U57. [\] d e n t a l 217, 226f,
t] r a i s e d , lowered, fronted, h%. [1] a l v e o p a l a t a l : Sammy
backed, s l i g h t l y rounded 370ff. 19Uj 22gff, U57. [1] f l a p 2U6f,
2li9, hSl. [\] s y l l a b i c l £ l f f .
[ j ] voiced a l v e o p a l a t a l stop [1] nasalized 333f. [1*] long
with egressive lung a i r 27i>f, 269ff. [1] pharyngealizedt
279ff, 307, U55. UV w i « i Sammy hk2} UU6ff. [ l - ] unre-
voiced a s p i r a t i o n U22, U55. leased 3h6. [1] breathy U60.
1
[j ] with i n g r e s s i v e pharynx [1*1*] fronted^ backed U60/
a i r 378ff, 387, U57. I > ] l a t e r a l g l i d e 228. [1] pharyn-
with i n g r e s s i v e mouth a i r gealized U60. [L] voiceless
U27, U59. 217, 221, U57.
"J wedge" U69. see [ J ] . Labial $ff, l8f.
Juncture l£8ff. ' Labio-dental a r t i c u l a t i o n 19ff,
22f, 57f, 85ff, U48, U5Uff.
507
Laryngealized vowels, see Vowels. Mid. see Pitch, Tongue.
Larynx k$, 77f, 380ff, 398ff, Minimal p a i r lj.6, U83ff.
hc$ff, h91ff. Modifications, see Consonants,
L a t e r a l s 17f, 3J+8, 217f, 220ff, D i a c r i t i c s , Vowels
231, 2$$f, U56f, U 9 # j alveo- Mouth 17U, 201.
p a l a t a l 225f j d e n t a l 226f j Mouth a i r . see Clicks.
English 217ff, 222j French 219j
f r i c a t i v e 221f, Itfo/ high and [in] high back unrounded o r a l
low tongue 2l8ffj Humf 22ltf j vowel 363ff, 367f. [m«] long
o r a l 217, 222j retroflexed 2§9ff. [m] nasalized 333ff.
227f; Spanish 219* v e l a r 227f. [in] laryngealized 398f. [w]
Length 269ff, 297, 329ff, UoOj retroflexed Ul7ff. M breathy
of p i t c h glides 62ff. U20ff. [ra] pharyngealized
Lenis 388. UUlff • [utA ray ur* ui> w] r a i s e d ,
Level, see Pitch lowered, fronted, backed, with
Liberian English UOl. s l i g h t rounding 37Off. [Ill]
"Light 1" 218. see [1*] voiceless 392ff:
Lips 3fT, 7U, 17U, 201, 311,
h9hf rounding 210f. [n] voiced a l v e o l a r n a s a l with
Long, see Length, Vowels. egressive lung a i r ; Sammy 16,
Low. see Pitch, Tongue, Vowels. 33k; l6f, 1U8, 192, U57. [n]
Lower-high, Lower-mid, Lower- d e n t a l 192, 1 9 # f , U56. [n]
Low, see Tongue, Vowels. retroflexed 192, 193", k$l'.
"Low tongue 1" 218. see [ l v ] . [tf] flapped 2l46f, 2U9, U57.
Lung a i r U90ffj with voiced i n r [n] s y l l a b i c l^Lff. [n-] long
plosives 3 8 l . see Ingressive 2^9ff. [n-] unreleased 3U6.
lung a i r , Egressive lung a i r . [n] pharyngealized hl|6ff. [n]
Lungs 77, U90. laryngealized I46O. [n] breathy
U60. [n< n>] fronted,^backed
[1] voiced l a t e r a l a l v e o l a r U60. [n*-] with i n g r e s s i v e mouth
f r i c a t i v e , with egressive lung a i r stop U27, U59- [nfc*] with
a i r 217, 221f, k$$. [£] v o i c e - i n g r e s s i v e mouth a i r a f f r i c a t e
l e s s 217, 222. U27, U59. [N] v o i c e l e s s 197,U57.
Nasal c a v i t y , see C a v i t i e s .
[m] voiced b i l a b i a l n a s a l with Nasals l6ff, 1U8, 192ff, 255ff,
egressive lung air* Sammy l 6 j 333, U56f, U95fj double 298ff,
l£ff, 1U8, 192, h$6. [m] s y l - 303f, 329, U96j v o i c e l e s s 196ff;
l a b i c I 5 l f f . [m«] long 269ff. Khmu"' 198; Black Bobo 199.
[mj pharyngealized UU6ff. Nasalization, nasalized 333,
[in-] unreleased 3U6. [m] 399f, kk9f-
breathy U60. [m] rounded U60. Non-continuant l+9Uff.
[m] laryngealized U60. with Non-vocoid l85n.
i n g r e s s i v e mouth a i r stop* Nuclei, English vowel U78ff.
Sammy U33# U27, U58. [M]
v o i c e l e s s 192, 196f, h$6. [n] voiced a l v e o p a l s t a l n a s a l
Maidu 379n. with egressive lung air» Sammy
Maninka 281, 306. 19Uj 192ff, 199. [n~] unre-
Mano Ul, 3U2f, bh9f. leased 3U6. [ng] with voiced
Mansfield, Sam. see "Hat with a r e l e a s e 3U6f. [n<-] with i n -
B i r d , " Diagrams, f a c i a l . gressive mouth a i r stop U27,
508 Index
U59. [N] voiceless 192, 196f,Sammy 202j 201, 208ff, 262ff.

U57. [o«] long 269ff. [£] n a s a l -
ized 333f. [0] phaiyngealized
[13] voiced velar nasal with e- 398f. [o] r e t r o f l e x e d Ul7ff.
gressive lung air* Sammy l6j [0] breathy U20ff. [ij] phaiyn-
l6f, lU8, 192f, 200, U57. [3] gealized UUlff. [oA o* o< o>
palatal 322ff, U55. [rj] backed o] r a i s e d , lowered, fronted,
322, U57. [N] voiceless 192, backed, with s l i g h t l y l e s s
U57. rounding 370ff. [Q] voiceless
392ff.
[^m] voiced double nasal with
egressive lung air* Sammy 299j [oe] low front rounded o r a l
298ff, 306, U56. vowel* Sammy 3lU| 309ff. [oe-]
long 269ff. [eg] nasalized
[o] mid back rounded oral vowels 333ff. [oe ] laryngealized
Sammy 175; 17U, l87f, 190. 398f. [oe] r e t r o f l e x e d Ul7ff.
[o-] long 269ff. [oj nasal- [0^] breathy U20ff. [oe] pha-
ized 333ff. [o] laryngealized iyngealized UUlff. [ce*03('oe<
398f. [o] retroflexed Ul7ff• oe> 03 ] r a i s e d , lowered, fronted,
[9] breathy U20ffj Kuy U25. backed, with s l i g h t l y l e s s
[oj phaiyngealized* Sammy rounding 370ff. [CE] v o i c e l e s s
UU2; UUlff. [o* o* 0< o> o] 392ff.
raised, lowered, fronted,
backed, with slightly less [p] voiceless unaspirated b i -
rounding 370ff. [0] voiceless l a b i a l stop with egressive lung
392ff. air* Sammy 2, 78} 6, 12, 75,
"0 digraph" 309- see [oe]. 80f, 83. 108ff, 113ff, 1U8,
"Old Macdonald Had a Farm" 239f• 306, U5U. [p ] a s p i r a t e d 108ff,
On-glides. see Vowels. 110, 113f, 1U8, U5U. [p«] long
Off-glides, see English, Vowels. 269ff. [p~] unreleased 3U5f.
Onset, see Stress. [p] f o r t i s 388f. [%] l e n i s
"Open o" 201. see [0]. 388f. [p] phaiyngealized UU6ff.
Oral cavity, see Cavities, [pp] a f f r i c a t e I38ff, lU8, U5U.
Vowels. [pf] a f f r i c a t e l38ff, lU8, U5U.
Orals U95f• [p ] with egressive pharynx
Ouarkoye 389n. a i r s Sammy Uo6j Uo5, U56. [£]
with i n g r e s s i v e pharynx airs
[0] mid front rounded oral Sammy 380} 378, U56. [p«-]
vowels Sammy 313* 309, 311ff, with i n g r e s s i v e mouth air*
320f. [6-] long 269,ff. [(*] Sammy U29j U27, U58.
nasa l i z e d 333ff. [16 ] l a r y n - P a l a t e , p a l a t a l , see A r t i c u l a -
gealized 398f. [$] r e t r o - t i o n , points of.
flexed Ul7ff. [<6] breathy "Period." see Syllable d i v i s i o n .
U20ff. [&] phaiyngealized Pharyngeal c a v i t y , see C a v i t i e s .
UUlff. [>A 16" & <>•> £] raised, Pharyngeal, phaiyngealized UUlff.
lowered, fronted, backed, with see C a v i t i e s , Consonants,
s l i g h t l y l e s s rounding 370ff. Glides, Vowels.
[0] voiceless 392ff. Phonemes, English consonant
U67ff; English vowel U76ff.
[o] low back rounded o r a l vowels Phonemic 12nj t r n s c r i p t i o n
509
U69ff, U89. [r] voiced alveolar flap with e-
Phonetic 12n. gressive lung air 2U6ff, 282f,
Phonetician's theme song U5lf. U57. [r] pharyngealized UH6ff.
Pitch 26ff, 6lff, 89ff, l l 8 f f , [ft] voiceless 2U6, U57.
135, 215, hh9f, U62ff, li92j
contours 97ff} g l i d e s 35ff,
62ff, 90, 95ff, 126ff, 2l5f j [s] voiceless alveolar fricative
hearing olff,• i n t o n a t i o n 26ff, with egressive lung airs Sammy
37ff, 62ff, 66, 68ff, 89ff, Ik, H9} I3ff, U3ff, W , 1U8,
l l 8 f f , 129ffj symbols 90, 95$ k$5. [s] dental* Sammy 165}
tone 89, 13Iff, l62f. 16U, U5U. [s] syllabic l5lff.
Portuguese 225. [s-] long 26^ff* Finnish 270.
P r e a s p i r a t i o n 397f. [g] nasalized 333f. [s s]
Primary, see S t r e s s , fortis, lenis 388f. [a] pha-
"Printed a" 261. see [ a ] . ryngealized UU6ff. [s ] with
egressive pharynx air Uo5, U57-
[p] v o i c e l e s s f l a t b i l a b i a l Sammy, see Diagrams, facial.
f r i c a t i v e with egressive lung Secondary, see Stress.
air* Sammy U9j U8ff, 52, 56, Segmentation U98f.
87, 3JU8, U5U. [pp] a f f r i c a t e Short glides, see Length.
138ff, 1U8, U5U. [f] with "Shwa" 285. see [©].
egressive pharynx a i r Uo5, U56. Slant l i n e s 1|67.
Sounds, d e s c r i p t i o n of I f f , U90ff.
Quiotepec Chinantec 355f. Spanish 225, 165, 219.
Stops 12f, 7Uf, 79ff, 1U8, 186,
[r] voiced retroflexed g l i d e 255f, 275ff, 303ff, U5Uf, U56f,
with egressive lung a i r : Sammy h9hi a s p i r a t e d 108, 113ff, U22ff}
180; 179ff, I83ff. [ r ] Toiced Zulu Ullft double 298ff, 305,
retroflexed central syllabic 329, U9U; egressive lung a i r
i5iff. U5Uf} egressive pharynx a i r
Rearticulation 296f, 320. li56f* i n g r e s s i v e pharynx a i r
Red Bobo 389ff. U56f* English voiced, r e l e a s e s
Released, see Transition, open. on 3u6f1 g l o t t a l 102f, UkS, h92;
Resonants U95ff. g l o t t a l i z e d U06, l±56f} implosive
Retroflexed l68ff, 192, 218, fe6f t. long 270f j retroflexed
Ul7ff. 168} unaspirated l l 3 f f ; unre-
Rhythm 159- leased 3U5f* voiced a s p i r a t e d
Rise, rising, see Pitch. U22ff.
Root, see Tongue. S t r e s s l5Uff, 191, 215, U99}
Rounded, rounding, see Lips. s t r e s s - t i m i n g l59f.
Summary review U53ff, l±90ff.
[r] voiced alveolar trill with "S wedge1' U69. see [M].
egressive lung air 250f, 282f, S y l l a b i c i t y , s y l l a b i c 152, 1*99}
U57. [?•] long 269ff. [?] s y l l a b i c consonants l 6 l j glides
nasalized 333f. [R] voiceless I8ltf.
25Of, 282, U57. [r] uvular: "Syllabic i n d i c a t o r 152.
Sammy 252* 2U6, 25lff. [R] Syllables l50ff, 1*99-
voiceless uvular 2U6, 25lff, Symbols, symbolization U53ff,
U57. 363ff} English consonant pho-
5io index
nemes l*67ff j phonemic, phone- Transcription e x e r c i s e s , English

tic 12n3 used by different phonemic l*67ff, U89j matching
linguists 377, U75>j see Dia- symbols ll*9, 259, 357, U65}
critics . p i t c h 72, 100, 135j review 260,
362, 1*65. A t r a n s c r i p t i o n
[§] voiceless grooved alveopala-• exercise i s found a t the end of
tal fricative with egressive almost every l e s s o n .
lung air; Sammy lk, 1*9; U3ff, T r a n s i t i o n , close and open 3l*8f.
1*8, I38ff, JLU8, 1*55. [3] ret- T r i l l s 2l*6ff, 250ff, 28If, U56f,
roflexed 161*, 16°, U55.' [s°] 1*95* Khmu* 25Uf.
with egressive pharynx air "Typewriter a" 26l. see [ a ] .
1*05, 1*57.
[u] high back rounded o r a l vowelj
[t] voiceless alveolar stop Sammy 202,- 201, 2Q3ff. [u-]
with egressive lung airt Sammy long 269ffj Kuy 1*25. [u] n a s a l -
75fj lliif, 1U8, U55. [$] ized 333ff. [u] laryngealized
dental l6Uf, U5U. [t] retro- 398f. [u] retroflexed l*17ff •
flexed 161*, 169, 1*55! [th] [u] breaihy 1*2Off» Kuy 1*25- [u]
aspirated 109f, 113f, 1*55. [t] pharyngealized l*l*lff. [u* u v u<
flap 2U6, 2l*8f, 1*55. [t-] u> u] r a i s e d , lowered, fronted,
long 269ff. [t-] unreleased backed, with s l i g h t l y l e s s
3U5f. [t t] fortis, lenis rounding 370ff. [u] v o i c e l e s s
388f. [t] pharyngealized 392ff.
l*l*6ff. [£] rounded 1*6 0. [t€ Unaspirated ll*8, 139f, 229, 277.
ts ts t£] affricates 138ff, Unreleased. see T r a n s i t i o n , close
1U8/16U, 217, 228, 1*51*. [ts*] Unrounded 3ll*fj see Lips.
see [&]. [t°] with egressive "Upside-down a" 26l. see [*>],
pharynx air 1*05, 1*57. [t<-] "Upside-down m" 363. see [ui].
with ingressive mouth air 1*27, "Upside-down v" 201. see [ A ] ,
1*59. [%*• t* ti<- t h * t h * tht- "Upsilon" 201. see [v].
ti*-] with ingressive mouth air "U umlaut" 309. see [ u ] .
1*27, 1*59. [$] with ingressive Uvula Uf, 25lff.
pharynx air 378, 1*57.
Teeth, see Articulation, points [u] high front rounded o r a l vo-
of. wel: Sammy 312; 309, 311f, 3l5f,
"Ten Little Indians" 29, 318. 320f. [u-] long 269ff. [$
Tertiary, see Stress. nasalized 333ff. [u] laryngea-
Thai 89, ll*l*ff, 379, U62f. l i z e d 398f. [u] r e t r o f l e x e d
"Theta" 1*69. see [e]. l*17ff. [£) breathy 1*2Off. [u]
"Tilde" 192. see Diacritics [~] pharyngealized 1*1* Iff. [ii" li" u<
Tip. see Tongue. ii> ij] r a i s e d , lowered, fronted,
Tip-alveolar 2Off, 1*8, 57, 8gff , backed, with s l i g h t l y l e s s
ll*8. rounding 370ff. [i}] v o i c e l e s s
Tip-dental 2Off, 1*8, 57, 85ff, 392ff.
01*8.
To'a«ba*ita 105, 107f. [v] lower-high back rounded o r a l
Tone, see P i t c h . vowelt Sammy 202j 201, 2Q3ff,
Tongue 9ff, 7U, 167, 17U, 193, 232. [ v ] long 269ff. [t^]
201, 211, 210, 268, 276ff, nasalized 333ff• [u] l a r y n -
291f, 3l6f, 1+93. gealized 398f. [v] retroflexed
511
Ul7ff. [5] breathy U2Qff. g l i d e s , lack of s y l l a b i c i t y l8Uj

[g] pharyngealized UUlff. [v~ g l i d e onsets I85ffj Khmu'' 2UUfj
v v< v> v] r a i s e d , lowered, l a b e l i n g 210ff, 267ff, 291ff,
fronted, backed, with s l i g h t l y 3l5ff, 3U0ff. 368f; l a r y n g e a l -
l e s s rounding 370ff. ized 3°8ff, UU3fj length 269ff,
296, 320} modifications 37Of,
[v] voiced f l a t l a b i o - d e n t a l U22, U6lfj nasalized 336f, 372,
f r i c a t i v e with egressive lung 399f} nuclei U78ff; o f f - g l i d e s
a i r t Sammy lU, U9; U3ff, 87, 176ff, 183, 213f, 236, 239f}
1U8, U5U. [ v ] long 269ff. off-glides and on-gHdes 176ff,
[y] pharyngealized UU6ff. 236ff, 266f| o r a l 33Uff, 3U3f,
Velar a r t i c u l a t i o n s 1 Sammy 32Ufj 372} pharyngealized UUlffj pure
5ff, 20ff, U8, 52ff. 85ff, I87f, 190, 213, 235, 239, 266,
lU3ff, 218, 322ff, U69, U93. 315/ r e a r t i c u l a t e d 296f, 320 5
"Velar n" 192. see [ r j . retroflexed Ul7ff} short 27O5
"Velarized 1" 218. see [V], summary U6lff; symbols 363, 376j
Velic 9ff, 7U, 17U, U96. tongue height 211; v o i c e l e s s
Velum, see Velar. 392ff. see D i a c r i t i c s .
Vietnamese U2, 59, 7If, 89,
l58f, 17Of. [A] low c e n t r a l unrounded o r a l
Vocal cords U5, U91f • vowelt Sammy 202,- 201, 208ff,
Vocoid I85n. 262f. [A«] long 269ff. [A]
Voiced, Voicingi Sammy U5ff, nasalized 333ff. [A] l a r y n g e a l -
77fj 77, 79f, 8 1 , 83f, l l l i " , ized 398f. [A] r e t r o f l e x e d
137, 277f, 30Uf, U92j a f f r i - 2 , 1 7 f f . m breathy U20ff. [A]
cates 139ff } 229J c l i c k s U35ff} pharyngealized UUlff. [A* AV"A<
f l a p s 250, 253; f r i c a t i v e s A» A] r a i s e d , lowered, fronted,
U3ff, SS% implosives 381} backed, with s l i g h t rounding
stops 79ff, H l f . 370ff.
Voiceless, Voicelessnessi Sammy
U5ff, 77f} U5ff, 77, 79f, 83ff,[w] voiced glide t o high back
l l l f , 277f, 30Uf, U92} a f f r i - p o s i t i o m Sammy 178; 17&ff,
c a t e s , l a t e r a l 229} c l i c k s l83ff, 239i"f. [W] v o i c e l e s s
U28ff| f l a p s 250/ f r i c a t i v e s 395f.
U3ff, 55, 221} nasals 196ff} "Walrus and the Carpenter" 3l5f.
pharyngealized glides UUU; Weak, see S t r e s s ,
stops l l l f f } vowels 392ff. "Written a" 261. see [a]
Vowels 17Uff, l85n, 191, 203ff,
209, 26lff, 266f, 271f, 285f, M v o i c e l e s s f l a t v e l a r f r i c a -
291, 296, 337f, hh9f, U97} t i v e with egressive lung a i n
back 201ff} back unrounded Sammy 53} U8, 52f, 55f, 76f,
363ff, UOO/ breathy U20ff, lU8, 200, U55. [xj p a l a t a l
U25fj c e n t r a l 201, 208ff, 322ff, U55. [x] backed 322, U55.
285} c h a r t 363} c l u s t e r s 285, [x»] long 296ff. [x] nasalized
29Uff} English 205, U76ff,- 333f. [x] pharyngealized UU6ff.
equivalences 376f} f r o n t 232ff, [x< x>] fronted, backed, U60.
237ff} front rounded 309ff} [x 9 ] with egressive pharynx a i r
glided 17Uff, l88ff, 212ff, Uo5, U57.
235f, 272, 29Uff, 315, 319,
U97} g l i d e s , voiceless 395f} m voiced g l i d e t o high front
$12 Index
p o s i t i o n ! Sammy 177} 176ff, [*] v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l stop with
l83ff, 193f, U6l. [Y] voiceles egressive lung a i r t Sammy IOU/
102ff, 105ff, 3U9ff, 386, 1)06,
1)55, U92.
[z] voiced a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e
with egressive lung a i r j Sammy [£] voiced pharyngeal glide with
U), 1)9, 78, U3ff, U8, ll)8, 1)55. egressive lung a i r l)l)l)ff.
[z] dental 161), U5U. [z] r e t -
roflexed* Sammy 168} l68ff. [6] v o i c e l e s s f l a t d e n t a l f r i c a -
[z] s y l l a b i c l 5 l f f . [z«] long t i v e with egressive lung a i r i
269ff. [z^ nasalized: Sammy Sammy ll), h9)r>k3ff, 1)8, 5U,
335j 333f. [z] pharyngealized lU8, 1)5U. [© ] with egressive
\Mf£. [z] breathy 1)60. [z] pharynx a i r 1)56.
laryngealized U6o.
"Z wedge" 1)69. see [ z ] , [v] mid back unrounded o r a l vo-
Zulu Ullf, U38ff j song 1)38. wel 363, 36 5ff. [r«] long
269ff. [r] nasalized 333ff.
[2] voiced grooved a l v e o p a l a t a l [v] laryngealized 398f. ["»]
f r i c a t i v e with egressive lung retroflexed l)17ff. [r]
air* Sammy ll), 1)9} U3ff, 1)8, breathy 1)2Off. [T£] pharyn-
138ff, 1)55. [5] r e t r o f l e x e d gealized l)l)lff. [*~y Y« r>
161), 169, H55." J ] r a i s e d , lowered, f r o n t -
ed, backed, with s l i g h t round-
ing 370ff.

Manual of Articulatory Phonetics

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MANUAL OF

Cartoons by George Ivan Smith

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Lesson 33 i s a s p e c i a l summary l e s s o n , which some students

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LESSON ONE — Description of Sounds 1

Facial Diagrams lj Major Points of Articulation 3j

LESSON TWO -- Hearing Pitch Distinctions 26

Pitch Distinctions 26j Direction of Glide 37

LESSON THREE — Voiced and Voiceless Fricatives k3

Voicing of English Fricatives k3$ The Nature of Voic-

LESSON FOUR — Finer Distinctions in Pitch Hearing 61

Pitch Distinctions 6l| Levels and Glides 62

LESSON FIVE — Facial Diagrams; Voiced Stops 7U

Facial Diagrams 7U| Voiced Stops 79

LESSON SIX — Controlled Intonation 89

Some Tone and Intonation Contrasts 89$ "The Hat with

LESSON SEVEN — Voiceless Aspirated and Unaspirated Stops 102

Glottal Stop I02j Voiceless Aspirated and Unaspirated

LESSON EIGHT — Longer Sequences of Pitch 118

"The Hat with the Bird" (continued) 118 j Mimicry and

LESSON NINE ~ Affricates 136

Stop Plus Fricative 136j Affricates in Initial Posi-

LESSON ELEVEN — Dental, Retroflexed, Grooved and F l a t A r t i c u -

Dental Stops, F r i c a t i v e s , and Affricates 165} F l a t and

LESSON TWELVE ~ Vowels and Vowel Glides T?U

Vowel a r t i c u l a t i o n l?Uj Vowel Glides 17 5j [y] Off-

LESSON THIRTEEN — Nasals 192

[n] i n i n i t i a l Position 192 j Production of [n] 193j

LESSON FOURTEEN — Some Back and Central Vowels 201

LESSON FIFTEEN — L a t e r a l s 217

High and Low Tongue Laterals 2l8j F r i c a t i v e Laterals 221}

LESSON SIXTEEN ~ Some Front Vowels 232

Symbols and Recognition 232} Production of [ i z. e ae] 23li|

LESSON SEVENTEEN — Flaps and T r i l l s 2h6

Flap a r t i c u l a t i o n 21+7/ T r i l l s 250

Lower-low Vowels 26lj Production of [as a a u o] 263J

LESSON NINETEEN — Alveopalatal Stops 275

Production of Alveopalatal Stops 276j Review of Flaps

LESSON TWENTY — Some Central Vowelsi Vowel Clusters 285

Demonstration of Vowel Chart 285/ Production of

Production of Double Stops and Nasals 300/ Review of

LESSON TWENTY-TWO — Front Rounded Vowelsj Glide Clusters 309

Demonstration of Vowel Chart 309j Production of

Production of Fronted and Backed Velars 32l+j Review of

LESSON TWENTY-FOUR ~ Nasalized and Oral Vowels 333

Producing Nasalized Vowels 336/ Producing Oral Vowels

Unreleased Sounds 3k5j Released "Final" Sounds 3h6t

LESSON TWENTY-FIVE R — Review 357

Air Streams 378j Production and Recognition of Implo-

LESSON TWENTY-EIGHT — Voiceless Vowels? Laryngealization 392

Producing Voiceless Vowels 392| Voiceless Glides 39%i

LESSON TWENTY-NINE — G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants^ More Consonant

Production of G l o t t a l i z e d Consonants U07| More Consonant

LESSON THIRTY — Retroflexed Vowels/ Breathy Vowels? Voiced

LESSON THIRTY-ONE ~ Clicks 1*27

Discussion of Mouth Air Stream U27| Producing Voiceless

LESSON THIRTY-TWO — Pharyngealized Sounds itUl

LESSON THIRTY-THREE — Review and Summary U53